C-E translation: techniques & skillsaoslix@School of Foreign LanguagesOmission of wordContentsOne-one equivalenceAddition of wordcombination1234•原文“假朋友”☹正确译文☺白菜White cabbage 密码Secret code 手机Hand phone 早恋Early love买一赠一Buy one,present one 长镜头Long lens 隐形眼镜Invisible glassesFalse friend: word-for-word translationChinese cabbage passwordMobile phone Puppy love Buy one, get one free Zoom lensContact glasses•原文“假朋友”☹正确译文☺绿豆Green bean 卧室Living room 食言Eat one’s words 酸奶Sour milk戴绿帽子To wear a green bonnet 黄色书籍Yellow book 高等学校High schoolFalse friend: conceptual –referential meaningMung bean bedroom Break a promise yoghurt To cuckold sb.Pornography book Higher school•原文“假朋友”☹正确译文☺农民peasant宣传propaganda物美价廉Cheap and good他红光满面His face is very red.他是个“气管炎”He suffers fromtracheitis.False friend: language differencefarmerPopularize/publicityEconomical and goodHe looks healthy andenergetic.He is a hen-pecked man.•原文“假朋友”☹正确译文☺假花False flower 假唱False singing 假钞False money 假酒False wine 假新闻False news 恶性循环Harmful circle 恶性肿瘤Harmful tumorFalse friend: collocationArtificial flower Lip synch Counterfeit money Adulterate winePseudo-news Vicious circle Malignant tumor•你们偶然看见一棵花生瑟缩地长在地上，不能立刻辨出它有没有果实，非得等到你接触它才能知道。
Matthew Smallman-Raynor and Andrew Cliff,Atlas of Epidemic Britain:A Twentieth-Century Picture.Oxford,Oxford University Press,2012,xþ207pages,£125hardcover.This book,as its title implies,maps infectious disease data in the twentieth century,largely within England,Scotland,and Wales,but occasionally straying into a wider geographical area and into the twenty-first century.The focus is largely on infectious epidemics in humans.The authors make the slightly ambitious claim that this might be considered a continuation of Charles Creighton’s classic History of Epidemics in Britain(2vols.,Cambridge,1891e4).In the present work,after a slightly congested opening chapter(contain-ing a lot of the basic ideas and terminology),chapter2surveys epidemic mortality in the British Isles and Europe over the twen-tieth century,highlighting a threefold division into emerging diseases(e.g.,influenza,pneumonia,respiratory infections,polio-myelitis),retreating diseases(e.g.,anthrax,diphtheria,typhoid), and secularly varying emerging/retreating diseases(e.g.,malaria, brucellosis).Chapter3concentrates on the extinction of the‘old plagues’,specifically bubonic and pneumonic plague,malaria, smallpox,cholera and typhus fever in the period up to1945.The focus of the two chapters that follow is on common infections up to1945,specifically the four major epidemic in-fections of childhood(diphtheria,scarlet fever,measles,whooping cough)(chapter4),and influenza,typhoid,parathyroid,dysentery, and poliomyelitis(chapter5),emphasizing the importance of im-munization and public health measures such as closure of schools, and improvement in sewage treatment,in control of these in-fections.Chapter6deals with infections during the two world wars, in particular tuberculosis,meningococcal meningitis,sexually transmitted infections(syphilis,gonorrhoea),and viral hepatitis; curiously,despite large-scale rural e urban migration,there was no marked change in infectious disease rates anywhere.After1945Britain saw dramatic reductions in prevalence of many bacterial(chapter7)and viral(chapter8)infectious diseases as a result of mass immunization campaigns and wide availability of antibiotics and antiviral agents,both of which depended in turn very largely on the establishment of the UK National Health Service.Chapter9deals with the‘new plagues’of HIV/AIDS,Legionnaires’disease,new-variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease,methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus(MRSA),and a few others,including some old friends(e.g.,falciparum malaria).Chapter10is an oddity,detailing the work of research in general practice,through detailed examination of the work of four such general practitioners working in isolation,Drs Will Pickles,Edgar Hope-Simpson,Peter Higgins,and James Mackenzie,and the work of the Royal College of General Practitioners in organizing multi-practice studies,as exemplified in the Epidemic Observation Unit established by Dr G.I.Watson.This chapter discusses the valuable work of these individuals and groups in furthering understanding of the epidemiology,specifically the spatio e temporal dynamics,of influenza and other common infections.Afinal chapter(11)briefly brings us up to date,examining epidemics in the twenty-first century.Among the most significant of these was inspired by the measles e mumps e rubella vaccine scare that was generated by an article(subsequently withdrawn) supposedly demonstrating a link with autism[A.J.Wakefield et al., Lancet351(1998),637e641].There followed a predictable increase in cases of mumps and measles,only very recently brought under control.Arguably of more public health concern is the re-emergence of tuberculosis,rates of which in the UK are among the highest in western Europe,and particularly of the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains.This chapter also deals with certain animal epidemics,in particular the2001foot-and-mouth and bluetongue disease outbreaks,and related animal e human epi-demics,in particular the avian influenza(H5N1)epidemic of 2005e2007[M.D.de Jong et al.NEJM352(2005):686e691;G.J.Smith et al.,PNAS103(2006)16936e16941],although in a volume focused on Britain the authors cannot discuss this last epidemic with the necessary focus on the parallel spread in infected fowl in the Middle East and Asia.Would I recommend you to buy it?In chapter8and a few other places results of statistical analysis are presented and it is not clear whether these represent analysis of the authors,or some other publication.Unfortunately details of the particular modelsfitted are lacking.The predominant focus on epidemic events in Britain handicaps the treatment of certain topics,in particular those of chapter11.Despite these shortcomings,and the quite high price there is much that is commendable in the book.The book is handsomely illustrated,and clearly much care has gone into preparation of the graphs andfigures.I suspect many readers will find chapters7e9,11dealing with the post-1945period particu-larly interesting,but there is much of interest in other chapters, particularly chapter10.Each chapter comes with a conclusion highlighting links with succeeding chapters.This book would be very helpful for historians,geographers,epidemiologists,and physicians and others working in public health who want an overview of this important area.Mark P.Little Radiation Epidemiology Branch,National Cancer Institute,USA /10.1016/j.jhg.2014.05.004Andrew Cliff and Matthew Smallman-Raynor,Oxford Textbook of Infectious Disease Control:A Geographical Analysis from Medieval Quarantine to Global Eradication.Oxford,Oxford University Press, 2013,ixþ193pages,£85hardcover.This book,as its title implies,is concerned with measures for controlling spread of infectious disease epidemics,and its geographical focus and historical breadth make its content relevant to historical geographers.Chapter1deals with various historical examples,in particular the moderately sophisticated control mea-sures used in various city-states in Italy(also in Ragusa e modern day Dubrovnik)between the fourteenth and eighteenth centuries. These were largely based on quarantine and isolation,which for the unfortunate traveller to one of these places could mean confine-ment in one of the lazzaretti,an appalling and frequently lethal experience.A slight oddity is the introduction of the susceptible-infectious-recovered(SIR)model(R.M.Anderson and R.May,In-fectious Diseases of Humans:Dynamics and Control,Oxford:OUP (1991)),in a very non-technical way;the authors claim this pro-vides insights into the spread and control of epidemics:however why this should be the case is not made really clear here,although it is treated at somewhat greater length much later in the book,in chapter6.Chapter2deals with the issues of disease classification and surveillance.Modern disease classification starts with the work of William Farr and Marc d’Espine,following the International Sta-tistical Congress in Brussels in1853.Disease surveillance goes back to Roman times at least,but in its modern form began with the Bills of Mortality for London which appeared from1532and were annually published from1606.Mortality and morbidity counts became steadily more sophisticated,national and international in scope,culminating in the establishment of the World Health Or-ganization(WHO)in1948.The chapter documents the remarkableReviews/Journal of Historical Geography45(2014)120e141 130achievements of the disease monitoring and parallel immunization programs of the WHO,notably the eradication of smallpox and the near eradication of poliomyelitis.The critical need here is for rapidly updated morbidity registers,something easily achieved with the internet.Chapter3continues the theme of chapter1(which it should really have immediately followed,if not been amalgamated with), considering quarantine and isolation measures,predominantly in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in the USA and UK.The effectiveness of these inherently geographical control measures has sadly been reduced by technological progress in transport and the consequently dramatically reduced journey times(which are now frequently shorter than the incubation times of most infections). The good news of technological progress,in the form of in-terruptions in transmission provided by vaccination,is the theme of chapter4.Both human data(smallpox,poliomyelitis,measles)and animal data(equine influenza)are covered in some detail;there is brief coverage of vaccination strategies,in particular the apparently successful trial of ring vaccination to eliminate equine influenza in Australia.Chapter5,entitled‘Eradication’,rather confusingly deals with a lot of the same material again,with specific focus on WHO global eradication campaigns.In particular,the largely successful WHO smallpox and poliomyelitis eradication campaigns are dealt with at some length,again.Failures in WHO eradication programmes with respect to malaria,yellow fever and yaws,are also discussed;the failures of the malarial eradication programme are treated at some length.Such failures may be a result of(i)a lack of biological or technical feasibility(yellow fever,yaws,malaria),(ii)lack of detailed economic analyses to justify or support the eradication effort(yellow fever,yaws)and(iii)lack of broad-based societal and political support(yellow fever,yaws,malaria)(B.Aylward et al.Am J Publ Health90(2000)1515e1520).The possibility of such a global eradication programme is discussed for measles.Thefinal chapter6is in some ways the most substantial chapter, and for me the most interesting one as it attempts a novel spatial approach to various modeling and public health issues.Starting out with the standard definition and implications of the basic repro-duction number R0,a fundamentally aspatial variable,the authors go on to consider a spatial analogue of this,in fulfilment of their aim in their subtitle of providing a geographical analysis.The authors apply both concepts to a variety of human datasets.They alsofit an SIR model(as loosely defined in chapter1,and unfortunately no more technical details are given here)and their Swash-Backwash model to a number of human datasets.Just how they do this is not explained here,although at least for the SIR model such details are given elsewhere(A.D.Cliff et al,Measles:An Historical Geography of a Major Human Viral Disease from Global Expansion to Local Retreat,1840e1990,Oxford,Blackwell(1993)).Would I recommend you to buy it?As noted above,there is considerable redundancy between chapters4and5,and arguably chapters1and3should have been combined also.Much of the material in this book(particularly chapters5and6)overlaps with a previous book by these and other authors(A.D.Cliff et al,Emergence and Re-Emergence:Infectious Diseases:A Geographical Analysis.New York,OUP(2009)).The lack of technical details in chapter6is also a major shortcoming.On the other hand the book itself is very handsome,with beautifully clear and well-chosen pictures and graphs that generally reinforce the points being made in the text. On the whole,however,rather than recommending this book, I would direct interested historical geographers to the authors’2009book.Mark P.Little Radiation Epidemiology Branch,National Cancer Institute,USA /10.1016/j.jhg.2014.05.003Nick Megoran and Sevara Sharapova(Eds),Central Asia in Interna-tional Relations:The Legacies of Halford Mackinder,London,Hurst, 2013,xviþ331pages,£45hardcover.Since their appearance in1904,the geopolitical ideas of Halford Mackinder in relation to Central Asia have attracted both admiring praise and dismissive criticism,influencing the larger academic and political debate over the future of that region.Mackinder’s vision of the Central Asian steppes as the‘pivot’or‘heartland’of the Eurasian landmass,destined to determine the world’s balance of power,has showed an impressive resilience andflexibility in international strategic discourses,inspiring the foreign policy of great powers like Germany and the United States throughout the twentieth century.The end of the Cold War in1991d and the sudden disin-tegration of the Communist bloc and emergence of new,fragile independent states in the former Soviet Union d again put Mack-inder’s vision at the centre of debates in international relations.In an attempt to understand the often confusing foreign policies of these emergent states,many geopolitical analysts and strategic experts have looked again at Mackinder’s original view of the Eurasian heartland,using this concept as a viable guideline for understanding the diplomatic or military actions of these Central Asian countries.The recent war in Afghanistan against Al-Qaida and the Taliban has reinforced such a tendency,providing further stimuli for the theoretical and practical adoption of Mackinder’s ideas in international politics.Mackinder’s ideas are,however,far more complex and problematic than is generally acknowledged, and their direct impact in Central Asia is also somewhat confused and contradictory,as is clearly shown by this excellent collection of interdisciplinary essays edited by Nick Megoran and Sevara Sharapova.Inspired by an international symposium held in Tashkent in 2004,the collection in fact encapsulates all the most recent scholarship on Mackinder’s geopolitical theories produced both in the West and in the former Soviet Union,providing a fresh and comprehensive overview of their persistent relevance to interna-tional affairs.The main intent of the editors,as is noted in the lengthy introduction to the volume,is to consider‘how useful the pivot/heartland thesis is in understanding contemporary Central Asia’and to discuss‘a number of other intellectual puzzles’about Mackinder’s geopolitical thought that have generally been over-looked by previous academic studies on the subject(p.4e5).Such questions include:How did Mackinder’s ideas travel to Central Asia in the post-Cold War era,influencing the foreign policy debates of local states like Uzbekistan and Tajikistan?What level of popularity do they enjoy in post-Soviet Russia,and to what extent are they revised or manipulated by nationalist intellectuals in support of a more aggressive defence of Russian strategic interests?Have Anglo-American strategists really learned the right lessons from Mack-inder,or have they instead downplayed some key aspects of his thought,committing their countries to aflawed political course in Central Asia?These are only some of the interesting questions addressed by the various contributors to the volume,and,although their individual responses are not always entirely convincing or satisfactory,their common critical approach to Mackinder’sReviews/Journal of Historical Geography45(2014)120e141131。
09级7班李梦琦2009237Semantic Leaps: Frame-shifting and Conceptual Blending inMeaning ConstructionSemantic leaps is written by Seana Coulson and published by Cambridge University Press in 2001. This book explores how people combine knowledge from different domains to understand and express new ideas. Concentrating on dynamic aspects of on-line meaning construction, Coulson identifies two related sets of processes: frame-shifting and conceptual blending. Frame-shifting is semantic reanalysis in which existing elements in the contextual representation are reorganized into a new frame. Conceptual blending is a set of cognitive operations for combining partial cognitive models. By addressing linguistic phenomenon often ignored in traditional meaning research, Coulson explains how processes of cross-domain mapping, frame-shifting, and conceptual blending enhance the explanatory adequacy of traditional frame-based systems for natural language processing. The focus is on how the constructive processes speakers use to assemble, link, and adapt simple cognitive models underlie a broad range of productive language behavior.This book is divided into 10 chapters. Chapter 1 talks about semantic leaps, i.e. productive language behavior, background and connections. Chapter 2 discusses frame-shifting and models of language processing. The author discusses approaches to comprehension, i.e. composition, semantic indeterminacy, sense, etc. Chapter 3 is about models of sentential integration, such as frame-shifting in text processing, in sentential integration and frame-based models. Chapter 4 relates frame-shifting to thebrain. It seems that successful frame-shifting is more difficult than the mere integration of an unexpected word congruent with the contextually evoked frame. Results suggest that frame-based retrieval of background knowledge plays an important role in general processes of sentential integration. However, results argue against the idea that there is a special role for the right hemisphere in frame-shifting. Frame-shifting in jokes appears to differ only quantitatively from other sorts of sentential integration.Part Ⅱis about conceptual blending. Chapter 5 is about conceptual blending in modified noun phrases. The author cites several examples, such as nominal compounds, predicating and non-predicating adjectives, privative adjectives, etc. The author concludes that an important assumption of compositional approaches is that categories have necessary and sufficient conditions that can be combined with algorithmic operations. However, since categories are not normally defined by necessary and sufficient conditions, there is no reason to believe that complex categories result from the combination of such conditions. The author poses analyzability and compositionality, and suggests that the same processes of conceptual integration that underlie meaning construction in noun phrases also operate for statements of analogy, metaphors, and identity in counterfactual utterances. Chapter 6 discusses conceptual blending in metaphor and analogy. What’s projected in metaphor is not static information in long-term memory, but dynamically constructed entities in working memory. Conceptual blending theory allows us to drop the old idea of concept as static information in long-term memory in favor ofdynamically constructed models constrained both by information in long-term memory and by local, contextual cues. Chapter 7 talks about counterfactual conditionals. Blending theory suggests people use simplified, partial models, and use rhetorical goals to restrict their inferences. The flexibility of meaning construction is such that the spaces we link can be as close as a match before and after being lit.Part Ⅲis the application of blending, framing and blaming. Chapter 8 is about framing in discourse. It talks about cultural models of action, responsibility and punishment. Chapter 9 is about frame-shifting and scalar implicature. By employing diverse rhetorical strategies, speakers adapt cultural models to suit a variety of ideological outlooks and argumentative needs. Cultural models, pragmatic scale and rhetorical strategies are all tools we use to construct and reconstruct a cultural understanding of the world we both inhabit and create. Chapter 10 gives the space structuring model.The theory of frame shifting has been applied to many language phenomena, such as jokes, etc. Frame shifting is the result o f the new development of Frame semantics. The conceptual blending theory is the new development of mental space theory on the basis of conceptual metaphor theory. Both of them are of the dynamic study of language. They try to solve the problem o f on-line meaning construction. Frame shifting proposes that the new frame is reconstructed by absorbing the structure of the old frame in order to construct meaning. Conceptual blending theory focuses on the mapping between mental spaces and the construction of the new blend space. They are part o f the meaning construction theory. Although they are different, theyare also related to each other closely.Coulson believes that the semantic and pragmatic reanalysis that reorganizes existing elements in the message-level representation is known as frame-shifting, and frame-shifting is retrieving a new frame from long-term memory to reinterpret information in working memory. It is widely applied in the research related to humor, and it is also integrated with conceptual blending theory to explain various kinds of language phenomena. As a meta-theoretical metaphor, frame-shifting is potentially less constraining than the metaphors of “conceptual space”and “blending”, and avoids the multiplication of “spaces”implied by entailments of the “space”and “blending metaphors”. Frame-shifting supports conceptual links to humor, metonymy, and other forms of figurative language, and affords a ready path for connecting the cognitive and neural levels of language to the social and cultural levels.Frame-shifting provides many language phenomena with theoretical support. It is usually compared with the conceptual blending theory, and is often integrated with it to explain and describe language phenomena. It is complementary with conceptual blending theory, which makes it more persuasive.。
