General linguistics 11

Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsUnit 11. Syntax is the study of ____. (TEM 8, 2005)A. language functionsB. sentence structuresC. textual organizationD. word formation2. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language? (TEM 8, 2005)A. ArbitrarinessB. ProductivityC. Cultural transmissionD. Finiteness3. The distinction between parole and langue is made by ____. (TEM 8, 2006)A. HallidayB. ChomskyC. BloomfieldD. Saussure4. The description of a language at some point in history is called a ____ study.A. prescriptiveB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. diachronic5. ____ is the study of language in relation to the mind.A. Historical linguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. SemanticsD. Morphology6. Which of the following theories is NOT about the origin of language? ____A. Divine-origin theoryB. Speech act theoryC. Invention theoryD. Evolution theory7. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn’t it?” is ____.A. directiveB. informativeC. phaticD. emotive8. ____ is regarded as “father of modern linguistics”.A. HallidayB. WhorfC. SaussureD. Chomsky9. The study which applies the findings of linguistics to teaching English as a foreign language is often referred to as ____.A. psycholinguisticsB. applied linguisticsC. pragmaticsD. sociolinguisticsAnswers:1-5: BDDBB 6-9: BCCBUnit 21. ____ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation. (TEM 8, 2007)A. PhonologyB. MorphologyC. SemanticsD. Sociolinguistics2. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language? ___(TEM 8, 2008)A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Diachronicity3. The study of the mental processes of language comprehension and production is ____ (TEM 8, 2009)A. corpus linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. theoretical linguisticsD. psycholinguistics4. ____ is the knowledge of the rules of an ideal spe aker’s language.A. PerformanceB. CapacityC. AbilityD. Competence5. Which of the following is NOT a major branch of linguistics? ____A. PhoneticsB. PragmaticsC. SpeechD. Sociolinguistics6. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the ____ feature of language.A. dualityB. displacementC. arbitrarinessD. productivity7. In traffic lights, red can only mean stop. But in human languages, limited phonemes can form numerous words which can form unlimited sentences. This is a good illustration of the ____ feature of language.A. dualityB. displacementC. arbitrarinessD. cultural transmission8. In linguistics, the study of meaning is called ____.A. phonologyB. morphologyC. semanticsD. sociolinguistics9. The study of language as a whole is usually called ____.A. applied linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. general linguisticsD. psycholinguisticsAnswers:1-5: BDDDC 6-9: CACCUnit 31. Which of the following modes of study emphasizes the “standards” of language? ____A. DescriptiveB. PrescriptiveC. SynchronicD. Diachronic2. The distinction between competence and performance is made by ____.A. SaussureB. BloomfieldC. SapirD. Chomsky3. Which of the following does NOT belong to the Indo-European family? ____A. FrenchB. BengaliC. ChineseD. Polish4. That language can be used to refer to things that are not present in time or space is a good illustration of the ____ feature of language.A. dualityB. displacementC. arbitrarinessD. productivity5. ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. DialectB. ParoleC. LangueD. Performance6. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true? ____A. Language is a systemB. Language is symbolicC. Animals also have languagesD. Language is arbitrary7. The fact that we can always write new sentences to express our new ideas is a good illustration of the ____ feature of language.A. dualityB. displacementC. arbitrarinessD. productivity8. According to Saussure, ____ refers to the real utterances produced by real people in real situation.A. performanceB. langueC. paroleD. competence9. The study of the relationship between language and gender is in the realm of ____.A. psycholinguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. pragmaticsD. applied linguistics Answers:1-5: BDCBC 6-9: CDCB。

•Qs:• 1. How do you understand the definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.•Linguistics investigates not any particular language, but languages in general. •Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，真实的) language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reacheduntil after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.•• 2. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?•1) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. •2) Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.•3) Thirdly, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.• 3. Why is speech considered as the primary medium of human language? • 1.First, speech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form.• 2.Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. • 3.Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.•• 4. What’s the difference between langue and parole?•Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.•Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.•但索氏语言（Langue）乃一抽象语言系统，他的言语（Parole）指日常语言，两者均为结构语言学研究对象。

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive:If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should notIt’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（08F/09C）linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. competence有什么区别？？11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language thatsounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever ofsituation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds withinIt studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics:The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.或者It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguisticabstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution :allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographicallysegments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they’re col lectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules forcan be added to it constantly.(08C)3. closed class: A group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others.（07F）10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a newcategories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F) 12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)15.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top levelare said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same typeand or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andcomplementizer.(08F/09C)17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl,from appropriate transformations. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα: a general rule for all th e movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.补充29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.第十一章30.structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemesin a language.31.IC analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.32.paradigmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,thatis,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.33.syntagmatic relation: the relation between any linguisticelements which are simultaneously present in a structure.34.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.（03）36.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they gohave the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate;and the more specific words are called its hyponyms;hyponyms of the same superordinate areco-hyponyms to each other.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.(07F)或者Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。

判断题：正确写A，错误写BChapter 1：1。

Linguistics is the systematic study of language.True。

2. Linguistics deals with a particular language.False。

3. Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use。

False。

4. The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.True。

5. Linguistics is generally divided into general and specific linguistics.False.6。

General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application。

False。

7。

General linguistics does not study theories of language。

False。

8。

Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.False.9。

Phonology studies how a sound is produced.False.10。

Morphology is the study of sentences.False。

11。

Syntax is the study of the rules of words。

False。

12。

Semantics is the study of word meaning.False。

语言学基本知识语言学的基本概念1.What is linguistics?(1)The definition: Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language, or,alternatively, the scientific study of language.The main branches of Linguistics: 语音学Phonology 音位学Morphology 形态学Syntax 句法学Semantics 语义学Pragmatics 语用学2.General Linguistics & Applied Linguistics(1)The main differenceGeneral Linguistics: 理论研究，研究对象为人类所有语言Applied Linguistics: 应用研究，语言在各个领域的实际应用(2)The main branches of eachGeneral Linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax,semantics, PragmaticsApplied Linguistics: Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics,Physiological Phonelics, etc. (Page 64, Para1) Note: 上述应用语言学分分支，指的是广义的应用语言学的分支，狭义的应用语言学只指语言教学3.Important distinctions in Linguistics(1)Descriptive Linguistics V.S. Prescriptive LinguisticsDon’t say X. a prescriptive commandPeople don’t say X. a descriptive statementThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Prescriptive Linguistics: 规定正确的用法，按照此规定使用语言Descriptive Linguistics: 语言的实际用法(2)Synchronic Linguistics V.S. Diachronic Linguistics ----SaussureDiachronic Linguistics: the study of language through the course of its history.Synchronic Linguistics: the study of language, which takes a fixedinstant as its point of observation.(3)Speech V.S. WritingSpeech: communication by word of mouthWriting: symbol of language(4)Langue V.S. ParoleLangue: the common possession of a speech community 言语活动中社会成员共同使用的部分，是社会共有的交际工具。

Language and Linguistics1.The important distinction in linguistics proposed by Chomsky is _____.A.Synchronic and diachronicngue and paroleC.Signifier and signifiedpetence and performance2.According to Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared byall the members of a speech community.A.paroleB.performancenguenguage3.The term _________ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to theapproach which studies language change over the various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparativenguage is ____ in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between aword and the object it refers to.A.systematicB.symbolicC.arbitraryD.ambiguous5.What function are most imperative sentences associated with?rmativeB.InterrogativeC.PhaticD.Directive6. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree centigrade.” is _________A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative6.Everyday we send messages that have never been sent and understand novelmessages; in this sense, our language is ____.A.productiveB.interchangeableC.genetically transmittedD.rule-governednguage can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of thespeaker. This is what we mean by _____.A.cultural transmissionB.displacementC.dualityD.productivity8.By duality we mean that language has two sets of structures, one of _______ andthe other of ______.A.surface structure, deep structureB.phonemes, morphemesC.sounds, meaningsD.production, reception9.According to Chomsky, ________ is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge ofhis language.petenceB.paroleC.performancengue10.General linguistics is the scientific study of _________.nguage of a certain individualB.the German languageC.human languages in generalD.the system of a particular languagePhonetics and Phonology11.The study of how sounds are put together are used to convey meaning incommunication is _________.A.morphologyB.general linguisticsC.phonologyD.phonetics12.A(n) ______ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collectionof distinctive phonetic features.A.phoneB.soundC.allophoneD.phoneme13./m, n / are ________.A.fricativesB.dentalsC.glidesD.nasals14./w, j / belong to _____.A.fricativesB.dentalsC.glidesD.nasals15.Which of the following vowel is the rounded one?A./i:/B./u:/C./i/D./a:/16.The vowel /u:/ in /fu:d/(food) is a _________vowel.A.backB.frontC.unroundedD.centralMORPHOLOGY17._______ is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content.A.WordB.MorphemeC.AllomorphD.Root18._______are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combinedwith other morphemes to form a word.A.Free morphemesB.Bound morphemesC.Bound wordsD.Words19._______modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part ofspeech of the original wordA.PrefixesB.SuffixesC.RootsD.Affixes20.“-s” in the word books is ____.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC.an inflectional affixD. a rootNote: root（词根）/ affix（词缀）, 都属于bound morpheme (粘着词素)1. root(词根): a part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears a clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix toform a word.(一个不能再分，再分就会失去其本义的基本形式)词根词素可以分为自由词根词素（free root morpheme, e.g. rain→ rainy → raincoat粘着词根词素(bound root morpheme)e.g. geo(the earth) + ology (a branch of learning)→ ge ology, psych ology, physi ologytele (distant, far) + vision →tele vision, tele graphtrans mit, per mit, sub mit ‘main tain, con tain, de tain2. Affix 词缀1) inflectional（曲折）: 语法关系的标志grammatical relations(number, tense, degree, case) -s, -er,不改变词性2) derivational(派生):在词干上加上一个词缀得到一个新词，与词性和意义有关3. stem 词干The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added.It refers to the left morpheme or combination of morphemes when one affix is removed for one time.e.g. care less ness21.Which of the following words is a derivational one?A.BlackboardB.TeachesC.ConsiderationD.Books22.Which of the following words is created through the process of acronym?A.adB.editC.AIDSD.Bobo23.The word “lab” is formed through ____.A.back formationB.blendingC.clippingD.derivation24.Which of the following is NOT a compound word ?A. LandladyB. GreenhouseC. UpliftD. Unacceptable20. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as ________.A.lexical wordsB.grammatical wordsC.function wordsD.form words21. Open class of words can consist of the following categories EXCEPT _________A. nounsB. verbsC. adjectivesD. articles22. Which one of the following most possibly belongs to the closed class?A. FlowerB. Treacherous.C. WeD. Whack23. Inflectional morphemes manifest the following meanings EXCEPT_________A. toneB. tenseC. numberD. case24. Which of the following contains at least an inflectional morpheme?A. PossibilityB. DecisionC. HersD. Enable25. ________ are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.A. RootsB. StemsC. AffixesD. Compounds26. The word “irresistible” is ______________A. a compound oneB. a clipped oneC. a blended oneD. a derived one27. Which of the following affix differs from others?A. –lyB. –nessC. –ingD. –ful28. The word “Kung-fu” is _____.A. a clipped oneB. a blended oneC. a compound on eD. a borrowed oneSemantics25. A word with several meanings is called ______ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC.an abnormalD. a multiple26.The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are___.A.gradable oppositesB.relational oppositesC.co-hyponymsD.synonyms27.The relationship between ‘fruit’ and ‘apple’ is _______.A.homonymyB.hyponymyC.polysemyD.synonymy28.“Alive” and “dead” are ______ antonyms.A.relationalB.gradableC.symmetricplementary29.“Big” and “small” are a pair of _____ opposites.plementaryB.gradablepleteD.converse6. The word “luggage” and “baggage” are _________A. emotive synonymsB. dialectal synonymsC. collocational synonymsD. stylistic7. The relation between “begin” and “commence” is _________A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. collocational synonymsD. semantically different synonyms8. “Fall ” and “autumn” are _________ synonymsA. dialectalB. stylisticC. collocationalD. emotive9. _________ is NOT a pair of homophones.A. rain and reignB. flea and fleeC. lead [li:d] and lead [led]D. compliment and complement10. In the semantic triangle, “referent” refers to _______A. conceptB. the real worldC. the thoughtD. meaning11. “Wise” and “cunning” are a pair of _________ synonyms.A. dialectalB. stylisticC. collocationalD. emotive12. “Wide” and “broad” are a pair of __________ synonymsA. dialectalB. stylisticC. collocationalD. emotive13. Which of the followings can be the same form shared by two homonyms?A. BallB. CanC. BarkD. North14. “See” and “sea” are ___________A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. polysenmic words15. What is the sense relation between “learn” and “teach”?A. Relational antonymsB. Complementary antonymsC. Gradable anonymsD. Absolute antonyms16. What is the sense relation between “pass” and “fail”?A. Relational antonymsB. Complementary antonymsC. Gradable anonymsD. Absolute antonyms17. : X: They are going to have another baby.Y: They have a child.The relationship of X and Y is ________A. synonymousB. inconsistentC. X entailing YD : X presupposing Y18. “Tommy’s hen laid an egg yesterday.” presupposes __________A. Tommy had a henB. Tommy had a big henC. An egg was laid by Tommy’s henD. The egg is not a stone.19. “He has been to Tokyo” entails “_________”.A. He has been to JapanB. Tokyo is the capital of Japan.C. He has never been to Japan.D. He is not a Japanese.Pragmatics1.According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit thespeaker to some future course of action are called _____.missivesB.directivesC.expressivesD.declaratives2._______ is defined as the study of language in use and linguistic communication.A.PragmaticsB.SociolinguisticsC.NeurolinguisticsD.Contextual linguistics3.“We can do things with words”--- this is the main idea of ______.A.the Speech Act TheoryB.the Co-operative PrincipleC.the Polite PrinciplesD.pragmatics4._________ refer to the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.A.Locutionary actB.Illocutionary actC.Perlocutionary actD.Speech act5.The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called_______.A.semanticsB.sociolinguisticsC.pragmaticsD.psycholinguistics6.Which of the following is NOT the specific instance of directives?A.InvitingB.AdvisingC.WarningD.Swearing7. _________ acts expresses the intention of the speaker.A. LocutionaryB. IllocutionaryC. PerlocutionaryD. Speech8. “I didn’t steal that ring” is a _________.A. directiveB. expressiveC. commissiveD. representatives9. “I’m so sad about your wrong doings” is a __________A. declarationB. expressivesC. representativesD. commissives10. “Hands up!” is a ________.A. directiveB. representativeC. commissiveD. declaration11. “I’ll be with you!” is a _________.A. directiveB. commissiveC. expressiveD. representativeSociolinguistics1.In areas which are populated by people speaking different languages, onelanguage is often used by common agreement; such a language is called ________.A.pidginB.lingua francaC.CreoleD.slang2. The dialect which is caused by social status is ________.A. regional dialectB. sociolectC. idiolectD. diglossia3. Standard dialect is ______A. designated as the official or national language of a country.B. a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialectC. used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposeD. used by people who belong to the higher social status.4. Sometimes, two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. This phenomenon is _______.A. bilingualismB. diglossiaC. pidginD. creole5 The form of a given language used in a certain geographical space is called _______A. styleB. dialectC. registerD. pidginLanguage Acquisition1.According to Krashen, ________ refers to the gradual and subconsciousdevelopment of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A.learningpetenceC.performanceD.acquisition。

06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程, 戴炜栋ContentsChapter 1 Introduction (1)Chapter 2 Phonology (5)Chapter 3 Morphology (8)Chapter 4 Syntax (9)Chapter 5 Semantics (12)Chapter 6 Pragmatics (16)Chapter 7 Historical linguistics (19)Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics (24)Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics (29)Chapter 10 Language Acquisition (32)Chapter 1 Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

1.Linguistics:Linguistics is generally a scientific study of language. It is a major branch of social science. Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.ngue & Parole:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language.4.Functionalism & Formalism:Functionalism:the study of the forms of language in reference ot their social function in communication.Formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal ralations.petence & Performance:Competence: a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations.6.Synchronnic Linguistics:The study of a language at some point of time in history.7.Diachronic Linguistcis:The study of a language as it develops through time.语言学各研究分支的定义:8.Phonetics:Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sound, words and connected speech etc.(The study of sounds used in linguistic community led to establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics. How speech are produced and classified.)9.Phonology:The study of how speech sounds function in a language.10.Morphology:The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to from words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. How morphemes are combined to from words.11.Syntax:The study of how words are combined to form sentences.12.Semantics:The study of meaning in abstraction.13.Pragmatics:The study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in context of use.14.Psycholinguistics:The study of language and mind: the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquistion, comprehension and production of language. 15.Sociolinguistics:The study of the relations between language and society.16.Phoneme:The smallest phonological units of language.17.Morpheme:Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of realationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.18.IC Analysis:P75The approach that linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions and may themsevles also be constructions composed of smaller parts.19.Constituent:A word or a group of words that function as a single unit in a hierarchical structure.20.TG grammar:It is a model which consisted of three parts: a set of phrase structure rules, transformation rules and morphophonemic rules.21.Sense & Reference:Sense is to be defined in terms of relationships which hold between the linguistic elements themselves(mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic relations.Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.ponential Analysis:The semantic theory that all lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic features or semantic components which may be universal is called componential analysis.23.Naming Theory:The view that the meaning of an exprssion is what it refers to or names is often called naming theory.24.Deixis:Deixis refers to the phenomenon wherein understanding the meaning of certain words and phrases in an utterance requires contextual information.25.Speech Act Theory:A theory about language used to do things.26.Cooperative Principle:Make your contribution such is required at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the exchange in which you are engaged. And this principle is known as the cooperative principle.27.Conversational Implicature:The extral meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violat intentionally one of the 4 maxims of the cooperative principle.28.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has 2 parts. The first is called linguistic determinism, and the second part is called linguistic relativity.29.Linguistic Determinism:Language determines our way of thingking.30.Linguistic Relativity:The resulting cognitive systems are different in speakers of different languages.31.Dialect:A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a sepcific social class is called a dialect.32.Pidgin:Pidgin is the label for the code used by peopl who speak different languages.A pidgin is not the native language of any group.33.Register Theory:A theory describes the relationship between social variables and linguistic features.34.Standard Language:The dominant or prestigious variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writting of educated native speakers is called standard language.。

language and cultureLanguage is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating about ideas, emotion and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. And all of the ideas, emotion, and desires are some specific cultural aspects. Based on this, linguists have made a lot of researches on the topic of the relationship between language and culture. Here are my humble ideas about it.Language is the carrier of culture.The relations between language and culture are closely-knit. Referring some definition of culture, we can find a culture is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next. As we all know, language is a kind of tool which we use for communication. Language is one means of recording and transmitting culture. We use written language to record some significant historical events or meaningful teachings, in this way, we can form our own history, have our own historical culture and a particular national atmosphere. Take Confucius for instance, it is because of the oral teaching and the record made by his students that Confucianism has not only become the most representative chinese culture but makes profound influences on other countries. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects people’s attitudes, beliefs, world-out looks etc. At the same time, due to the language, as a medium, we have access to see the culture diversity. We can comprehend foreign culture through the process of learning a foreign language. Through translation or interpretation in language world, we are free to get some novel foreign ideas and enrich our own culture. So, culture transmission processes through languages, it does not just passively reflect culture, but also influences and shapes culture.Language is a mirror of cultureLanguage is closely related to culture and can be said as a part of culture. It plays an important role in all the social activities in our daily life. Sometimes along with the development of an era, we create some new words to express a new thing or ourfeelings, such as “selfie”, retweet, cyberbullying and so on. All those new-added words come from our lives. And our lives are main parts of culture. Language is rooted with the culture, and at the same time, it reflects some distinguishing features of culture. Comparing Chinese with French, in Chinese, when we tend to say “they”, we don’t especially mention the fact they are male or female. On the contrary, when the french express the meaning of “they”, they have two clearly different ways to express it-- “ils” and “elles”. “Ils”specially refers to the group of man, and “elles”refers to the woman. Our language does, some times reflects which personality we have. More often, we are not as restrict as the french and the Germans. When we meet challenges, we try first, to make our mistakes soundless serious, and then, to reduce it to nothing at all. Maybe most of the Chinese receive the golden mean of the Confucian school, avoiding conflicts or different opinions with others. So the bounds of the Chinese culture are not very evident.In a word, language is the carrier of culture which in return is the content of language we can dig out cultural features from language and explain language phenomena with culture.。

1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.QR It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.20. phoneme : An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isola tion, they’re collectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.。

Linguistics语言学，the study of human language。

包括Theoretical linguistics，Applied linguistics，Sociolinguistics，Cognitive linguistics和Historical linguistics。

这里主要考Theoretical linguistics，包括:1.Lexis词汇学, the study of what is a word and where words come from2.Semantics语义学，the study of meaning in a language3.Phonetics语音学，the study of speech sounds (voice).4.Phonology音位学/音系学,the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication5.Morphology形态学，the study of the structure and form of words and phrases6.Syntax句法学，the study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together，与morphology形态学并称grammer语法学7.Stylistics文体学，the study of style used in literary, and verbal language and the effect the writer/speaker wishes to communicate to the reader/hearer.8.Pragmatics语用学，generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.补充：general linguistics, the study of the structure and development of language in generalChapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. T2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. F4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. T8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. F9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. T10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. T17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. T19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. FⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 PhonologyⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A_______ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A_______ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t_______ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s_______ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they arecollectively known as i_________.31. P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35 Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesⅣ. Define the terms below:45. phonology46. phoneme47. allophone48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone54. phonemic contrast55. tone56. minimal pairⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?。

最新EnglishLinguistic语言学Chapter 1 Introduction1. Linguistic and English Linguistic Linguistic 的目的aims at developing a theory general linguistic一般语言学descriptive linguistic 描述性语言学general linguistic (一般语言学) 为descriptive linguistic (描述性语言学) 提供了framework(框架), 这也就是为什么general linguistic 能够被分析和被描述.General linguistic and descriptive linguistic arecomplementary to each other (相互补充).English linguistic is a kind of descriptive linguistics. 2.The nature of languages (语言的本质) 1. language is a system 2. language is symbolic3. language is a system of vocal symbolsThe system of language is called langue1.language is a systemthe speaker ’s speech is calledparoleCompetence is the speaker-hearer ’s knowledge of his languagePerformance i s the actual use of language in concrete situation/doc/1a6632425.html,nguage is symbolic ( 语言是象征意义的)3.language is a system of vocal symbols ( 语言是一种声音符号)语言学侧重研究的是speech 不是written formReason 1.Biologically (生物上来讲) 儿童学习说比学习读写早得多.2.Functionally (功能上来讲) 日常生活中口语使用比书面语频繁的多.3.Historically( 历史而言) 口头语使用在书面语之前,当今世界有许多语言并没有留下文字记录Language is arbitraryLanguage is creativeLanguage is double-structured Language is changeablede Saussure 的理论Chomsky 的理论Language is arbitrarya linguistic symbol is composed of two things speechsound( form)形式and the idea( meaning) 意义Language is creativeLanguage is double-structuredgrammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless语法上的有意义,声音上的无意义.Language is changeableWhat is the nature of human language?In a short , it is a system of a rbitrary vocal symbolsThe unique features like creativity(创造力)duality of structure (结构的双重性)changeability(易变性)3.Scientific method (科学方法)1. collecting data ( 收集数据)2.forming a hypothesis (提出假设)3.testing the hypothesis (验证假设)4.drawing conclusions (得出结论)An important principle of the scientific method Objectivity 客观性Three biases 三种偏见1.some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced有的语言是原始的有的语言是先进的.2.only the standard variety is the pure form of a language只有标准的语体才是纯正的语言3.change is not natural for living language and such a change is a sign ofcorruption and decay语言变化是不自然的变化,变化是衰败的现象.Sources of data 资料的来源Collecting data 是研究的首要工作. 假如这语言学家不懂那门语言,他可以找一个informant ( 为语言学调查提供资料的当地人)Rules construction语言描述的首要工作是construct rules ( draw conclusion) 得出结论How does a linguist construct a rule?书本p15页中4.The goal of linguistics 语言学的目的establish a model of a native speaker’s competence建立一种本族语言的模式literal model 具体模式physical modelmodeltheoretical model 理论模式conceptual modelEg. Which types does a m odel of the competence of a native speaker belong to?---- theoretical model / conceptual model 理论模式两个特性explicitness 明确性the rules of the langue the model contains are clearlydefined某一门语言的规则定义非常明确generative 生成性use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite numberof sentences用有限的规则创造无限的句子四种研究的方向Phonological 音位知识Morphological 词法知识Syntactic 句法知识Semantic 语义知识Phonological 音位知识sound and sound patterns of his language研究语音和语音模式Morphological 词法知识how a word is formed如何构词的模式Syntactic 句法知识whether a sentence is true or not句子是否符合语法Semantic 语义知识meaning of a language 语言的意义5.Sub-branch of linguistics 语言学的分支Phonetics 语音学Study speech sound 研究语音的科学Phonology 音系学Study sound system 研究语音体系的科学Phoneme音素Morphology 形态学Word formation and the internal structure of work 构词法和词的内部结构Morpheme词素Syntax 句法How word are combined to form phrases 单词如何构成短语How phrases are combined by rules to form sentence 短语如何构成句子PS rules T rulesSemantics 语义学The meaning of words and sentence 单词和短语的意义6.The father of modern linguistics—Saussure现代语言学之父(瑞士人come from Swiss)现代语言学开始于20世纪,但是发展迅速,有两大流派(two schools)Structure linguistics 结构语言学Transformational-generative Grammar 转换生成语法TG-grammar为什么说Saussure是现代语言学的奠基人呢?1.’’A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory<<普通语言学>>是第一本真正意义上的语言学专著.2. The distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic andparadigmatic,langue and parole. Show us a brief explanation of these basic and significant distinctions.书中关于共时研究和历时研究, 横向关系和纵向关系, langue 和parole的阐述很明了.4. A few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguisticstudy and exerted great influence on the latter development of linguistics.其中的一些理论成为语言学的基础对后来的语言学发展影响很大.Chapter 2 phonetics 语音学定义phonetics is known as the science that studies speech sounds of all human languageThree sub-branches 三个分支articulatory phonetics 发音语音学acoustic phonetic 声学语言学auditory phonetic 听觉语言学发音器官articulatorsWhat is vocal tract?-- The speech organs above the larynx from the vocal tract 喉以上的器官称之为vocal tractConsonants and vowels 辅音和元音Consonant : is a speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked or partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that theair escapes with audible friction气流完全封闭或部分封闭，或开口小并且有摩檫Vowels ：is a speech sound that the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced withvibration of the vocal cords.气流不受阻碍，发音时声带一定振动。

1. Q: What is the scope of linguistics?The scope of linguistics can be illustrated as:1) General linguistics: the study of language as whole. It deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.2) Phonetics: the study of sounds used in communication.3) Phonology: the study about how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.4) Morphology: the study of the way in which symbols/morphemes are arranged to form words.5) Syntax: the study of the rules about the combination of words to form permisible sentences.6) Semantics: the study of meaning.7) Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of use.And the Interdisciplinary branches.1) Sociolinguistics2) Psycholingu istics ……………2. Q: What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways: firstly, modern linguistics is descriptive, it describes the language as it is; while traditional grammar is prescriptive, it prescribes the way language should be used. Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.3. Q: What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.4. Q:Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule and the deletion rule? 1) Sequential rules form the letters as ―k, h ,l ,j‖ into all possible words in English. We might order them as: blik, klib, bilk, kilb. without other orders. So it indicates that there are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. One special sequential rule that……2) Assimilation rule: it assimilates one sound to another by copying a feather of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example: ―illegal‖, inlegal3) Deletion rule: It can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. for example: ―designation‖,the [g] represented by the letter ―g‖ is pronounced, while in the word ―sign‖. /g/ sound is deleted, because it is followed by and ended with the nasal consonant /n/.5. Q: What are the major types of synonyms in English?There are five types of synonyms in English. They are dialectal synonyms--synonyms used in different regional dialects; stylistics synonyms –synonyms differing in style; synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning; collocational synonyms; semantically different synonyms.6. Q: Explain with examples ―H omonymy‖, ―P olysemy‖, and ―H yponymy‖?Homonymy (定义) … . It includes homophones(定义) (piece\peace) , homographs (定义) (bow v.\ bow n.) and complete homonyms (定义) (scale n.\scale v.) .Polysemy means that the same one word may have more that one meaning. For example: ―table‖, has at least seven meanings.Hyponymy means that the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. For example: ―furniture‖ is super-ordinate, its hyponyms are bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, settee……7. Q: How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?There are three types oppositions in meaning. They are gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms and relational opposites.―north\south‖, ―wide\narrow‖ and ―poor\rich‖ belong to gradable antonyms; ―vacant\occupied‖ and ―literate\illiterate‖ belong to complementary antonyms; ―above\below‖, ―doctor\patient‖ and ―father\daughter‖ belong to relational opposites.8. Q: How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ? The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.Difference: Sentence meaning includes locutionary act, but it doesn’t include illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.9. Q: According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example?They are locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. For example: someone utters ―you‖ ―have‖ ―door‖ ―open‖! The locutionary act expresses what the words literally mean. The illocutionary act expresses the speaker’s intention: asking someone to close the door. T he hearer gets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, and then the hearer closes the door. Therefore, the utterance gets the effect of losing the door. And this is the perlocutionary act.10. Q: What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?They are the maxim of quantity(具体说明其内容)…the maxim of quality…the maxim of relation…and the maxim of manner….For example:A: When is J erry’s birthday party?B: Sometime next month.So, B doesn’t wish to tell you when J erry’s birthday party is going to be held.A: Would you like to attend our traveling at weekend?B: I’m afraid I have got an invitation at weekend.So, B doesn’t want to attend your traveling.A: Shall we get something for our brother?B: Yes. But I veto G-U-N.So, B doesn’t want their brother to know they are talking about getting them a gun.11. Q: Cite with examples the changes in English Language?1) s ound change: ―mouse‖[mu:s]—[maus];2) morphological change: greenen—green;3) syntactic change: you can speak, can’t you?You speak, speak not you ?4) lexical change: wot—to know, ASPCA, math—mathematics;5) semantic change: ―silly‖ means hap py in old E nglish, but today it means foolish; ―aunt‖ means father’s sister before, but today it also means mother’s sister.12. Q: What are the main social dialects? How do they jointly determine idiolect?They are Gender variation, Age variation, Ethnic dialect, Stylistic variation, Register. Idiolectal variation is determined by many factors. The different backgrounds of different people influence their choice of linguistic forms, and the linguistic features of the language they use reveal their indentities.13. Q: What peticuliar features does a Pidgin have?Any dialects have native speakers, except pidgin.Two parties didn’t know each other, so in order to do trade, they have to use pidgin. Withmore understandings of each other’s cultures, less peopl e would use pidgin.14. Q: Among the language acquisition theories, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why?There are three language acquisition theories, they are the behaviorist view, the innatist view and the interactionist view.I tend to the behaviorist much more, in my opinion, to do is better than doing nothing, practice and intimation are the best way to learn a language. For the innatist, sedulity can make up every natural facultiy, and for the interactionist, not everyone can go aboard to have a language environment, at home, there are still many scholarships study different languages well.15. Q: What is Language Acquisition?It refers to the child’s acqu isition of his mother tongue, it means how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.16. Q: What is Language Acquisition Devices?It also known as LAD, it claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking . it was des cribed as an imaginary ―black box‖ existing somewhere in the human brain, the ―black box‖ is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.17. Q:What is the Critical Period Hypothesis?The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction.18. Q: What is Register?Language varies as its function varies, it differs in different situations, it is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.19. Q: What is Idiolect?Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.20. Q: What is Pidgin?Pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.21. Q: What is Creole?It is originally a Pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community. That is, when a pidgin come to be adopted by a population as its primary language, and children learn it as their first language, then the pidgin language is called a Creole.22. Q: What is CP?It is stand of the cooperative Principle. ….It requires that the speaker and the hearer should make conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which the speaker and the hearer are engaged.23. Q: What is Homonymy?It refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.It includes Homophones, Homograghs, Complete Homonyms.24. Q: What is Polysemy?It means that the same one word having more than one meaning.25. Q: What is Sense?It is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the meaning in the dictionary. It does not refer to any particular individual that exists in the real word, but applies to any individual that meets the features described in the definition.26.Q: What is Syntax?It is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.。

1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive:If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should notIt’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（08F/09C）linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. competence有什么区别？？11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language thatsounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever ofsituation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds withinIt studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics:The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.或者It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguisticabstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution :allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographicallysegments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they’re col lectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules forcan be added to it constantly.(08C)3. closed class: A group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others.（07F）10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a newcategories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F) 12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)15.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top levelare said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same typeand or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andcomplementizer.(08F/09C)17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl,from appropriate transformations. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα: a general rule for all th e movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.补充29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.第十一章30.structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemesin a language.31.IC analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.32.paradigmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,thatis,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.33.syntagmatic relation: the relation between any linguisticelements which are simultaneously present in a structure.34.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.（03）36.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they gohave the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate;and the more specific words are called its hyponyms;hyponyms of the same superordinate areco-hyponyms to each other.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.(07F)或者Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。