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高中英语中学生阅读能力提升的有效方式Title: Effective Ways to Improve High School Students' Reading Ability in EnglishIntroductionReading is an essential skill in learning a language, especially in English. For high school students, improving their reading ability is crucial for academic success and future career development. In this article, we will explore some effective ways to enhance high school students' reading skills in English.1. Extensive ReadingOne effective way to improve high school students' reading ability is through extensive reading. Encourage students to read widely and regularly in English, such as novels, newspapers, magazines, and online articles. This will help them expand their vocabulary, improve reading fluency, and develop a better understanding of different writing styles.2. Active Reading StrategiesTeaching students active reading strategies can also help enhance their reading comprehension. Strategies like skimming, scanning, predicting, and summarizing can aid students inextracting key information from texts, improving their understanding, and making connections between ideas.3. Vocabulary BuildingBuilding vocabulary is essential for improving reading comprehension. Encourage students to learn new words regularly through reading, vocabulary exercises, and flashcards. Encourage them to use new words in context to reinforce their understanding and retention.4. Reading Comprehension ExercisesConducting reading comprehension exercises can help students practice applying reading strategies and improve their understanding of texts. Provide students with a variety of reading materials, including fiction, non-fiction, academic texts, and poems, to expose them to different writing styles and genres.5. Discussion and AnalysisEncourage students to discuss and analyze texts they have read in class or in groups. This can help them develop critical thinking skills, deepen their understanding of the material, and improve their ability to interpret and evaluate texts.6. Reading AloudReading aloud can help students improve their pronunciation, intonation, and overall language fluency. Encourage students to read passages aloud in class or practice reading at home to enhance their speaking and reading skills.7. Reading ChallengesOrganize reading challenges or competitions to motivate students to read more and improve their reading skills. Provide rewards or incentives for students who achieve reading goals, such as completing a certain number of books or articles within a specific timeframe.8. Technology-Based ResourcesUtilize technology-based resources like e-books, audiobooks, and online reading platforms to engage students in reading activities. These resources can make reading more accessible and interactive for students, allowing them to explore different types of texts and genres.In conclusion, improving high school students' reading ability in English requires a combination of strategies, including extensive reading, active reading techniques, vocabulary building, comprehension exercises, discussions, reading aloud, challenges, and technology-based resources. By incorporatingthese effective methods into the curriculum, educators can help students develop strong reading skills that will benefit them academically and professionally. Remember, practice makes perfect, so encourage students to read regularly and enjoy the journey of learning through reading.。
云南省云南师范高校附属中学2025届高三英语适应性月考卷（六）留意事项：1.答题前，考生务必用黑色碳素笔将自己的姓名、准考证号、考场号、座位号在答题卡上填写清晰。
2.每小题选出答案后，用2B铅笔把答题卡上对应题目的答案标号涂黑。
如需改动，用橡皮擦干净后，再选涂其他答案标号。
在试题卷上作答无效。
3.考试结束后，请将本试卷和答题卡一并交回。
满分150分，考试用时120分钟。
第一部分听力（共两节，满分30分）留意，听力部分答题时请先将答案标在试卷上，听力部分结束前你将有两分钟的时间将答案转涂到答题卡上。
第一节（共5小题；每题1.5分，满分7.5分）听下面5段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。
听完每段对话后，你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
1. What is the probable relationship between the speakers?A. Conductor and passenger.B. Ticket seller and customer.C. Husband and wife.2. What will the man do this weekend?A. Perform a dance in the street.B. Take a dance class of popping.C. Give a locking dance lesson.3. What do we know about Tesla’s new car?A. Its body is made of glass.B. Its top speed is 248 miles per hour.C. It is a kind of electric car.4. Why does Hong Ying live along life?A. She enjoys healthy local food.B. She is well attended by her family.C. She has a. good personality.5. What is the conversation mainly about?A. Trusting food producers.B. Paying attention to food labels.C. Shopping with parents.其次节（共15小题；每小题1.5分，满分22.5分）听下面5段对话或独白。
通过阅读提高自己的英语水平英语作文建议信全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Enhancing Your English Proficiency Through the Power of ReadingAs an ardent learner on an exhilarating journey to conquer the English language, I cannot emphasize enough the pivotal role that reading has played in propelling my linguistic prowess to unprecedented heights. The profound impact of immersing oneself in the captivating realms of literature, newspapers, magazines, and online articles is truly unparalleled. In this epistle, I shall endeavor to share my personal experiences and insights, in the hope of inspiring fellow English enthusiasts to embark upon their own transformative reading odysseys.First and foremost, let us acknowledge the vast andever-expanding repository of knowledge that resides within the written word. Each book, article, or passage serves as a gateway, unveiling a plethora of new vocabulary, idiomatic expressions, and grammatical constructs. By actively engaging with these linguistic treasures, we unconsciously expand our lexicalrepertoire and hone our grasp of the nuances and intricacies of the English language.Moreover, reading fosters a profound understanding of context and connotation, two indispensable pillars of effective communication. As we delve into the written works of celebrated authors, we bear witness to the intricate interplay of words, phrases, and sentences, each meticulously crafted to convey specific emotions, ideas, and perspectives. This exposure to the intricate tapestry of language enables us to discern the subtle undertones and implied meanings that often elude those unfamiliar with the art of reading.Additionally, reading serves as a catalyst for cultural immersion, granting us unprecedented access to the rich tapestry of customs, traditions, and worldviews that shape the English-speaking world. Through the lens of literature, we can vicariously experience the lives of diverse characters, traverse unfamiliar landscapes, and grapple with thought-provoking themes that challenge our preconceived notions. This cultural exploration not only enriches our understanding of the language but also cultivates empathy, tolerance, and a heightened appreciation for the multifaceted nature of human experience.Permit me to share a personal anecdote that exemplifies the transformative power of reading. In my early days of English language acquisition, I found myself grappling with the complexities of idioms and colloquialisms. However, upon delving into the captivating realms of young adult fiction, I encountered a veritable treasure trove of such expressions, seamlessly woven into the narratives. As I immersed myself in these stories, the idiomatic phrases took on a newfound clarity, becoming not mere linguistic curiosities but rather vibrant brushstrokes that painted vivid pictures in my mind. This experience not only expanded my vocabulary but also instilled in me a profound appreciation for the rich tapestry of English expression.Yet, the benefits of reading extend far beyond the linguistic domain. Regular engagement with written works has been scientifically proven to enhance cognitive abilities, bolster critical thinking skills, and foster emotional intelligence. As we navigate the intricate plots and multidimensional characters that populate the literary landscape, we hone our capacity for analysis, inference, and empathy – invaluable assets in our personal and professional endeavors.In light of these myriad advantages, I implore my fellow learners to make reading a integral part of their English language journey. Embrace the diverse array of literary genres, from classic novels to contemporary non-fiction, and allow yourself to be transported to realms where language takes on a life of its own.For those seeking practical guidance, I would recommend establishing a consistent reading routine, even if it means dedicating a mere thirty minutes each day to this endeavor. Seek out materials that align with your interests and proficiency level, gradually increasing the complexity as your skills evolve. Engage actively with the text by annotating, summarizing, and reflecting upon the content, as this practice will reinforce your comprehension and retention.Furthermore, I cannot overstate the importance of maintaining a personal vocabulary log, meticulously recording unfamiliar words and phrases encountered during your reading explorations. This invaluable resource will serve as a constant companion, enabling you to revisit and reinforce your newfound lexical acquisitions.It is also prudent to engage in discussions with fellow readers, whether through book clubs, online forums, or informal gatherings. Exchanging perspectives, analyzing literary themes,and dissecting linguistic nuances will not only deepen your understanding but also hone your ability to articulate your thoughts and opinions in English with confidence and clarity.In conclusion, the pursuit of English proficiency is a journey that demands unwavering dedication and a willingness to embrace diverse learning strategies. Reading, with its multifaceted benefits, stands as a beacon of hope, illuminating the path towards linguistic mastery. Embrace the written word, for within its pages lie the keys to unlocking a world of knowledge, cultural enrichment, and personal growth. Let the pages turn, and let your linguistic horizons expand, one captivating narrative at a time.篇2How to Boost Your English Skills Through ReadingHey there, fellow students! As someone who has been on a journey to master the English language, I wanted to share some invaluable tips on how reading can significantly elevate your proficiency. English is a universal language that opens doors to countless opportunities, and what better way to immerse yourself than through the captivating world of books, articles, and online content?First and foremost, let's address the obvious question: why should you bother reading in English if you're already drowning in textbooks and assignments? Well, my friends, the answer is simple – reading is a goldmine for language acquisition. Unlike formal lessons that can sometimes feel like a chore, reading allows you to absorb vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions in a fun and engaging way.Imagine diving into a gripping novel or an intriguing article on a topic that genuinely interests you. As you delve deeper into the pages, you'll find yourself effortlessly picking up new words and expressions, all while being entertained or enlightened. It's like a sneaky trick to trick your brain into learning without even realizing it!But where should you start, you ask? The beauty of reading is that there's something for everyone, no matter your level or interests. If you're a beginner, consider starting with children's books, young adult novels, or easy readers specifically designed for language learners. These resources use simple language and engaging storylines, making them the perfect stepping stones to more advanced material.As your confidence grows, branch out to popular fiction, magazines, or even online blogs and news articles. Thepossibilities are endless, and the more you read, the more your vocabulary and comprehension will soar. Don't be afraid to challenge yourself either – occasionally tackling materials slightly above your current level can stretch your abilities and accelerate your progress.One of the most significant advantages of reading is the exposure to authentic language usage. While textbooks and classroom settings often present language in a structured and simplified manner, reading exposes you to the nuances and idiomatic expressions used in real-life contexts. You'll gain a better understanding of how native speakers naturally communicate, which is invaluable for developing fluency and natural-sounding speech.But reading isn't just about passively consuming words on a page. To truly maximize its benefits, engage actively with the material. Look up words you don't know, make notes of interesting phrases or expressions, and even try to summarize or discuss what you've read with a language partner or classmate. This active engagement will solidify your understanding and help the new language elements stick in your mind.Another fantastic strategy is to read out loud, either to yourself or to a willing listener. This practice not only improvesyour pronunciation and intonation but also enhances your comprehension and memory retention. You'll start to notice patterns in the way words and sentences flow, which can significantly improve your speaking and writing abilities.Don't forget about the power of technology, either! With the abundance of e-books, audiobooks, and language learning apps available, you can seamlessly integrate reading into your daily routine. Listen to audiobooks during your commute, reade-books on your tablet while waiting in line, or use language apps to practice vocabulary and comprehension exercises based on the篇3How to Boost Your English Skills Through ReadingAs an English learner, one of the biggest challenges I've faced is finding effective ways to improve my language abilities outside of the classroom. While formal instruction is invaluable, the reality is that we spend a majority of our time away from teachers and textbooks. That's why it's so important to incorporate English practice into our daily lives – and in my experience, reading is one of the best ways to do this.I'll be honest, when I first started learning English, I found reading to be a bit of a struggle. I would stumble over unfamiliar words, lose track of the plot or main ideas, and generally feel pretty discouraged. However, the more I stuck with it, the more I realized just how powerful reading can be for building English proficiency. These days, I'm an avid reader and it has helped take my English to new levels.If you're looking to boost your English through reading but aren't sure where to start, let me share some tips that have worked well for me:Start with what you enjoyThe number one piece of advice I'd give is to read things that genuinely interest you. When I first started reading more in English, I tried to force myself to read "high-brow" literary classics and non-fiction. But I quickly found myself losing interest and motivation. Then I started reading young adult novels, fantasy and sci-fi stories, magazine articles about topics I'm passionate about - and everything changed. Suddenly, reading felt more like a fun hobby than a chore. I was hooked on the stories and naturally wanted to keep reading more. When you're engaged and enjoying what you read, it's so much easier to build the reading habit.Read activelyAnother game-changer for me was learning to read actively instead of passively. Previously, if I came across an unfamiliar word, I'd just skip over it or try to piece it together from context. But sooner or later, I'd inevitably get lost. These days, I keep a dictionary or translation app handy and immediately look up any words I don't know. I also take notes on useful vocabulary, idioms, and phrases to review later. Reading isn't just consuming words on a page - it's an opportunity to learn new language in context.Watch for word familiesA great way to get more mileage out of your reading is to pay attention to word families. For example, if I learn the word "migrate" from a text, I'll make a note to also learn related words like "immigration," "emigrant," and "migratory." Pretty soon, I've vastly expanded my vocabulary around a core concept just from a single word. Building vocabulary this way - through related words instead of isolated terms - really helps solidify my understanding.Mix it upWhile having a consistent reading routine is important, it's also beneficial to mix up what you read. If I read the same genre or writing style all the time, I start getting burned out. That's why I like to alternate between fiction and non-fiction, classic literature and contemporary writing, articles and books. Varying my reading diet keeps me engaged and exposes me to different vocabulary, writing styles, and perspectives.Set a routineOf course, all the tips in the world don't matter if you don't actually make time for reading. For me, setting a routine has been key. Maybe it's reading for 30 minutes every morning over breakfast. Maybe it's always keeping a book or magazine in your bag to read during commutes. Maybe it's winding down before bed each night with a few chapters. Find what works for your lifestyle and stick to it. Consistency builds the reading habit.Read on different platformsThese days, we have more options than ever for reading material. There's good ol' print books and magazines. But there's also ebooks, online articles, reading apps, audiobooks, podcasts - the list goes on. Mixing up the medium from which you read helps make it more fun and sustainable. When I'm feeling unmotivated to sit down with a physical book, I'll listen to anaudiobook during my morning routine or read an ebook series on my tablet before bed.Join or start a reading groupOne of the best ways I've found to stay motivated and get more out of my reading is by discussing what I read with others. Many towns and cities have English book clubs or reading groups you can join. If not, consider starting one yourself - even just getting a few friends together over coffee once a month and chatting about what you've read recently. When you engage with reading material more deeply through discussion, analysis, and debate, you'll gain so much more from it.Those are some of my top tips for using reading to turbocharge your English skills. At the end of the day, what matters most is finding joy and consistency in your reading routine. When you pick material you genuinely enjoy and find ways to make reading a habit, it stops feeling like a chore. Reading becomes a fun, effective way to immerse yourself in the English language every single day.The improvements in vocabulary, reading comprehension, grammar, writing skills - they'll come naturally over time. The more you read, the more you'll find yourself understanding and absorbing the nuances of English. It may feel like a slow processat first, but stick with it. Momentum builds over weeks, months, and years of consistent reading practice.So what are you waiting for? Find that book, magazine, or blog that's been calling your name and dig in. Get hooked on stories and characters. Feed your curiosity by reading about your favorite topics and interests. The amazing thing about reading is that it makes improving your English feel almost effortless. Pretty soon, your reading level today will be just the beginning.。
读书提高英语的方法英语作文The Efficacy of Reading in Improving English.English, a global language, holds immense significance in today's interconnected world. It is not just a medium of communication but also a gateway to a vast repository of knowledge and culture. For many, learning English can be a challenging endeavor, but reading can be a powerful tool to enhance language proficiency. This article delves into the methods and benefits of using reading to improve English.The Fundamentals of Reading for Language Acquisition.Reading is a fundamental skill that aids in the acquisition of vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure. By reading regularly, learners can expose themselves to a wide range of vocabulary and expressions, thus expanding their linguistic repertoire. This exposure not only helpsin understanding new words but also in understanding the nuances of language usage.The Role of Diverse Reading Materials.Choosing diverse reading materials is crucial. Novels, newspapers, blogs, and even online articles can provide a rich source of information and language patterns. Reading a variety of texts helps learners familiarize themselves with different writing styles, perspectives, and topics. This diversity also encourages flexibility in thinking and enhances comprehension skills.Improving Vocabulary and Comprehension.One of the most significant benefits of reading is the improvement of vocabulary. Encountering new words and phrases in context helps learners understand their meaning and usage better. Over time, this积累 of vocabulary improves comprehension, making it easier to understand complex texts and speak more fluently.Enhancing Grammar Skills.Grammar is often perceived as a challenging aspect of language learning. However, reading can significantly aidin this aspect. By reading regularly, learners canfamiliarize themselves with correct sentence structure, tenses, and other grammatical rules. This exposure, coupled with regular practice, helps solidify these rules in memory.Cultivating Cultural Awareness.Reading materials, especially literary works, often reflect the culture and traditions of the author. Byreading books from different cultures, learners can gain insights into diverse perspectives and ways of life. This cultural awareness not only enhances language proficiencybut also broadens one's horizons.Practical Tips for Effective Reading.Set a Reading Goal: Having a clear reading goal, such as reading a certain number of pages or books per week, can help maintain momentum.Choose Interesting Materials: Reading about topicsthat interest you makes the learning process more enjoyable and motivating.Take Notes: Highlighting important words or phrases or writing brief summaries can help consolidate understanding.Review Regularly: Going back to previously read materials and reviewing them periodically helps solidify knowledge.Conclusion.In conclusion, reading is a highly effective method to improve English proficiency. It not only enhances vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension skills but also cultivates cultural awareness. By making reading a regular habit, learners can significantly improve their English language skills and open themselves to a world of knowledge and opportunity.。
通过阅读提高自己的英语水平英语作文建议信English: Reading plays a crucial role in improving one's English proficiency. Firstly, it exposes readers to a wide range of vocabulary, sentence structures, and expressions, which helps expand one's linguistic repertoire. Additionally, reading enhances reading comprehension, allowing readers to understand and analyze different writing styles and techniques. Moreover, it provides insight into various cultures, history, and social issues, helping readers develop a broader understanding of the world. Lastly, reading can serve as a source of inspiration for English writing, as exposure to different authors and genres can stimulate creativity and critical thinking.中文翻译: 阅读对提高自己的英语水平起着至关重要的作用。
首先，它让读者接触到各种各样的词汇、句子结构和表达方式，帮助扩大语言能力。
此外，阅读可以增强阅读理解能力，使读者能够理解和分析不同的写作风格和技巧。
此外，阅读还可以洞察各种文化、历史和社会问题，帮助读者培养更广泛的世界观。
为何想提升阅读技能的英语作文高中Improving reading skills in English is essential for personal growth and academic success. Reading is not only a source of knowledge but also a way to enhance language proficiency. By reading extensively, individuals can expand their vocabulary, improve their comprehension, and develop critical thinking skills.Furthermore, reading in English exposes individuals to different writing styles, genres, and topics, which can broaden their horizons and deepen their understanding of various subjects. It also helps to improve communication skills and cultural awareness, as reading allows individuals to learn about different cultures, traditions, and perspectives.To enhance reading skills in English, one can start by setting aside dedicated time for reading every day. Choosing reading materials that are interesting and engaging can also motivate individuals to read more regularly. Additionally, practicing reading aloud and discussing what has been read with others can help improve comprehension and retention of information.Overall, improving reading skills in English is avaluable investment in one's personal and academic development. By dedicating time and effort to reading, individuals can enhance their language proficiency, broaden their knowledge, and open up new opportunities for learning and growth.中文翻译：提升英语阅读技能对个人成长和学术成功至关重要。
对英语阅读理解有帮助的方法Reading comprehension is an essential skill for language learners, especially for those studying English as a second language. 阅读理解是语言学习者的基本技能，尤其是对于那些学习英语作为第二语言的人来说。
One helpful method to improve English reading comprehension is to increase vocabulary. By learning new words and phrases, readers can better understand the text they are reading. 一个提高英语阅读理解的方法就是扩大词汇量。
通过学习新单词和短语，读者可以更好地理解他们在阅读的文本。
Additionally, practicing reading regularly can also improve one's reading comprehension skills. The more you read, the better you will become at understanding the nuances of the language and the context of the text. 此外，定期练习阅读也可以提高一个人的阅读理解能力。
你读得越多，理解语言的微妙之处和文本背景的能力就会变得越好。
Another effective method is to focus on comprehension strategies, such as identifying main ideas, making inferences, and summarizing key points. By actively engaging with the text in this way, readers candeepen their understanding and retention of the material. 另一个有效的方法是专注于理解策略，比如识别主要观点、推理和总结要点。
提高英语读书技巧英语作文Here is a 1000-word English essay on the topic of "Improving English Reading Skills":Improving English Reading SkillsReading is a fundamental skill that is essential for academic and professional success, as well as personal growth and enrichment. For those learning English as a second or foreign language, developing strong reading skills can be particularly challenging, but also incredibly rewarding. By mastering effective reading techniques, English language learners can not only improve their comprehension of written materials but also expand their vocabulary, enhance their grammar understanding, and become more confident and proficient communicators.One key strategy for improving English reading skills is to actively engage with the text. Rather than passively scanning the words, readers should approach the material with a deliberate and focused mindset. This means previewing the content, identifying the main ideas and supporting details, and making predictions about the direction of the text. Actively questioning the author's arguments,drawing connections to prior knowledge, and visualizing the concepts can also deepen the reader's understanding and retention.Consistent practice is another crucial element of enhancing English reading abilities. The more one reads in English, the more comfortable and fluent they will become. Readers should aim to incorporate English texts into their daily routines, whether it's reading news articles, novels, or academic journals. Additionally, engaging with a variety of genres and text types can expose the reader to diverse vocabulary, sentence structures, and writing styles, further expanding their linguistic repertoire.Building one's English vocabulary is also essential for successful reading. Readers should make efforts to learn new words encountered in their reading, paying attention to context clues, word roots, and affixes to determine meaning. Utilizing flashcards, online vocabulary apps, or other memory aids can reinforce the acquisition and retention of new lexical items. Readers should also seek out opportunities to actively use these new words in their own writing and speaking, solidifying their understanding and mastery.Another effective strategy for improving English reading skills is to actively monitor one's comprehension throughout the reading process. Readers should frequently pause to check their understanding, rereading sections or consulting dictionaries asneeded. Identifying and addressing areas of confusion or difficulty can help prevent the reader from becoming overwhelmed or disengaged. This metacognitive awareness can also allow the reader to develop effective problem-solving strategies for tackling challenging texts.In addition to individual practice, seeking out opportunities for collaborative learning can also enhance English reading skills. Joining book clubs, language exchange groups, or discussion forums allows readers to engage with others, share perspectives, and receive feedback on their comprehension and interpretation of texts. Discussing and analyzing readings with peers can deepen the reader's critical thinking skills and expose them to alternative viewpoints and insights.Furthermore, leveraging technology can be a valuable tool for improving English reading proficiency. Online resources such as interactive e-books, audiobooks, and language learning apps provide a diverse range of materials and interactive features to support the reading process. These digital tools can offer built-in dictionaries, translation functions, and comprehension quizzes to aid the reader's understanding and retention.Finally, it is important for English language learners to approach the reading process with patience, persistence, and a positive mindset.Improving reading skills takes time and consistent effort, and it is natural to encounter challenges and setbacks along the way. By maintaining a growth mindset, celebrating small victories, and embracing the learning process, readers can develop the resilience and determination necessary to continuously enhance their English reading abilities.In conclusion, there are numerous strategies and techniques that English language learners can employ to improve their reading skills. From active engagement with the text to consistent practice, vocabulary building, and leveraging technology, these approaches can help readers develop greater fluency, comprehension, and confidence in their English reading abilities. By incorporating these strategies into their language learning journey, English language learners can unlock a world of opportunities for personal and academic growth.。
读书提高英语的方法英语作文英文回答：Reading is an excellent way to improve your English proficiency. By exposing yourself to authentic English texts, you can improve your vocabulary, grammar, comprehension, and writing skills. When you read, pay attention to the following:Vocabulary: Look up any unfamiliar words and make a note of their definitions. You can also use a dictionary or thesaurus to find synonyms and antonyms for the words you know.Grammar: Pay attention to the sentence structure and how the words are used. This will help you to understand the grammar rules and how to use them correctly.Comprehension: Try to understand the main idea of the text and the supporting details. You can also try tosummarize the text in your own words.Writing: Reading can help you to improve your writing skills by providing you with examples of well-written prose. Pay attention to the style of the writing and the way the author uses language.Here are some tips for reading to improve your English:Choose texts that are at your level. If the text is too difficult, you will become frustrated and give up. If it is too easy, you will not learn anything new.Read regularly. The more you read, the better your English will become. Try to set aside some time each dayfor reading.Use a dictionary or thesaurus. This will help you tolook up unfamiliar words and find synonyms and antonyms for the words you know.Take notes. Jot down any unfamiliar words or grammarstructures that you encounter. This will help you to review them later.Talk about what you read. This will help you topractice your speaking and listening skills. You can talkto a friend, a teacher, or a native English speaker.With consistent effort, reading can help you to significantly improve your English language skills.中文回答：阅读是提高英语水平的有效方法。
SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING,10(1),31–57Copyright © 2006, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Reading Efficiency in Native English-Speaking and English-as-a-Second-Language Children: The Role of OralProficiency and UnderlyingCognitive-Linguistic ProcessesEsther GevaUniversity of TorontoZohreh Yaghoub ZadehCanadian Council on LearningThe research examined the extent to which(a)Grade2English-as-a-second-lan-guage(ESL)and English-as-a-first-language(EL1)children resemble each other on word and text reading efficiency and(b)whether individual differences in word and text reading efficiency in the two language groups can be understood in terms of sim-ilar underlying component processes.Despite an oral language proficiency advan-tage in the EL1group,no EL1advantage existed on any of the cognitive and reading measures.Oral language proficiency,phonological awareness,rapid automatized naming,and accurate word recognition were significant predictors of word and text efficiency in the ESL group.Only rapid automatized naming and word recognition were significant in the EL1group.Overall,with the exception of English-language oral proficiency skills,EL1and ESL profiles of three efficiency subgroups(poor de-coders, low efficiency, and high efficiency) were highly similar.The goal of this article is to investigate the development of word and text reading effi-ciency in young children learning to read in their second language(L2).Because almost noresearchhasbeenconductedonthedevelopmentoffluencyandefficiencyinL2read-ing,webeginbyprovidingabriefoverviewofthefirstlanguage(L1)-basedliterature.Correspondence should be sent to Esther Geva,The Department of Human Development and Ap-plied Psychology,Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto,Toronto,On-tario, Canada M5S 1V6. E-mail: egeva@oise.utoronto.ca32GEV A AND Y AGHOUB ZADEHNo consensus exists in the reading literature with regard to the concept of read-ing fluency(Wolf&Katzir-Cohen,2001).Terms such as fluency,efficiency,and automaticity overlap to some degree and are often used as synonyms(National Reading Panel,2000).Some use the term automaticity to refer to various aspects of word identification that can be processed with little effort and attention.Theories of automaticity(LaBerge&Samuels,1974)assume that accuracy develops before speed and that an efficient reader is one who can read words both accurately and fast.Theories of verbal efficiency(Perfetti,1985)emphasize the importance of ef-fective lexical retrieval processes and their impact on individual differences in reading comprehension.Researchers have suggested that comprehension can be enhanced when lexical access processes are executed efficiently and automati-cally,so that cognitive-processing resources are not overtaxed(Bowers,Golden, Kennedy,&Young,1994;Bowers&Wolf,1993;Carver,1997;LaBerge& Samuels,1974;Perfetti,1985;Shany&Biemiller,1995;Stanovich,1992).The National Reading Panel(2000)expanded the concept of reading fluency to include “the ability to group words appropriately into meaningful grammatical units for in-terpretation”(pp.3–6).In this article we use the term word reading efficiency to re-fer to accurate and fast reading of isolated words,and text reading efficiency to re-fer to accurate and fast reading of text.Recent models espouse a more dynamic,developmental,and componential ap-proach to the study of reading fluency(e.g.,Berninger,Abbot,Billingsly,&Nagy, 2001;Kame’enui,Simmons,Good,&Harn,2001;Levy,2000;Wolf&Katzir-Co-hen,2001).Kuhn and Stahl(2000)discussed how the development of reading flu-ency relates to the stages of development described by Chall(1996).Wolf and Katzir-Cohen suggested that in the early stages of reading development fluency entails the gradual development of accurate and automatic execution of lower level components involving orthographic,phonological,lexical,morphological,and syntactic skills.To be efficient readers,children need to increase their repertoire of large orthographic units that are easily accessible from memory and to carry out these lower level operations with speed.Once readers have developed efficiency with these basic aspects of reading and word decoding becomes effortless and fast, text reading efficiency is reflected in paralinguistic features such as prosody.Effi-cient text reading allows for the allocation of attentional resources to higher level reading skills involved in comprehension.Wolf and Katzir-Cohen maintained that dysfluent reading can be the result of impairment in any component process(Meyer&Felton,1999;Wolf,Bowers,& Biddle,2000).Overall,less skilled L1readers are described in the L1reading liter-ature as recognizing printed words more slowly than skilled readers(Biemiller, 1977/78;Carver,1997;Denckla&Rudel,1976;Ehri,1998;Manis,Seidenberg, Doi,McBride-Chang,&Patterson,1996;Perfetti,1985;Torgesen,2001;Wagner et al.,1997).Two underlying processes that have been implicated in efficient word reading are phonological awareness and naming speed.Some theoreticians main-READING EFFICIENCY IN ESL CHILDREN33 tain that naming speed and phonological awareness tap common underlying pho-nological processes(e.g.,Wagner et al.,1997).Others maintain that naming speed may involve problems with a distinct phonological and visual timing mechanism necessary for establishing unitized orthographic and phonological codes(e.g., Bowers&Wolf,1993;Breznitz,2001,2002;Wolf&Bowers,1999;see Savage, 2004,for a review).Notwithstanding this unresolved theoretical debate,L1-based studies on the speed of naming various stimuli indicate that individual differences in speed of letter,digit,or word naming predict fluent reading in L1(Kirby et al., 2003;Stage,Sheppard,Davidson,&Browning,2001;Wimmer,Maryinger,& Landerl, 2000; Young & Bowers, 1995).READING DEVELOPMENT IN L2Research on L2reading development in L2children is not as extensive as the liter-ature on L1reading development.However,in the last decade the database on L2 reading development has expanded.It has shown that(a)accuracy indexes of word recognition and spelling skills in young L2children are often identical to those of L1children(e.g.,Geva,Yaghoub Zadeh,&Schuster,2000;Lesaux&Siegel, 2004;Lipka,2003;Wade-Woolley&Siegel,1997;Wang&Geva,2003);(b)cog-nitive-linguistic components such as phonological awareness and rapid automa-tized naming(RAN)can be measured reliably and utilized to predict performance on word reading skills in L1and L2children alike(e.g.,Chiappe&Siegel,1999; Comeau,Cormier,Grandmaison,&Lacroix,1999;Durgunoglu,Nagy,& Hancin-Bhatt,1993;Geva et al.,2000;Gottardo,Yan,Siegel,&Wade-Woolley, 2001;Lesaux&Siegel,2003;Lindsey,Manis,&Bailey,2003;Wade-Woolley& Siegel,1997);and(c)once individual differences in phonemic awareness and rapid naming have been taken into account,oral language proficiency skills do not add substantially to the variance in accurate basic reading skills in L2children (Arab-Moghaddam&Sénéchal,2001;Durgunoglu et al.,1993;Geva&Siegel, 2000; Geva et al., 2000; Gholamain & Geva, 1999; Lindsey et al., 2003).Although L2oral proficiency may not make a unique contribution over and above other basic reading components to accuracy in L2word recognition and spelling skills,it is reasonable to expect that it should play a more pronounced role when word and text reading efficiency are targeted.This issue has received very little attention in the L2literature and has been largely limited to the reading per-formance of adult L2readers(e.g.,Nassaji&Geva,1999;Segalowitz,1986; Shimron&Sivan,1994;Wade-Woolley&Geva,1999).To date,only a handful of L2studies have systematically examined the development of word and text effi-ciency in L2children(e.g.,Geva&Clifton,1994;Geva,Wade-Woolley,&Shany, 1997;Quiroga,Lemos-Britton,Mostafapour,Abbott,&Berninger,2002).The studies by Geva and her colleagues focused primarily on L1–L2transfer.Both34GEV A AND Y AGHOUB ZADEHstudies have shown that primary-level poor decoders were less fluent than good de-coders in reading texts in English,in their L1,and in their L2(French and Hebrew, respectively).Of particular relevance in the present context is the Geva et al. (1997)study in which performance on both accuracy and speed indexes of word reading in L1(English)and L2(Hebrew)were very similar.This result is consis-tent with the observation that oral language proficiency did not make a unique con-tribution to word recognition in L2children.In addition,in a result replicating Jackson and Donaldson(1989),Geva et al.reported that in their L1(English),chil-dren’s text reading time was faster than reading the same words presented out of context.However,context did not have a facilitating effect in Hebrew,as their He-brew proficiency was minimal.Questions concerning the role of language proficiency in enhancing reading ef-ficiency are particularly pertinent in L2contexts.Carlisle and Beeman(2000)re-ported that primary-level Spanish–English bilingual children’s vocabulary knowl-edge predicted reading comprehension in the same language.An intuitively sensible hypothesis is that word recognition skills of L2children should be slower than those of their L1counterparts because their vocabulary is not as developed and because they may be slower in accessing linguistic information(e.g.,phono-logical,semantic,morphological)than their L1counterparts.The same would be expected to be true for text reading fluency in young L2 learners.The question then becomes to what extent are L1-based theories of reading effi-ciency,which attribute slower reading to less efficient word recognition skills and to reduced access to linguistic information,applicable to L2learners?Are individ-ual differences in reading efficiency related to individual differences in underlying processes such as phonological awareness and rapid naming just as they appear to be in L1children?Alternatively,are oral proficiency and the ability to benefit from linguistic context the driving forces in enhancing L2word reading efficiency and text efficiency?According to the latter explanation,L2children would be expected to have less efficient word recognition skills than their L1counterparts and to be less fluent readers because of limitations in the efficiency of retrieving phonologi-cal, semantic, and grammatical information.In summary,although recent research has shed some light on the cognitive,lin-guistic,and orthographic underpinnings of accurate word recognition skills in L2 children,a dearth of knowledge exists about the development of reading efficiency in L2children.This study focuses on the emergence of reading efficiency in young,primary-level English-as-a-second-language(ESL)children who have mastered the basic principles of word reading.The study’s first objective is to com-pare ESL and English-as-a-first-language(EL1)children on word and text reading efficiency and to examine the effects of context on reading efficiency.A compari-son of reading efficiency in EL1and ESL children would shed light on the assump-tion that EL1children should be more efficient readers than ESL children due to their better command of the language.A second objective is to examine the extent to which a similar set of underlying processes drive word and text reading effi-READING EFFICIENCY IN ESL CHILDREN35 ciency in EL1and ESL children.To achieve this objective,we explore the relative contribution of individual differences in oral language proficiency,underlying cognitive-linguistic processes(e.g.,nonverbal ability,rapid serial naming,phono-logical awareness),and word recognition to text and word reading efficiency in EL1and ESL children.The third objective is to examine similarities and differ-ences in profiles of EL1 and ESL groups that differ in their reading efficiency.METHODParticipantsESL and L1participants were recruited from three subsequent cohorts of children in 12schools in four school boards in a large,multiethnic metropolis in Canada,where 4of10residents were born outside the country.It is not the objective of this research to examine the impact of socioeconomic status on reading achievement in ESL chil-dren.Moreover,wedidnothaveaccesstoindividualfamilylevelsocioeconomicsta-tusdata.The2001CanadianCensusdata1indicatethat,onaverage,anonofficiallan-guage(i.e.,neither English nor French)was the language spoken by58%of the people living in the communities feeding into the participating schools(the percent-ages ranged from43%to73%).On average,68%of the families living in these com-munities immigrated to Canada when they were at least20years old(with little vari-ability between the communities);another23%indicated that they immigrated between the ages of5and19.In other words,the majority of the residents were first-generation immigrants.The incidence of poverty2varied somewhat among the communities.Whereas in2of the communities no incidence of poverty was re-ported,in each of the other communities a certain proportion(12%–50%)were clas-sified as poor;the average incidence of poverty was23%.It is also important to note thatthemedianfamilyincomeineachofthe12communitieswassubstantiallylower than the median reported for the metropolis.Another key index of socioeconomic status is parental education.Quite a bit of variability exists in terms of the highest level of education achieved,reflecting immigration trends and Canadian immigra-tion policies.On average,17%of the individuals in the census district had less than9 years of education,27%obtained at least some secondary education,13%had a high schoolcertificate,8%hadtraininginatrade,another19%hadcollegeeducation,and 20%had obtained a bachelor’s degree or a higher university degree.1It is possible to access the census demographic data for dissemination areas from Statistics Can-ada.Dissemination areas are small,relatively stable geographic units,composed of one or more blocks, which respect the boundaries of census subdivisions and census tracts.They are uniform in terms of population size(400–700),and they are the smallest standard geographic area for which all census data are disseminated.The demographic information provided is based on the data from the dissemination areas in which the participating schools are located.2Poverty is defined as a family income of $30,000 (Canadian) or less for a family of four.36GEV A AND Y AGHOUB ZADEHThe initial sample consisted of183ESL children and70EL1children.The data of3(4.3%)EL1children and18(8.8%)ESL children who had a standard score be-low80on a measure of nonverbal ability(Matrix Analogies Test[MAT];Naglieri, 1989)were not included in the analyses,leaving final samples of183Grade2ESL children (46% girls) and 67 (62% girls) EL1 children.The native language groups represented in the ESL sample are Cantonese (19%),Punjabi(41%),Tamil(18%),and Portuguese(22%).The ESL children come from12schools,and the EL1children from7of these schools.The mean age was 88.43 months for the EL1 sample and 87.32 months for the ESL sample.Consent forms in English and children’s home language were distributed in each of the participating classrooms.Only children with parental consent partici-pated in the study.Interviews of parents about home literacy and the extent to which the native language was used at home were not conducted due to language barriers,budgetary constraints,and reluctance by the school districts to allow ac-cess to parents.However,information about the EL1or ESL language status of children was determined through information about each child recorded in school files and parent responses included in the consent forms.This information was subsequently validated during interviews with classroom teachers.Only children whose school records and teacher interviews indicated an ESL status were consid-ered as such in the study.In addition,children who had not lived in an Eng-lish-speaking country for at least4months at the onset of Grade1were not in-cluded.This precaution was taken to ensure that children who were included had some systematic exposure to the rudiments of language and literacy instruction.In English-speaking Canada,school-age children who are recent arrivals from a non-English-speaking country typically attend school-based ESL classes for up to 2years.In the school districts where this study was conducted,ESL instruction, which is provided on a withdrawal basis,typically occurs in daily30-to40-min sessions with groups of three to five children.In these small groups all children have similar levels of English language proficiency but not necessarily the same L1.Teachers with ESL specialist training conduct these classes.ESL classes focus on the development of spoken English and on readiness for literacy skills.Besides the ESL tutoring,new immigrant children attend regular classrooms,in which all instruction takes place in English.3Classroom teachers are expected to provide appropriate adaptations to the curric-ulum.Some of the ESL children in this study were attending ESL classes at the time of testing or had attended such classes in the recent past.Except for pull-outs for small-group ESL tutoring,the ESL children were completely integrated into the reg-ular classroom.3Classrooms in large urban centers in Canada are ethnically and linguistically diverse.Therefore, providing systematic language and literacy instruction in the home language is not feasible.In some communities,however,children may attend heritage language programs.Typically,these classes take places after school or on weekends.READING EFFICIENCY IN ESL CHILDREN37MeasuresCognitive and Linguistic MeasuresNonverbal intelligence.Children completed the MAT(Naglieri,1989),a measure of nonverbal intelligence.In this test,children are presented with an illus-tration of an incomplete visuo-spatial matrix and asked to complete it by locating the missing piece among five or six patterned segments.The test has four subtests (pattern completion,reasoning by analogy,serial reasoning,and spatial visualiza-tion),each of which consists of16matrixes.Testing within each subtest is discon-tinued after four consecutive errors. Results are reported in standard scores.RAN.The RAN task,developed by Denckla and Rudel(1976),was used to measure speed of rapid serial naming.In this continuous naming task,children are asked to name five letters as fast as they can.Each letter appears10times in ran-dom order within10sets of five items.Prior to administering the RAN task,the child is asked to name each of the five letters to ascertain familiarity with the let-ters.The RAN measure is not administered to those children who cannot name all five letters without assistance.The children’s time(in seconds)to name all the let-ters on the board is used as the naming speed measure.Note that the lower the score is the faster is the naming speed.Phonological awareness (PA).PA was measured with a task adapted from the Auditory Analysis Task developed by Rosner and Simon(1971).In this seg-mentation-deletion task,children must isolate and delete syllables or phonemes and indicate the resulting word(e.g.,“Say meat.Now say it without the/m/.”). Methodological considerations guided us in adapting this task to the ESL popula-tion.In particular,it was necessary to minimize the possible confounding of lan-guage proficiency with performance on this phonological awareness task.Our pri-mary concern was that many of the words or the resulting words on the original Auditory Analysis Task are not likely to be familiar to young ESL children(e.g., stale).The items on the adapted task are all high-frequency words,and the result-ing words after the child deletes the phoneme or syllable are also high-frequency words(e.g.,“Say leg.Now say it without the/l/.”).Of the25items on the task,the first4involve syllable deletion,and the remainder require phoneme deletion in word initial,word final,or word medial position.Some items require the deletion of a phoneme in a consonant cluster.Four practice items precede the administra-tion of the test items.Administration is discontinued after five consecutive errors. The total correct scores are reported. The Cronbachαis .92.Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test–Revised.The Expres-sive One-Word Picture V ocabulary Test–Revised(Gardner,1990)was used to as-sess language proficiency.It is a standardized measure of expressive vocabulary in which children are asked to provide one-word labels to line drawing pictures pre-38GEV A AND Y AGHOUB ZADEHsented to them one at a time.The test,which includes100nouns and verbs,is dis-continued once a criterion of six consecutive errors has been established.The total number of correct responses was used in the analyses.Grammatical judgment.Children’s syntactic knowledge was assessed us-ing items adapted from a grammatical judgment measure developed by Johnson and Newport(1989).In this40-item measure of receptive syntactic skills,the child listens to prerecorded taped sentences that are either grammatically correct(e.g.,“We ate the whole pizza by ourselves.”)or incorrect(e.g.,“January is the most cold month of the year.”).Half of the sentences are syntactically correct,and the other half are syntactically incorrect.Each sentence is played twice on a tape recorder, and the child is asked to indicate whether the sentence is said“the right way”or “the wrong way.”No discontinue rule is used on this test.The total score was based on the number of correctly judged sentences. The Cronbachαvalue is .77.Basic Reading Skills MeasuresWord Attack.The Word Attack subtest of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test–Revised(Woodcock,1987)was used to assess children’s ability to utilize their knowledge of grapheme–phoneme correspondence rules and orthographic representations to decode or“attack”pseudowords in English.This test consists of 50pronounceable pseudowords that comply with English orthographic rules(e.g., plip,cigbet).Children read the pseudowords one at a time,and testing is discontin-ued when the child makes six consecutive errors.Results are reported in terms of total correct scores.Word Recognition.To assess children’s English word recognition skills the Word Recognition subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test–Revised(Jastak &Wilkinson,1984)was used.This test consists of42unrelated words.It begins with highly familiar,short words(e.g.,cat),and gradually the words become less frequent and more complex orthographically(e.g.,pseudonym).Testing is discon-tinued when the child makes10consecutive errors.Results are reported in terms of total correct scores.Reading Efficiency MeasuresThe Biemiller Test of Reading Processes(Biemiller,1981)was used to measure word and text reading efficiency.The test yields measures of accuracy and speed in reading isolated words and connected text.The isolated word lists come from the corresponding texts.Word efficiency.This subtest,which requires children to read isolated words,provides an indication of children’s ability to identify unrelated words ac-curately and quickly.Children are presented with two lists,each consisting of50READING EFFICIENCY IN ESL CHILDREN39randomly ordered,single-morpheme words(taken from the two corresponding texts;see the following discussion)and asked to read them as fast as possible.The first list has easier words than the second.Text efficiency.The Text Reading subtest focuses on text reading efficiency. Participants are presented with two narrative texts(containing100words each). They are required to read each text aloud as quickly as they can.The subtest in-cludes two narratives,an“easy”text,which,according to Biemiller(1981)uses primer-level words(e.g.,bear,thank,no,they,water,fish,tried,and father),and a relatively more“difficult”text,which consists of words that are typical of middle elementary-level reading(e.g.,register,asked,interested,saw,thing s,wood,tour-ists,and also).The reading materials are easy to minimize confounding of speed and accuracy (Jackson & Donaldson, 1989).Test administration.The child first reads the easy text and then the corre-sponding word list.The more difficult text and the corresponding word list are ad-ministered next.Both sets contain words that were chosen because they can be de-coded with minimal difficulty.As Biemiller(1981)pointed out,the goal of the test is to ascertain not how many words children can read but rather the speed at which they read these words.Assessment of reading efficiency,however,can be compro-mised if children make too many errors.The assessor is thus instructed to aid the child who stumbles on a word by providing without delay the unknown word as well as the subsequent two words.The Biemiller test stipulates that if a child makes more than25%errors on the first text they should not be administered the second text.Accordingly,in this study,when children failed to read the first pas-sage with an acceptable degree of accuracy(75%accuracy regardless of speed), they were considered to be poor decoders and were not administered the second passage and corresponding word list.4Speed scoring.To obtain a speed score in the isolated words condition,we divided the total number of seconds that a participant took to read the easy and hard lists by the total number of correct words read across the two lists.The same proce-dure was repeated to calculate text speed scores.The EL1and ESL groups did not differ on word accuracy(85%and88%,respectively)or on text accuracy(89%and 90%, respectively).4A comparison of efficiency scores in the EL1and ESL groups with those published by Biemiller (1981)revealed that the speed scores reported by Biemiller for the same age group were higher than those obtained in this study.However,Biemiller excluded data of children who made more than three errors on the tasks because he focused on the relationship between speed and accuracy in children who read with accuracy.The objective of this study is to compare ESL and EL1children,and,therefore,the exclusion criterion was different—only children who made more than25%errors when they read the first and easy text were excluded.40GEV A AND Y AGHOUB ZADEHReading efficiency scores.Two dependent measures were derived—a word efficiency score and a text efficiency score.Efficiency scores were computed based on a procedure used by Stanovich and West(1989).First,for each partici-pant the number of errors on each task and the time to perform each task were con-verted into their respective Z scores.The resulting accuracy and speed Z scores for each task were then combined and averaged to yield a single composite efficiency score.The two word-based composite efficiency scores(based on the easy and dif-ficult lists)were averaged to yield an overall score that represents the child’s abil-ity to read words efficiently.The same procedure was applied to develop an overall text efficiency score that represents the child’s ability to read with accuracy and speed the two narratives.Note that the lower the Z score,the more efficient the child’s reading.ProceduresAs part of a larger project(which began when the children were in Grade1),chil-dren were administered a series of tests in the first half of their2nd year in elemen-tary school.At that time children in the EL1and ESL groups have spent1½to2½years in schools in which English is the language of instruction(i.e.,senior kinder-garten and Grade1).These tasks were part of a larger battery of tests,which was administered across four testing sessions,each lasting approximately30min.Al-though the batteries were administered in a random order,tests within the batteries were administered according to a fixed random order.Children were tested on an individual basis by one of a number of experienced graduate students.For the MAT, standardized scores were used. However, raw scores were used when other standardized tests such as the Expressive One-Word Picture V ocabulary Test (Gardner,1990)and the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test–Revised(Woodcock, 1987) were used, because the norms were not developed for ESL children.RESULTSOf the67EL1children,12(18%)were deemed to be poor decoders,as they made too many decoding errors on the easy story and were,therefore,not able to prog-ress to the difficult story.Of the183ESL children,32(17%)were not able to prog-ress to the difficult story and were likewise considered poor decoders.Fifty-four EL1and151ESL children met the minimum requirements for becoming efficient readers because they were able to complete both the easy and difficult subtasks of the Biemiller(1981)test.A cross-tab chi-square analysis was done to examine whether the proportion of poor decoders was higher in the ESL group than in the EL1group.This analysis reveals that the proportion of poor decoders in the EL1 and ESL groups was similar,χ2(1,N= 250) = .07,p= .460.。
