语言学大题

语言学概论试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学是研究什么的科学？A. 语言的物理特性B. 语言的社会功能C. 语言的结构和功能D. 语言的起源和发展2. 语音学研究的主要内容是什么？A. 语言的语法结构B. 语言的词汇构成C. 语言的发音机制D. 语言的书写形式3. 下列哪个不是语言学的分支？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 词汇学D. 化学4. 语言的最小意义单位是什么？A. 音素M. 词汇C. 语素D. 句子5. 语义学研究的是语言的哪一方面？A. 语言的发音B. 语言的意义C. 语言的书写D. 语言的语法6. 语言的词汇量是如何增长的？A. 通过新词的创造B. 通过旧词的淘汰C. 通过语言的混合D. 通过语言的简化7. 什么是语言的方言？A. 一种语言的书面形式B. 一种语言的口头形式C. 一种语言的地区变体D. 一种语言的官方标准8. 语言的同化现象是指什么？A. 语言的统一B. 语言的分化C. 语言的借用D. 语言的变异9. 语言的转换是指什么？A. 语言的翻译B. 语言的转写C. 语言的转述D. 语言的转换10. 什么是语言的语境？A. 语言的使用环境B. 语言的书写环境C. 语言的发音环境D. 语言的语法环境二、填空题（每题2分，共10分）11. 语言学的两大分支是________和________。

12. 语言的音位系统是由________构成的。

13. 语言的语法规则包括词法规则和________。

14. 语言的词汇化是指________转化为词汇的过程。

15. 语言的语用学研究的是语言在________中的使用。

三、简答题（每题10分，共20分）16. 简述语言的交际功能。

17. 简述语言的规范性与变异性。

四、论述题（每题15分，共30分）18. 论述语言与文化的关系。

19. 论述语言的演变过程及其影响因素。

五、案例分析题（每题20分，共20分）20. 请分析一种方言的形成过程，并讨论其对标准语的影响。

《语言学概论》练习1参考答案（导言、第一章、第二章)一、填空1、语言学的三大发源地是中国、印度和希腊－罗马。

2、现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》。

3、印度最早的经典所使用的语言是梵语。

4、文字、音韵、训诂是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。

5、语言的功能包括社会功能和思维功能。

6、语言的社会功能包括信息传递功能和人际互动功能。

7、儿童语言习得一般经过独词句阶段和双词句阶段,这是儿童学话的关键两步。

8、说出的话语句子是无限的,但无限多的句子都是由有限的词和规则组装起来的。

9、符号包括形式和意义两个方面，二者不可分离。

10、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是语言符号的基本性质.11、心理现实是存在于客观现实和语言符号之间的人脑中的信息存在状态。

12、语言系统二层性的一大特点是形式层的最小单位一定大大少于符号层的最小单位。

13、组合关系和聚合关系是语言系统中的两种根本关系。

14、动物无法掌握人类的语言，从生理基础看是不具有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官.二、问答题。

1、为什么说语言学是自然科学和人文科学的桥梁？从语言学发展的历史来看，语言学首先深受哲学、逻辑学等历史悠久的人文学科思想方法的影响，后来语言学摆脱对传统人文学科的附庸地位成为独立的学科后，受到许多自然科学研究的影响。

比如，19世纪，历史比较语言学的语言观念和研究方法深受生物学的影响；20世纪初的语言结构思想与科学的整体论思想密切相关;生成语言学受数学、逻辑学影响；等等。

与此同时,其他学科也开始从语言学理论中汲取有益的思想观念。

20世纪的社会学、人类学、文学批评等都深受结构主义语言学的影响。

从19世纪后期开始，现代语言学的研究理念在很大程度上接受了物理学等自然科学的方法论原则，一些学者甚至提出语言学是一门自然科学.但另一方面，语言学又从未割断与传统人文学科的联系。

语言学的这一特点在很大程度上源于语言现象的独特性。

语言既具有社会属性，又是人类天赋的能力,既是贮存人类已有文明的宝库，又是人类新的精神创造的依托。

大学语言学试题一、简答题1.语言学的定义是什么？语言学是对语言现象进行系统研究的学科，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等各个方面的内容。

2.什么是语音学？语音学是研究语言音素及其组织规律的学科，它包括语音的产生、传播和接收三方面的内容。

3.什么是语法学？语法学是研究语言句法结构及其规律的学科，它研究句子的构成、成分的功能和句子之间的关系等内容。

4.什么是语义学？语义学是研究词义和句义及其组织规律的学科，它关注词的意义、句子的意义以及意义的表达方式等方面的内容。

5.什么是语用学？语用学是研究语言使用及其背后的意义的学科，它研究人们如何使用语言进行交际和表达意义，关注语境、语用原则等内容。

二、论述题1.语言学与语法学的区别和联系。

语言学是对语言现象进行全面研究的学科，涵盖了语音学、语法学、语义学和语用学等方面的内容。

而语法学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究语法现象及其规律。

语言学与语法学的联系在于语法学是语言学的重要组成部分，它提供了研究语言结构和规律的方法和理论基础。

同时，语法学的研究结果也为语言学的其他方面提供了重要的参考。

然而，语言学与语法学的区别在于语言学更加宏观和综合，它研究语言的各个方面，包括语音、词汇、句法、语义和语用等。

而语法学则是语言学中具体研究句法现象的一个分支，着重研究句子的构成、成分的功能和句子之间的关系。

2.语音学与音系学的关系。

语音学研究语音的产生、传播和接收，它是语言学的一个重要分支学科。

而音系学则是语音学中研究语言音素及其组织规律的一个分支领域。

语音学通过观察和记录语音现象，研究不同语音之间的差异和共性。

而音系学则在此基础上进一步研究语言中的音素及其分类、组织以及声音之间的相互关系。

简言之，语音学是对语音现象的整体研究，而音系学是语音学中对语音结构及其规律的具体研究。

三、分析题1.什么是语言的意义？语言的意义是指语言表达所传递的信息内容。

它涉及词汇意义、句子意义和话语意义等多个层次。

1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.2. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitationof sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.3. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; it collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.4. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.5. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amountof information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.6. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.7. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.8. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.9. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.10. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.11. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.12. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import andimport. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” For example, to emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.13. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for other results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.14. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.15. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.16. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.17. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N V NPDet NThe boy likes the music.18. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustratethe constituent relationship among linguistic elements.。

语言学理论试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的主要研究对象是什么？A. 语言的起源B. 语言的结构C. 语言的使用D. 语言的演变答案：B2. 下列哪项不是索绪尔提出的语言学基本概念？A. 语言符号B. 语言系统C. 语言功能D. 语言的任意性答案：C3. 乔姆斯基的生成语法理论主张语言能力是：A. 后天习得的B. 先天存在的C. 社会约定的D. 个人创造的答案：B4. 语言的“深层结构”和“表层结构”的概念是由谁提出的？A. 索绪尔B. 乔姆斯基C. 布隆菲尔德D. 哈里斯答案：B5. 语言的“同义异构”现象是指：A. 同一意义的不同表达方式B. 不同意义的相同表达方式C. 同一表达方式的不同意义D. 不同表达方式的相同意义答案：A6. 语言的“语境”指的是：A. 语言的内部结构B. 语言的外部环境C. 语言的使用者D. 语言的规则答案：B7. 语言的“语域”通常指的是：A. 语言的地域分布B. 语言的交际场合C. 语言的历史发展D. 语言的语法规则答案：B8. 语言的“语用学”研究的是：A. 语言的发音B. 语言的意义C. 语言的用法D. 语言的演变答案：C9. 语言的“语料库”是指：A. 语言的数据库B. 语言的规则集C. 语言的样本集D. 语言的词汇表答案：C10. 语言的“方言”是指：A. 同一语言的不同变体B. 不同语言的相似形式C. 同一语言的相同形式D. 不同语言的相同变体答案：A二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的四大分支包括语音学、语法学、语义学和______。

答案：语用学2. 语言的“能指”指的是语言符号的______部分，而“所指”指的是语言符号的______部分。

答案：形式；意义3. 语言的“同音词”是指发音相同但______不同的词。

答案：意义4. 语言的“词缀”是指可以附加在词根上的______或______。

答案：前缀；后缀5. 语言的“句法”研究的是词、短语和句子的______。

1. complete the words with suitable negative prefixes.a. irremovable m. dissyllabicb. informal n. abnormalc. impracticable o. unworkabled. insensible p. unwrittene. intangible q. unusualf. illogical r. unthinkableg. irregular s. inhumanh. disproportionate t.irrelevanti. ineffective u. uneditable j. inelastic v. immobile k. inductive w. illegal1. irrational x. indiscreet2. find the sources of the following blends.(a) bash: bat + mash(b)smash: smack + mash(c) glimmer: gleam + shimmer(d) flimmer: flame + glirmmer(e) clash: clap+ crash(f) flare: flame + glare(g) brunch: breakfast+ lunch(h) motel: motor+ hotel(k) workaholic: work + alcoholic(1) spam: spiced+ ham(m) telethon: telephone + marathon(n) aerobicise: aerobicis + exercise(o) chunnel: channel + tunnel (p) chortle: chuckle + snort (q) bit: binary + digit.(r) modem: modulator + demodulator3. determine the historically accurate etymology of the words(a)hangnail(alter. of agnail, angnail) aching nail(b) female(ME: femel, femelle) a male¡¯s companion(c) crayfish( ME: crevis) crawling fish(d) shamefaced( alter. of shamefast) bound by shame (e) Jordan almond(ME: jardin almande) garden almond(f) sparrowgrass(alter of asparagus) a genus of herbs (g) bridegroom (ME: bridegome) a man is just, or about(h) bridegroom(ME: bridegome) a man is just, or about o be married.(i) muskrat( Algonquian: musquash) a large rat-like animal(j) woodchuck( Algonquian: otchek) a north American marmot 8. (a) asset: assets (k) diagnose: diagnosis4. determine the original term from which the following words were back-formed.(a) asset: assets(k) diagnose: diagnosis(b) burgle: burglar (1) tuit: intuition(c) enthuse: enthusiasm(m) amusing: amuse(d) greed: greedy(n) loaf: loafer(e) hush: hush(o) self-druct:self-destructicn(f) automate: automation(p) attrit: attrition(g)donate: donation(q) hairdress: hairdresser(h)escalate: escalator(r) emote: emotion(i) born ck: homesickness(s) drowse: drowsy(j) die: peddler(t) frivol: frivolous5. identify the immediateetymological source of thewords(a) air: Middle English(k) mule: Middle English(b) barbecue: AmericanSpanish(I) decreed: Middle English(c) bungalow: Hindi(m) revolution: MiddleEnglish(d) cola: African origin(n) benevolent:Middle English(e) gusto: Spanish(o) lie:Middle English(f) Babel: The Bible(p) topic: Latin(g) buffalo: Italian(q) subject: Middle English(h) cocoa: Spanish(r) theme: Middle English(i) costume: French(s) wind: Middle English(j) ill: Middle English(t) datum: Latin6. LW: monk, loanword; LB:boody trap, coconut; LS:yankee; LT: firewater, freeverse, war paint5. “A free for m whichconsists entirely of two ormore lesser free forms…. is aphrase. A free form which isnot a phrase is a word. Aword, then, ...(a) Bloomfield treated suchitems as book, book, or do,does, did, done, not as thesame words in different forms,but as different words. But onthe other hand, he alsoclaimed that John’s in John’shat should be regarded as oneword. At the same time, theboy’s (bat) is also just oneword. From here, one cn seethat Bloomfield’s definition ofword intended to coverdifferent linguistic units withthe same criterion.(b) The traditionallyrecognized words such as thegrammatical articles a and theare different words from theirmodifying head, butBloomfield thought differently,as was evidenced in(a).(c) Consequently, grammaticalcriterion was taken intoaccount while defining thescope of word. For example,Bloomfield treated theconstituent the king ofEngland’s or the man I sawyesterday’s serving as apremodifier as independentlong word. In fact, this type ofmodifier is rank—shiftedphrases, not words at all.6. in what ways is ICanalysis better thantraditional parsing?In traditional parsing, asentence is mainlyseen as asequence of individual words,as if it has only a linearstructure. IC analysis, however,emphasizes the hierarchicalstructure of a sentence,seeLing it as consisting ofword groups first. In this waythe internalstructure of a sentence isshown more clearly, hence thereasons of some ambiguitiesmay be revealed.7. what are the problems inIC analysis?There are some technicalproblems caused by the binarydivision and discontinuousconstituents. But the mainproblem is that analysis, e.g.the love of God. In terms ofboth the tree diagram thereare structures whoseambiguities cannot berevealed by IC and the labels,there is only one structure, butthe word God is in twodifferent relations with love, i.e. either as a subject or object.8. In what sense is theanalysis of a sentence interms of theme and themefunctional?The analysis of a sentencein terms of theme and theme isfunctional in the sense thatthis distinction has to do withthe semantic side of theconstituents of a sentencerather than the formal side.They have to do with theinformation conveyed,whether the known or new, themore important or lessimportant. In contrast, theanalysis of a sentence in termsof subject and predicate isformal, e.g. the subject will bein the nominative form inlanguages with casedistinctions, the form of thepredicate verb will have to bein agreement with the subjectin certain categories.9. How does Halliday relatethe functions performed bylanguage to its structures, orsystems?In Halliday’s view, there arethree structures, or systems,corresponding to the threefunctions of ideational,interpersonal and textual. Theideational function is realizedas the transitivity system inthe clause as a representationof experience, in which thereare six processes: material,mental, relational, behavioural,verbal and existentialprocesses. Actor, the so-calledlogical subject, is an importantparticipant in the materialprocess. The interpersonalfunction is realized as themood system in the clause asan exchange, which is dividedinto the two major parts ofMood and Residue. AndSubject is one of the two partsof Mood, the other part beingthe finite verbal operator.10. Why is Saussure hailedas the father of modernlinguistics?Saussure was the first tonotice the complexities oflanguage. He believed thatlanguage is system of signs.To communicate ideas, signsmust be part of a system ofsigns, called convections. Heheld that the sign is the unionof the signifier and thesignifled.By providing answers toquestions concerning manyaspects of language, Saussuremade clear the object of studyfor linguistics as a science. hisideas on the arbitrary nature ofsign, on the relational natureof linguistic units, on thedistinction of langue andparole and of synchronic anddiachronic linguistics, etc. ,pushed linguistics into a brandnew stage.11. What are the 3 importantpoints of the Prague school?The Prague School hasthree points of specialimportance. First, it stressedthat the synchronic study oflanguage is fully justified as itcan draw on complete andcontrollable material forinvestigation. Second, itemphasised the systemiccharacter of language, arguingthat no element of anylanguage can be satisfactorilyanalysed or evaluated ifviewed in osation. In other words, ele. ments are held to be in functional contrast or oppcition. Third,it looked on language as a tool performing a numer of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.12. What is the Prague school best known for?The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developed the notion of “phoneme” as an ab stract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sound actually produced.In classifying distinctive features,he proposed three criteria: (1) their relation to the whole contrastive system;(2) relations between the opposing elements; and(3) their power of discrimination. These oppositions can be summarised as:a)bilaeral opposition;b) multilateral opposition;c) proportional opposition;d) isolated opposition;e) privative opposition;f) gradual opposition;g）equipollent opposition;h) neutralisable opposition; and i) constant opposition. 13. What’s the essence of Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)?FSP is a theory that refers to a linguistic analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. From a functional point of view, some Czechoslovak linguists believed that a sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer —it is their rallying point, the ground on which they meet. This is called the Theme. The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer. This is called the Rheme. It is believed that the movement from the Theme to the Rhemereveals the movement of themind itself. Language may usedifferent syntactic structures,but the order of ideas remainsbasically the same. Based onthese observations, theycreated the notion ofFunctional SentencePerspective ( FSP) to describehow information is distributedin sentences. FSP dealsparticularly with the effect ofthe distributed in sentences.FSP deals particularly with theeffect of the distribution ofknown (or given) informationand new information indiscourse. The knowninformation refers toinformation that is not new tothe reader or hearer, and thenew information is what is tobe transmitted to the reader orhearer.14. What is the tradition ofLondon School?The London School has atradition of laying stress onthe functions of language andattaching great importance tocontexts of situation and thesystem aspect of language. Itis these features that havemade this school of thoughtknown as systemic linguis Lticand functional linguistics. It isan important and admirablepart of the London Schooltradition to believe thatdifferent types of linguisticdescription may beappropriate for differentpurposes.15. What’s the relationbetween Systemic Grammarand Functional Grammar?Systemic Grammar andFunctional Grammar are twoinseparable components for anintegral framework ofSystemic-Function a linguistictheory. Systemic Grammaraims to explain the inter narelations in language as asystem network, or meaningpotential This networkconsists of subsystems fromwhich language users makechoices. Functional grammaraims to reveal that language isa means of social interaction,based on the position thatlanguage system and the formsthat make it up areinescapably determine by theuses or functions which theyserve. Systemic Grammarcontains a functionacomponent, and the theorybehind Functional Grammar issystemic.16. What’s special aboutSystemic-Functionallinguistics?Systemic-Functionallinguistics aims to provide ataxonomy for sentences, ameans of descriptivelyclassifying particular sentenceAlthough it may not seem asinfluential as Chomsky’stransformational generatvietheory in some parts of theworld, it is much morerelevant to the needs ofvarious groups of people whodeal with language.Halliday believes thatlanguage is what it is becauseit has to serve certainfunctions. In other words,social demand on languagehas helped to shape itsstructure.Systemic-Functionallinguistics is based on twofacts: (1 )language users areactually making choices in asystem of systems and tying torealize different semanticfunctions in social interaction;and(2) language is inseparablefrom social activities of man.Thus, it takes actual uses oflanguage as the object of study,in opposition to Chomsky’sapproach that takes the idealspeaker’s linguisticcompetence as the object ofstudy.17. How many stages ofdevelopment has Chomsky’sTG Grammar undergone?Chomsky’s TG Grammarhas seen five stages ofdevelopment. The ClassicalTheory aims to makelinguistics a science. TheStandard Theory deals withhow semantics should bestudied in a linguistics theory.The Extended StandardTheory focuses discussion onlanguage universals anduniversal grammar. TheRevised Extended StandardTheory (or GB) focusesdiscussion on givemment andbinding. The latest is theMinimalist Program, a furtherrevision of the previoustheory.The development of TGGramrnar can be regarded as aprocess of constantlyminimalising theories andcontrolling the generativepowers. Although TGGrammar has involved puttingforward, revising, andcancelling of many specificrules, hypotheses, mechanisms,and theoretical models, itsaims and purposes have beenconsistent,i. e. to explore thenature,origin and the uses ofhuman knowledge onlanguage.18. In what ways is ICanalysis better thantraditional parsing?In traditional parsing, asentence is mainly seen as asequence of individual words,as if it has only a linearstructure. IC analysis, however,emphasizes the hierarchicalstructure of a sentence, seeingit as consisting of word groupsfirst. In this way the internalstructure of a sentence isshown more clearly, hence thereasons of some ambiguitiesmay be revealed.19. the advantages andproblems in IC analysis?Though IC analysis, theinternal structure of a sentencemay be demonstrated clearly,and ambiguities, if any, will berevealed.There are some technicalproblems caused by the binarydivision and discontinuousconstituents. But the mainproblem is that analysis, e. g.the love of God. In terms ofboth the tree diagram there arestructures whose ambiguitiescannot be revealed by IC andthe labels, there is only onestructure, but the word God isin two different relations withlove, i. e. either as a subject orobject.20. Sapir-Whorf hypothesisConsequently, two versionsof the Sapir-Whorf hypothesishave been developed, a strongversion and a week version.The strong version of thetheory refers to the claim theoriginal hypothesis suggests,emphasizing the decisive roleof language as the shaper ofour thinking patterns, theweak version of thishypothesis, however, is amodified type of its originaltheory, suggesting that there isa correlation betweenlanguage, culture and thought,but the cross- culturaldifferences thus produced inour ways of thinking arerelative, rather thancategorical.。

语言学：语言学概论考试试题1、填空题语言学的三大发源地：（）正确答案：中国、印度、希腊—罗马2、名词解释语言融合正确答案：是指某个民族或某个民族中一部分人放弃本民族的语言而专用其他民族的语言，一种语言取代其（江南博哥）他语言，成为不同民族共同的交际工具，又叫语言转用、语言同化或语言替换。

3、多选下列有关普通话的表述中，正确的有（）A.以北京语音为标准音B.以北京话为基础方言C.以北方方言为基础方言D.以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范E.以历代经典的文学作品为语法规范正确答案：A, C, D4、名词解释通语正确答案：或称凡语、凡通语、通名等，是杨雄《方言》一书用来指西汉时没有地域限制，通行比较广的共同语的术语。

5、名词解释词汇意义（词义）正确答案：由人们对现实现象的反映以及由此带来的人们对现实现象的主观评价。

词典的释义所说明的一般都是词的词汇意义。

6、填空题根据语言的亲属关系对语言的分类叫做（），也叫做（）。

正确答案：语言的谱系分类、语言的发生学分类7、单选下面词组中，结构类型与其他各组不同的一组是（）A.年轻漂亮/朴素大方B.我们大家/首都北京C.铁路民航/工人农民D.贯彻执行/讨论研究正确答案：B8、名词解释社会语言学正确答案：用社会学的方法研究社会上的形形色色的语言变异等问题9、问答题简答复元音与几个相连的单元音的区别。

正确答案：复元音的几个成分同属于一个音节，发音时发音器官只有一次肌肉紧张；相连的单元音则各自分属于不同的音节，发音时有几个元音就有几次肌肉紧张；复元音是一个整体，发音时发音器官的运动是连续滑动的，元音的音质是不间断地逐渐变化的，中间会产生一连串的过渡音。

几个相连的单元音是彼此独立的整体，发音时发音器官的运动是跳跃式的，元音的音质是突变的，中间没有过渡音。

10、填空题句子结构关系的意义可以分为（）意义和（）意义两种。

正确答案：显性；隐性11、名词解释单纯字符正确答案：不能再分解为更小字符的字符。

Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics .45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics .48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in lan-guage is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics,.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings..56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language thatdistinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions.35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements –for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36. Why is it difficult to define language?It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are com-bined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same ob-ject in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by conven-tion . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfil their commu-nicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1)ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no nec-essary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages , and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or dou-ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically trans-mitted .63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written lan-guage . It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de-scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of languagedescribes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of lan-guage.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance ?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950's proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker's knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68. Saussure's distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.VI. Analyse the following situation.37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific?It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economyand objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against the observable facts – come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions.35. What is acoustic phonetics?Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced withgreater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.”for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.VI. Analyze the following situation.37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog.(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricativeChapter 3 Lexicon11.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the begin-ning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Answer the following questions.35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?36. What are the main features of the English compounds?43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calcu-lable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined w ith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, su ch as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivati onal affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.VI. Analyze the following situation.37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN III II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. CalculationChapter 4 SyntaxIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences ina language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions.35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or。

中文系语言学概论2002年2002年科目429 语言学概论专业：语言学及应用语言学、汉语言文字学研究方向：以上专业所有方向一、简答题（每小题2分，共20分）1、简述现代汉语书面语和口头语的源头2、闽方言包括哪几个次方言？各以哪个地方的语音为代表？3、说明汉语音节的结构地点4、汉语拼音方案有哪些优点？5、简要说明调值和调类的关系6、-i[前]、-i[后]、ong、iong等韵母分别属于四呼中的哪一呼？7、词汇学中的义位和传统所说的义项有什么不同？8、说明谚语被认为是词汇的一部分的原因9、什么是独立语？简要说明独立语的类型10、举例说明主谓句的主要句型二、应用题（共56分）1、为下列词语注上汉语拼音（6分）创伤粗犷呆板解剖皈依桎梏2、下列成语中的汉字有正确的有错误的，把错误的改为正确（6分）负隅顽抗陈词烂调班门弄斧既往不究刚愎自用不孝子孙病入膏肓风声鹤唳一愁莫展各行其事悬梁刺骨趋之若鹜3、解释下列成语中划线的语素的意义（4分）汗流浃背开门揖盗如火如荼高屋建瓴4、分析下列合成词的结构（6分）容貌弃儿宪法梦想灰心霜降融化船只铅印瀑布响应权衡5、改正下列句中的错误（2分）江西名城南昌，毗邻巍峨的江西省人民政府办公大厦，有一座很不显眼的三层小楼，这就是江西省高级人民法院。

6、用直接成分分析法（框式图解）分析下列复杂词组（每小组3分，共六分）（1）这后一句话给祥林嫂很大的鼓励（2）屋里有人轻轻地哼着小调7、用六大成分分析法（加线法）分析下列单句（每小题3分，共6分）（1）我们往往容易把赢得荣誉的人的衣服的每一个皱折，都描绘得光彩夺目。

（2）把博物馆比作智慧的女神、博学的君子，我看很恰当。

8、用符号法分析下列复句（4分）如果你是一个真正的艺术家，那么无论是站在演出的舞台上，还是站在生活的大舞台上，你都会真正赢得人民的掌声。

9、指出下列句中用得好的词语并分析其修辞效果（每小题4分，共八分）（1）七斤嫂眼睛好，早望见今天的赵七爷已经不是道士，却变成光滑头皮，乌黑发顶；伊便知道这一定是皇帝坐了龙庭，而且一定需有辫子，而且七斤一定是非常危险。

语言学纲要试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学是研究什么的学科？A. 语言的发音B. 语言的语法结构C. 语言的运用D. 语言的发音、语法结构和运用2. 下列哪个选项不属于语言学的分支？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 心理学D. 语义学3. 语言学中，研究语言的发音规律的学科被称为什么？A. 语音学B. 音韵学C. 语用学D. 语义学4. 语言学中，研究语言意义的学科是？A. 语用学B. 语义学C. 语法学D. 词汇学5. 什么是语言的方言？A. 一种语言的变体B. 一种完全不同的语言C. 一种语言的书面形式D. 一种语言的口头形式6. 语言学中，研究语言随时间变化的学科被称为什么？A. 历史语言学B. 社会语言学C. 比较语言学D. 结构语言学7. 下列哪个选项是研究语言与社会之间的关系的学科？A. 社会语言学B. 心理语言学C. 计算语言学D. 应用语言学8. 语言学中，研究语言如何被用来达到交际目的的学科是？A. 语用学B. 语义学C. 语法学D. 语音学9. 什么是语言的同源词？A. 来自不同语言的词B. 来自同一语言的词C. 来自同一词根的词D. 来自同一语言家族的词10. 语言学中，研究语言结构的学科被称为什么？A. 结构语言学B. 语音学C. 语义学D. 语用学答案：1-5 D C A A A 6-10 A A A C A二、填空题（每题2分，共10分）1. 语言学的四大分支包括语音学、语法学、语义学和______。

答案：语用学2. 语言学研究的两个主要领域是______和______。

答案：理论语言学；应用语言学3. 语言的方言是指在某一特定地区或社会群体中使用的______。

答案：语言变体4. 语言学中，研究语言随时间变化的学科是______。

答案：历史语言学5. 语言学中，研究语言与社会之间的关系的学科是______。

答案：社会语言学三、简答题（每题10分，共20分）1. 请简述语言学的主要研究内容。