Acceleration of Gain Recovery in Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers by Optical Injection Near

临床骨科杂志 2〇17 Apr;2〇(2)• 221 •d o i：10. 3969/j. issn. 1008-0287. 2017. 02. 037•临床论著•解剖型跟骨钛板治疗跟骨骨折疗效观察张胜国，谢旖静，邵楠，赵小魁摘要：目的评价解剖型跟骨钛板治疗新鲜跟骨骨折的临床疗效。

方法采用解剖型跟骨钛板治疗31例新鲜跟骨骨折患者（38足）。

术后根据A0FAS踝-足评分标准和Maryland足部功能评分系统评定功能恢复情况。

结果术后3足出现浅表感染，1足出现创伤性关节炎，无皮肤坏死、内固定失效发生。

患者均获得随访，时间13 ~26个月。

术后10 ~ 19周骨折均达到临床愈合，Biihlei■角和G脱a n e角、跟骨外形基本恢复正常。

末次随访时，按A0FA S踝-足评分标准评定:优21足，良12足，可5足，优良率86. 8%。

根据Maryland足部功能评分系统评定:优20足，良14足，可4足，优良率89.5%。

结论解剖型跟骨钛板治疗新鲜关节内跟骨骨折，符合生物力学固定，能够最大限度恢复患足功能。

手术时机恰当、术中操作仔细，可以降低并发症的发生率。

关键词：跟骨骨折;骨折固定术，内；解剖型跟骨钛板;术后并发症中图分类号：R683. 42; R687. 3 文献标识码：A文章编号：1008 -0287(2017)02 -0221 -03Treatment of calcaneal fractures with anatomical calcaneal titanium plate ZHANG Sheng-guo，XIE Yi-jing，SHAO Nan，ZHAO Xiao-kui( Dept of Orthopaedics, China Meitan (General Hos­pital, Beijing 100028, China)Abstract：Objective To evaluate the results of the treatment of fresh calcaneal fractures with calcaneal anatomicaltitanium plate fixation. Methods Thirty-one cases (38 feet) of calcaneal fractures were treated with anatomical cal­caneal titanium plate fixation. During the follow-up, functional outcomes were evaluated with AOFAS score and Mary­land score system, respectively. Results Three feet of wound superficial infections occurred, and traumatic arthritisoccurred in 1 foot. No other complications such as skin necrosis and internal fixation failure occurred. The 31 patientswho had follow-up period of 13 〜26 months，they got clinical healing in 10 〜19 weeks. The Bohler angle, Gissaneangle, calcaneal width and height were reduced close to normal anatomic structure. In the last follow-up, according toAOFAS ankle-foot score criterion, the operation results were excellent in 21 feet, good in 12, and fair in 5. The ex­cellent and good rate was 86. 8%. According to Maryland foot score criterion, the operation results were excellent in20 feet, good in 14 and fair in 4. The overall satisfactory results was 89. 5% .Conclusions Anatomical calcaneal ti­tanium plate in fixation of fresh intra-articular calcaneal fractures which fit to biomechanics, the foot can gain themaximum recovery of function, and which has suitable surgical timing and intraoperative careful operation, can reducethe incidence of complications.Key words ：calcaneal fractures ；fracture fixation, internal ；anatomical calcaneal titanium plate ；postoperative compli­cation跟骨骨折多由足跟遭受垂直重击、瞬间强大暴 力所造成[1]。

第30卷第2期油气地质与采收率Vol.30,No.22023年3月Petroleum Geology and Recovery EfficiencyMar.2023—————————————收稿日期：2022-11-20。

作者简介：王高峰（1980—），男，河南许昌人，高级工程师，硕士，从事注气技术研究工作。

E-mail ：**************************.cn 。

基金项目：中国石油上游科技项目“碳驱油碳埋存一体化协同技术研究”（kt2022-8-20）和“冀东高深北区高66X1断块E s 33II 油组碳驱油碳埋存先导试验”（2022ZS0806）。

文章编号：1009-9603（2023）02-0168-06DOI ：10.13673/37-1359/te.202211013CCUS-EOR 开发同步埋存阶段长度的确定方法王高峰1，曹亚明2，解志薇3，刘媛3（1.中国石油勘探开发研究院，北京100083；2.中国石油冀东油田分公司，河北唐山063000；3.中国石油华北油田公司，河北沧州062550）摘要：CCUS-EOR 开发周期分为同步埋存和深度埋存两大阶段，确定同步埋存阶段长度是CCUS-EOR 开发方案设计的一项重要内容。

根据CO 2驱产油量变化情况，可将同步埋存阶段进一步划分为上产期、稳产期和递减期。

上产期的时间长度由见气见效时的累积注入量与年注气速度计算，稳产期的时间长度即稳产年限借助气驱“油墙”集中采出时间测算，递减期内的阶段采出程度变化情况则利用典型产量递减规律研究，气驱产量递减率和稳产期采油速度需根据气驱增产倍数概念确定，从而建立了CO 2驱阶段采出程度评价数学模型，提出将阶段采出程度逼近最终采收率的时刻作为同步埋存阶段与深度埋存阶段的转换点并引入阶段转换判据；同步埋存阶段长度扣除上产期和稳产年限即为递减期的时间长度。

关键词：CCUS-EOR 开发；同步埋存；深度埋存；阶段采出程度评价模型；阶段转换判据；CO 2驱中图分类号：TE311文献标识码：AMethod for determining time length of simultaneoussequestration phase of CCUS-EOR developmentWANG Gaofeng 1，CAO Yaming 2，XIE Zhiwei 3，LIU Yuan 3（1.Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration &Development ，Beijing City ，100083，China ；2.Jidong Oilfield of PetroChina ，Tangshan City ，Hebei Province ，063000，China ；3.Huabei Oilfield of PetroChina ，Cangzhou City ，Hebei Province ，062550，China ）Abstract ：The life cycle of CCUS-EOR development can be divided into two parts.One is the simultaneous sequestration phase （SSP ），and the other is the deep burial phase （DBP ）of CCS.Determining the time length of SSP is an important part of CCUS-EOR development scheme design.According to the change trend of oil production under CO 2flooding ，SSP can be further divided into an oil production rising period ，a stable oil production period ，and an oil production declining period.The time length of the oil production rising period is calculated from the annual gas injection rate and the cumulative injec⁃tion amount at the gas emergence time.The time length of the stable oil production period under gas flooding is calculatedby means of “centralized recovery time of oil bank ”.The change of stage recovery during the oil production declining peri⁃od is studied by using the representative decline curves.The oil recovery rate during the stable oil production period and oilproduction decline rate under gas flooding are measured based on the concept of “oil production multiplier due to gas flood⁃ing ”.Thus ，a mathematical model for evaluating stage recovery in the case of CO 2flooding is established.The moment when the stage recovery under CO 2flooding approaches the estimated ultimate recovery is proposed as the transition point be⁃tween SSP and DBP.On this basis ，a phase transition criterion is introduced.The time length of SSP minus those of the oil production rising period and the stable oil production period is the time length of the oil production declining period.Key words ：CCUS-EOR development ；simultaneous sequestration ；deep burial ；evaluation model of stage recovery ；phasetransition criterion ；CO 2flooding全球范围内通过CCUS 方式注入地下的二氧化碳达到10亿吨级，其大规模碳埋存能力已被证第30卷第2期王高峰等.CCUS-EOR开发同步埋存阶段长度的确定方法·169·实［1-2］，被视为石油企业碳中和的托底技术。

Multiobjective Production Planning Optimization Using Hybrid Evolutionary Algorithms forMineral ProcessingGang Yu,Tianyou Chai,Fellow,IEEE,and Xiaochuan Luo,Member,IEEEAbstract—The production planning optimization for mineral processing is important for non-renewable raw mineral resource utilization.This paper presents a nonlinear multiobjective programming model for a mineral processing production planning(MPPP)for optimizingfive production indices, including its iron concentrate output,the concentrate grade,the concentration ratio,the metal recovery,and the production cost.A gradient-based hybrid operator is proposed in two evolutionary algorithms named the gradient-based NSGA-II(G-NSGA-II)and the gradient-based SPEA2(G-SPEA2)for MPPP optimization. The gradient-based operator of the proposed hybrid operator is normalized as a strictly convex cone combination of negative gradient direction of each objective,and is provided to move each selected point along some descent direction of the objective functions to the Pareto front,so as to reduce the invalid trial times of crossover and mutation.Two theorems are established to reveal a descent direction for the improvement of all objective functions.Experiments on standard test problems,namely ZDT 1-3,CONSTR,SRN,and TNK,have demonstrated that the proposed algorithms can improve the chance of minimizing all objectives compared to pure evolutionary algorithms in solving the multiobjective optimization problems with differentiable objective functions under short running time putational experiments in MPPP application case have indicated that the proposed algorithms can achieve better production indices than those of NSGA-II,T-NSGA-FD, T-NSGA-SP,and SPEA2in the case of small number of generations.Also,those experimental results show that the proposed hybrid operators have better performance than that of pure gradient-based operators in attaining either a broad distribution or maintaining much diversity of obtained non-dominated solutions.Index Terms—Gradient-based operator,hybrid multiobjec-tive evolutionary algorithm,multiobjective production planning optimization,production indices.I.IntroductionT ODAY,METALS are extensively used in many industries such as construction,transportation,energy distribution, Manuscript received August28,2009;revised January18,2010and May 22,2010;accepted July30,2010.Date of current version July29,2011. This work was supported in part by the National Basic Research Program of China,under Grant2009CB320601,in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China,under Grants70721001and60974091,in part by the Funds for Creative Research Groups of China,under Grant60521003,and in part by the111Project B08015.G.Yu is with the Key Laboratory of Integrated Automation of Process Industry,Ministry of Education,Northeastern University,Shenyang110004, China(e-mail:friends.yugang@).T.Chai and X.Luo are with Northeastern University,Shenyang110004, China(e-mail:tychai@;luoxch@).Color versions of one or more of thefigures in this paper are available online at .Digital Object Identifier10.1109/TEVC.2010.2073472communications,and the aircraft industry.The pursuit of industrial development and the progress and the use of tech-nology have made China as an even more mineral resources-dependent country than ever before.Indeed,the worldwide increase in demand for mineral is expected continuance[1]. However,mineral resources reserves have declined in the world over time due to increased mining activities.Mineral processing is a process of beneficiating valuable minerals(concentrate)by separating tailings and waste rock from raw ores in order to increase the grade of valuable minerals while reducing the impurity content.The main task of production planning of mineral processing is to optimize production resources(i.e.,raw minerals and processing equip-ments,and so on)so as to achieve the desired production tar-gets.In these targets,there arefive major production indices, namely concentrate output,concentrate grade,concentration ratio,metal recovery,and cost indicators.Concentrate is the product of mineral processing and concentrate output refers to the yield of processing plant under given equipments,limited raw ores,and production ually,the higher the yield, the higher the equipment utilization is required.Concentrate grade is the content of useful components in concentrate product,so it is usually expressed as mass fraction of useful components such as Fe,Cu,and so on(unit%).This is an important indicator reflecting the quality of concentrate,the higher the grade,the better purity of concentrate would be. Concentration ratio or beneficiation ratio is the ratio of raw ore amount to concentrate amount.Practically,the lower the ratio, the more the raw ore resources can be saved.Metal recovery is another important production indicator that represents the recovery capacity of beneficiation plant.It is expressed as the weight ratio of the metal contained in concentrate to such metal contained in raw ore.Also,the higher recovery, the more metal will be recovered in concentrate or the less metal contained in tailings will be discarded.Concentrate cost consists of the expense of raw ore,energy,manufacturing, and so on.Therefore,the lower the cost,the more profits the industrial company will gain.Ideally,thesefive indicators are all expected to be the best at the same time.However,it is very difficult,if not possible,to get such utopian result that all the indicators are the best because there exist several mutual conflicts among them.For example,the production of high-grade concentrate requires high-grade and therefore expensive raw ore,leading to1089-778X/$26.00c 2011IEEEFig.1.Scheme of a mineral processing plant.The raw ores x i are sent to the productionflow to be divided into the powder ores x1,i and the lump ores x2,i in the sieving cell,the powder ores are processed in the high intensity magnetic separation cell to produce concentrate y1,i and tailings z1,i while the lump ores are roasted in roasting cell and then processed in the low intensity magnetic separation cell to produce concentrate y2,i and tailings z2,i(see Section II-D for the explanation of the notations).increased cost.Again,it is not possible that concentrate grade and metal recovery can always be increased simultaneously. Actually over-pursuit of recovery will result in grade reduc-tion,which can be confirmed by the grade-recovery curves [2].Additionally,raw ore with low beneficiation ratio is high in price,and pursuing high-yield may lead to high-impurity and low grade as well.Therefore,inappropriate assignment of these indicators and production resources(i.e.,equipment, raw ore,and so on)may not only lead to quality problem of concentrate product but also difficulty in guaranteeing the continuity and stability production,even the accomplishment of the production indices of mineral process[3]. Consequently,given the production demand and resource constraints for a mineral processing plant,the following issues should be considered.1)Which raw ore should be used and how much should beassigned?2)How much yield of concentrate should be assigned in acertain period of time?3)How much concentrate grade,ratio,recovery rate shouldbe set?4)How much cost per ton of concentrate should be? However,it is a challenge task to solve these problems for the complexity of defining optimization criteria and optimal operating conditions.For instance,the overall control objective of a mineral processing plant and these complexities have been discussed by Hodouin et al.[4]and Kelly[6],and it is also faced with these complexities in mineral processing production planning.In addition,it is confronted with the difficulties in decision-making because many managers with respective responsibilities at different departments compete with each other in seeking selfish allocation solutions,as detailed in Section ually,these conflicting objectives are coordinated by either experiences or empirical rules,but operators’ability can be found limited sometimes so that it is not sufficient to increase process efficiency depending on the experiences of metallurgists and process engineers only [4].Due to lack of effective methods,the production indices mentioned previously are often set by managers with incoher-ent empirical knowledge during different production periods (e.g.,days,weeks to months).As a result,the production plan is made to meet rough requirements only,and seldom is it an optimal or suboptimal.As a consequence,the production plan-ning involving multiple conflicting objectives is a complicated issue to formulate on a plant-wide optimization and obviously difficult to implement for mineral processing management. In this paper,a nonlinear multiobjective programming model that can be utilized in a decision support system for mineral processing production planning is proposed,and two hybrid multiobjective evolutionary algorithms called gradient-based NSGA-II(G-NSGA-II)and gradient-based SPEA2 (G-SPEA2),which are based on state-of-the-art multiobjective evolutionary algorithms NSGA-II[7]and SPEA2[8],are presented to solve the production planning optimization model. The focus of the underlying model is on the quantities ofYU et al.:MULTIOBJECTIVE PRODUCTION PLANNING OPTIMIZATION USING HYBRID EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHMS FOR MINERAL PROCESSING489mineral resources where raw ore is the main resource that can be assigned in an economic manner.II.Problem DescriptionA.BackgroundOne kind of production process for mineral processing in China is shown in Fig.1.The plant can be divided into several sub-processes such as the sieving cell(process P1),the roast-ing cell(process P2),the high intensity magnetic separator cell(process P3),the low intensity magnetic separator cell (process P4),the concentrate process cell(process P5),and the tailings process cell(process P6).These sub-processes are continuous,and the minerals such as raw ore,slurry,and concentrate are delivered from one cell to another by belts and pipelines transportation.First,the raw ores(x1,i)are crushed and screened to lump ores and powder ores in the raw ores sieving cell P1,then the powder ores are buffered in the cylindrical ore bins and the lump ores are buffered in the ore silo.Second,the powder ores are grinded by ball mill and separated in the process P3to produce concentrate(y1,i)(denoted as the H-concentrate)and tailings(z1,i)(denoted as the H-tailings).Meanwhile,the lump ores are sent into the shaft furnaces to produce roasted ores with high magnetic property,and the waste ores are separated out from the lump ores in the roasting cell P2at the same time. These roasted ores are then sent into ball mill and magnetic separator in the process P4to produce concentrate(y2,i) (denoted as the L-concentrate)and tailings(z2)(denoted as the L-tailings).Finally,concentrate(y1,i)and(y2,i)are mixed in concentrating pool,and the integrated concentrate(y)is sent into concentrate warehouse after concentrating and dewatering process P5.Similarly,tailings(z1,i)and(z2,i)are mixed in the tailings pool,and the integrated tailings(z)are piled up in the tailings dam after concentrating and dewatering process. The production planning management for mineral process-ing is a tradeoff between the individual objectives of the planners involved.First,some kinds of raw ores with property characteristics such as ore grade,lump ore rate,beneficiation ratio,and price are selected and the quantity of each raw ore is initially decided by the planners in planning department of mineral processing plant.Then,the production indices such as theoretical yields,the concentrate grade,the metal recovery,the overall beneficiation ratio,and the production cost per ton of concentrate are derived by the theoretical metal balance method.However,the result is not easy to be satisfied with by different departments and production process segments at the same time.This is because these departments or segments are responsible for the specific production indices. For example,the quality department is responsible for the grade and recovery indicator reflecting the quality of interme-diate material and thefinal concentrate,while the production organization department is concerned about the production capacity,and the energy management department is concerned about whether there are enough fresh water,electricity,and gas energy resources to provide.Also,the cost management department is concerned with whether it is a reasonable production cost or ideal profit.Similarly,the mangers and operators in different production cell(e.g.,processes P1–P6in Fig.1)are concerned about their local production yields and quality,respectively.However,improper coordination in these process segments may lead to concentrate waste.Anyway, all management departments and process segments care about their respective production indices which are conflicting local objectives.This is because any undesired target will make the manager of relevant departments and segments bear the financial penalties,individuals are often overly concerned with local interests resulting in the difficulty to achieve the basic integrated production targets,not to mention the plant-wide optimization.Therefore,coordination is repeated among the various individual planners until afinal compromise is reached in the preparation of production plan for mineral processing. Thus,plant-wide optimal production planning management inherently involves multiple conflicting objectives.The ultimate goals are multiple comprehensive production targets previously referred to as the concentrate output,the grade,the recovery,the beneficiation ratio,and the cost per ton of concentrate from the views of the whole mineral processing factory rather than a single-objective optimization problem.It is hard to determine an ideal global optimum for each production index to be optimal under given mineral processing resource limitation due to the conflict mentioned above.Therefore,the decision-support model for the allocation of mineral processing resource should determine a set of compromise solutions namely Pareto optimal set.B.Literature ReviewConventionally,the multiobjectives of mineral processing planning optimization problem are aggregated into a single objective function by weighted-sum aggregation which is still widely used due to its simplicity.[9]–[11]presented a scheduling method based on production indices optimization for minerals processing on the basis of ensuring the grade of concentrate ore,reducing concentrate inventory and improving equipment utilization.However,the other production indices such as recovery rate and production cost,and so on,are not involved in the model.Moreover,in the absence of any other high level preference information,the non-dominant optimal solutions in a Pareto set are equally competitive and none of them can dominate others.Thus,the solution obtained by aggregating multiple objectives into single objective function in these researches,which is often a weighted-average of the several objectives,depends largely on the values assigned to the weighting factors used.Multiobjective evolutionary algorithms were used in the plant designs,process operation optimization,and control of mineral processing.While et al.[12]developed a multiob-jective evolutionary algorithm to create and evaluated the crusher internal geometry.They used an evolutionary strategy to vary the shape of cone crusher liners and various operating parameters so as to simultaneously maximize the quality of the product and the capacity of the circuit.In[13],a multiobjective algorithm was used to optimize the composition and the number of machines to use,as well as their opera-tional settings for multiple components in a processing plant. Other researchers have reported similar work subsequently490IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EVOLUTIONARY COMPUTATION,VOL.15,NO.4,AUGUST2011[14]–[16].For example,Huband et al.[17]described the application of an evolutionary algorithm to the problem of optimizing the performance of a comminution plant for two different types of feed and their algorithm returns a range of designs offering different tradeoffs between them.Mitraa and Gopinath[18]solved a multiobjective optimization problem for an industrial lead–zinc grinding operation considering two contradictive objectives.One objective is to maximize the grinding product throughput whereas the second objective is to maximize the percentage passing of the midsize.Pareto solutions are found out by a genetic algorithm namely NSGA II.The most multiobjective evolutionary algorithms applied in the plant design,operation control problem in these papers are mostly used to optimize the indices within some local specific process segments,instead of plant-wide production planning for mineral processing.In addition,in the area of operation optimization of mining, Everett[19]discussed a variety of algorithms and simulation models,such as the standard quadratic programming,the heuristic hill-climbing approach,and the exponential smooth-ing method to aid several stages of scheduling decisions, from the mine phase,through railing,stockpiling,and ship loading.Xu and Wei[5]developed an intelligent system to assist the programming of decision-making on mineral resource exploitation for operating mines by means of the systematic combination of optimization technology with an artificial neural network,an expert system,computer-aided design,and operational research.Recently,there are some literatures that have focused on production indices optimization for mineral processing plan-ning by multiobjective evolutionary algorithm.For example, Ma et al.[20]established a goal programming model min-imizing the deviation from the desired concentrate grade, output,and cost in one ore-dressing plant.They applied genetic algorithm to solve the model according to the priority of production indices.However,the beneficiation ratio,the metal recovery rate,and the production equipment capacity constraints have not been considered.[21]applied a particle swarm algorithm to optimize the daily global production indices of mineral processing.Also,[22]used a particle swarm algorithm to optimize the daily decomposition of production indices for mineral processing.However,more comprehen-sive production indices and real restrictive conditions of mineral processing production,such as specific equipment capacity and energy limitation,should be considered in these researches.C.Material and Metal Balance ModelA metal balance(or called a mass balance)states that the metal content of the raw ore must be equal to the metal content contained in the concentrate,tailings and waste.It is fundamental for mineral processing production planning.According to the mass balance principle[23],[24],the total amount of raw ore is equal to the sum of concentrate amount, tailings amount and waste amount as given byQ raw=Q concentrate+Q tailings+Q waste(1)where Q raw,Q concentrate,Q tailings,and Q waste represent the raw ore quantity,the concentrate output,the tailings output, and the waste amount,respectively.The metal content contained in the material is also balanced between the input and output of a process according to metal balance[23],[24]Q raw·α=Q concentrate·β+Q tailings·θ+Q waste·ν(2) whereαis the raw ore grade,βis the concentrate grade,θis the tailings grade,andνis the waste grade.Concentrate ore is the product of useful component(i.e., valuable mineral)of raw ore from which most of gangue is removed by beneficiation process,and tailing ore is the product of low content valuable mineral after beneficiation process. Several important indices are used to measure the performance of mineral processing production.Grade represents the weight percentage of useful ingredients in either raw minerals or beneficiation product.It is an important production indicator. One of the aims of mineral processing is to upgrade a lower grade of raw ore to a higher grade of concentrate product. Metal recovery is another important indicator which rep-resents the recovery capacity of beneficiation plant,and the metal recovery formula is as follows[23],[24]:ε=βQ concentrateαQ raw×100%.(3)Beneficiation ratio is the ratio of raw ore amount to con-centrate amount,i.e.,the required tons of raw ore for a ton of concentrate product[23],[24]K=Q rawQ concentrate.(4)D.NotationsThe notations of indices,decision variables,and parameters are listed in Table I.These notations will be used throughout this paper.E.ObjectivesThe aim of mineral processing production planning is to determine high level decisions such as integrated production indices and mineral raw materials amount under given pro-duction conditions such as mineral raw materials properties, limited equipment capacity,limited inventories,and energy resources over a specified time horizon(e.g.,weeks,months to years).1)Concentrate Yield Objective:One objective of pro-duction planning for mineral processing is the maximization of concentrate yield within its objective interval[Q L,Q H] while satisfying inventory constraints.This can be expressed mathematically as follows:max Q(x)=Ii=1(1−u i)x i/k1,i+Ii=1u i x i/k2,i(5)where the decision variable vector x consists of the quantity of each raw ore[i.e.,x=(x1,x2,...,x i,...,x I)T],andYU et al.:MULTIOBJECTIVE PRODUCTION PLANNING OPTIMIZATION USING HYBRID EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHMS FOR MINERAL PROCESSING491TABLE INotationsNotation Description Notation DescriptionIndices k2,i The beneficiation ratio of lump ore separated from thei th raw ore by the sieving process shown in Fig.1.i The i th raw ore,i=1,2,...I.r i The price of the raw ore i.j The j th type of equipment,j=1,2,...J.ηb The roasting ratio,the ratio of roasted ore to lump oreby the roasting process shown in Fig.1.k The number of production series,i.e.,the number of ball mill-magnetic separator series,k=1,2,...N.ηw The waste rock rate,the ratio of waste rock to lump ore by the roasting process shown in Fig.1.p The p th kind of energy,p=1,2,...P.βw The waste rock grade(%).Variablesβb The roasted ore grade(%).x i The quantity of the raw ore i(ton).Q b The quantity of roasted ore produced by the roastingprocess shown in Fig.1.x The decision variable vector x=(x1,x2,...,x i,...,x I)T.εL The lower bound of the metal recovery rate.β(x)The concentrate grade(%).K H The upper bound of the total beneficiation.Q(x)The yield of concentrate.C H The upper bound of the cost per unit of concentrate. K(x)The total beneficiation ratio.C energy The comprehensive energy cost per unit of concentrateproduct.ε(x)The metal recovery.C other The other totalfixed fee except for raw ore cost andenergy cost,including quota fee,controllable manufac-turing costs and so on.C(x)The cost per ton of concentrate.N k,j The operating number of the j th type of equipmentwhen the production series is k.θl(x)The total tailings grade(%)if l=0,the H-tailings grade (%)if l=1,the L-tailings grade(%)if l=2.T k The production time of k in a time period(e.g.,months to years).q j(x)The throughput per hour fed into the j th type of equipment.q j,H The upper bound of the j th type of equipment capacity,i.e.,maximal average throughput per hour fed into thej th type of equipment.Q E,p(x)The consumption of the p th kind of energy(e.g.,fresh water,electricity,and gas).θl,H The upper bound of total tailings grade(%)if l=0, H-tailings grade(%)if l=1,L-tailings grade(%)ifl=2.Parameters q E,p The consumption of the p th type of energy resourcerequired for a ton of concentrate.αi The grade(%)of the raw ore i.Q EH,p The maximal supply amount of the p th kind of energyresource.α1,i The grade(%)of the powder ore separated from the raw ore i by the sieving process shown in Fig.1.[βL,βH]The objective interval of the concentrate grade(%),βL is lower bound,andβH is upper bound.α2,i Grade(%)of lump ore separated from the raw ore i by the sieving process shown in Fig.1.Q S The quantity of concentrate sold or consumed by sin-tering plant.β1,i The high intensity magnetic concentrate grade(%)of raw ore i.I0The quantity of concentrate remained in concentrate warehouse at the beginning of a time horizon.β2,i The low intensity magnetic concentrate grade(%)of raw ore i.[I L,I H]The available storage interval for the concentrate at theend of a time horizon,I L is lower bound,and I H isupper bound.u i The lump ore rate of the raw ore i,i.e.,the ratio of separated lump ore to raw ore.[Q L,Q H]The objective interval of the concentrate yield,Q L is lower bound,and Q H is upper bound.k1,i The beneficiation ratio of powder ore separated from the i th raw ore by the sieving process shown in Fig.1.[Q i,min,Q i,max]The available amount interval of the raw ore i,Q i,minis lower bound,and Q i,max is upper bound.(1−u i)x i the quantity of powder ore separated fromthe i th raw oreu i x i the quantity of lump ore(1−u i)x i/k1,i the concentrate output of powder oreu i x i/k2,i the concentrate output of lump ore.The total yield Q(x)is the sum of concentrate output produced by sub-processes P3and P4as shown in Fig.1,and (5)is obtained based on(4),relative notations are described in Section II-D.2)Concentrate Grade Objective:An important objective of production planning for mineral processing is to maximize the concentrate grade within concentrate grade objective inter-val[βL,βH]as stated in the following:maxβ(x)=Ii=1(1−u i)β1,i x i/k1,i+Ii=1u iβ2,i x i/k2,iIi=1(1−u i)x i/k1,i+Ii=1u i x i/k2,i.(6)Equation(6)represents the metal content percentage in concentrate product.It should be noted that the expression of denominator in(6)is just the concentrate yield Q(x)in (5),and the numerator in(6)is the sum of the metal content contained in the H-concentrate and the L-concentrate(i.e.,the total metal content contained in concentrate product).492IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EVOLUTIONARY COMPUTATION,VOL.15,NO.4,AUGUST2011 3)Total Beneficiation Ratio Objective:Minimization ofthe total beneficiation ratio is also an objective of mineralprocessing production planning,and often is required an upperK H bound constraint in mineral processing plantmin K(x)=(Ii=1x i)/[Ii=1(1−u i)x i/k1,i+Ii=1u i x i/k2,i].(7)Equation(7)can be obtained from(4),it is the expression of the total beneficiation ratio[i.e.,the ratio of total raw ore amount to concentrate yield Q(x)].In general,the smaller of the total beneficiation ratio,the less of raw ore consumption is for per ton of concentrate product.4)Metal Recovery Objective:Maximization of the metal recovery is another objective of mineral processing production planning,and it is especially important for some rare metal mineral processing plants.A lower boundεL constraint is re-quired for many plants and even prescribed in the specification of national standardization.This means that one needs to solve the following problem:maxε(x)=Ii=1(1−u i)β1,i x i/k1,i+Ii=1u iβ2,i x i/k2,iIi=1x iαi.(8)In(8),the expression of numerator is the total metal content contained in the concentrate product whilst the expression of denominator is the total metal content contained in the raw ore used.The ideal goal is that all of the metal contained in the raw ore is completely recovered although it is impossible in practice.5)Concentrate Cost Objective:Minimization of the cost of concentrate is always the goal of mineral processing plant for its profit pursuit.An upper bound C H constraint of cost per unit of concentrate is requiredmin C(x)=Ii=1r i x i+C otherIi=1(1−u i)x i/k1,i+Ii=1u i x i/k2,i+C energy(9)where the total unit cost C(x)is made up of the raw ore cost, the energy cost and the other cost including quota cost,the controllable manufacturing costs,and so on.In(9),C other is a fixed cost in a time period,and C energy is afixed unit energy cost considered here.Mineral raw materials cost make up most of the total unit cost of concentrate product.F.Constraints1)Comprehensive Production Indices Constraints:The real concentrate yield is constrained by its lower and upper limits as follows:Q L≤Q(x)≤Q H(10)I L≤Q(x)+I0−Q S≤I H.(11)In(10),the objective interval[Q L,Q H]of concentrate yield is initially determined by decision-making departments. Constraint(11)means that the surplus quantity of concentrate product in warehouse is restricted by the lower and upper storage limits after Q S(tons of)concentrate are either sold or consumed by the sintering process which is a process next to mineral process at the end of a time period.Provided that the expression[Q L,Q H]∩[Q S+I L−I0, Q S+I H−I0]= always holds,then(10)and(11)can be combined into the following constraint:max(Q L,Q S+I L−I0)≤Q(x)≤min(Q H,Q S+I H−I0).(12) Sometimes,in mineral processing plants,the objective in-terval[Q L,Q H]determined by manager can almost satisfy the condition[Q L,Q H]⊂[Q S+I L−I0,Q S+I H−I0],and then(10)is sufficient whilst(11)is redundant.We use(12) as a unified expression which is stillfit for such situation. The other four comprehensive production indices constraints should be satisfied as follows:βL≤β(x)≤βH(13)K(x)≤K H(14)ε(x)≥εL(15)C(x)≤C H.(16) In(13)–(16),the interval[ßL,ßH],upper limit K H and C H, lower limitεL have already been mentioned in Section II-E.Constraint(13)is used to ensure the range of concentrate grade.Constraint(14)is used to ensure that the ratio of the total raw ore consumption to the concentrate product output does not exceed a given upper limit.Constraint(15)avoids excessive metal loss,andfinally(16)ensures that cost does not exceed a predetermined limit.2)Equipment Capacity Constraints:The average feed throughput per hour for the j th type of equipment is restricted by its upper limit.There arefive types of equipments mainly in mineral processing plant shown as Fig.1.Thesefive types of equipments are the shaft furnace(j=1),the ball mill in high intensity magnetic separation cell(j=2),the ball mill in low intensity magnetic separation cell(j=3),the high intensity magnetic separator(j=4),and thefilter(j=5), respectively.Their capacity constraints are given as follows:q j(x)=Ii=1u i x iKk=1N k,j T k≤q j,H k∈{1,2,···K}j=1(17) q j(x)=Ii=1(1−u i)x iKk=1N k,j T k≤q j,H k∈{1,2,···K}j=2(18)。

BASS BOOT COMP BTC-1OWNER’S MANUALThank you for choosing Providence. In order to take full advantage of the product’s features and performance, please read this manual thoroughly and keep it in a safe place for future reference.■BASS BOOT COMP Features ●The Bass Boot Comp delivers super-smooth compression that can take your bass sound to new heights. Attack time and sustain controls allow the Bass Boot Comp to produce smoothly lingering long tones as well as percussive limiter type effects.●A threshold control optimizes compression response for the bass guitar’s pickups as well as picking strength. The attack time and sustain controls can then be used to produce effects ranging from fat, high-density limiting to fast compression that lets note attack come through for a more percussive feel. A red gain reduc-tion LED provides a visual indication of how much compression is being applied.●A mix control adjusts the ratio of direct to compressed sound, enabling a wide range of sonic variationsthat are not possible with simpler compression pedals: emphasize touch nuances while maintaining a solidtonal core, allow the natural tonal character of the instrument to come through in a smoothly compressedsignal, and much more.■Controls & Functions ①LEVEL ：Adjusts the output level when the effect is ON.②SUSTAIN ：Adjusts sustain time. Rotate counterclockwise for shorter sustain and a more limiter-like effectthat will only compress high-level input peaks. Rotate clockwise for longer sustain.③ATTACK ：Adjusts the attack time (the amount of time it takes to reach maximum compression after aninput signal is detected). Rotate counterclockwise for shorter attack time and a more limiter-like effect thatwill only compress high-level input peaks. Rotate clockwise for longer attack times that will allow more of theinstrument’s natural attack to come through. Attack time can be adjusted from 0.1 to 10 milliseconds.④MIX ：Adjusts the mix between the direct and compressed sound. When rotated fully counterclockwiseonly the direct sound is output, and when rotated fully clockwise only the effect (compressed) sound is out-put.⑤THRESHOLD ：Adjusts the threshold level (the input signal level at which compression begins). Rotatecounterclockwise to raise the threshold level and reduce the overall amount of compression, or rotate clock-wise to lower the threshold level and increase overall compression. ⑥Gain Reduction LED ：Indicates the approximate amount of compression being applied. The LED lightsdimly when a small amount of compression is being applied, with increasing brightness as more compres-sion is applied. This LED may light when power to the pedal is initially turned ON even when no input signalis present. This is normal behavior.⑦LED Indicator ：Lights when the effect is ON. The LED will start to dim when the battery voltage dropsbelow approximately 7 volts. The effect will still function when the LED begins to dim, but performance maynot be optimum and the battery should be replaced as soon as possible.⑧IN ：The output from a bass guitar, electronic musical instrument, or preceding effect pedal should beconnected here.⑨OUT ：This jack should be connected to the input of an amplifier or effect unit. ⑩Footswitch ：Turns the effect ON or OFF. ⑪DC9V INPUT ：The DC output cable of an optional AC adaptor can be plugged in here.■Main Specification ●Controls: LEVEL, ATTACK, SUSTAIN, MIX, THRESHOLD ●Connectors: 1/4-inch phone jack x 2 (INPUT and OUTPUT), DC 9V input jack (AC adaptor jack)●Power Supply: 9V battery or AC adaptor (not included)●Power Consumption: DC9V, 25mA approx.●Dimensions: 115(D) x 73(W) x 50(H) mm ●Weight: 230 g approx. (Not including battery)■Battery ReplacementTo replace the battery, remove the bottom panel by unscrewing the four screws that hold it in place. Usea 9-volt 006P type battery. Be careful not to apply excessive force to the wiring when changing the bat-tery to avoid broken connections and other damage.■Precautions• Inserting or removing a plug from the input jack while the unit's output is connected to anamplifier/speakers can cause noise that can damage the speakers.• If the unit malfunctions or behaves abnormally, cease operation immediately and refer the problem tothe supplier.• If the unit will not be used for an extended period of time, remove the battery to prevent damage due tochemical leakage from the battery.• Use only an AC adaptor with internal voltage regulation.• When the battery voltage drops too low for proper operation the effect sound may become weak, theoutput level may drop, or no output will be produced at all. Be sure to replace the battery as soon as pos-sible if such symptoms occur.■TroubleshootingIf the indicator LED does not light: Replace the battery with a new one orconnect an appropriate AC adaptor.* Specifications and appearance are subject to change without notice.PPD1515-01Rev1.0。

Enhancing land fill gas recoveryAntti Niskanen *,Hanna Värri,Jouni Havukainen,Ville Uusitalo,Mika HorttanainenLUT Energy,Environmental Engineering,Lappeenranta University of Technology,P.O.Box 20,FI-53851Lappeenranta,Finlanda r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received 9April 2011Received in revised form 12April 2012Accepted 29May 2012Available online xxx Keywords:Land fill gasGreenhouse gas Land fill Recovery Utilizationa b s t r a c tThe land filling of municipal solid waste (MSW)may cause potential environmental impacts like global warming (GW),soil contaminations,and groundwater pollution.The degradation of MSW in anaerobic circumstances generates methane emissions,and can hence contribute the GW.As the GW is nowadays considered as one of the most serious environmental threats,the mitigation of methane emissions should obviously be aimed at on every land fill site where methane generation occurs.In this study,the treatment and utilization options for the generated LFG at case land fills which are located next to each other are examined.The yearly GHG emission balances are estimated for three different gas management scenarios.The first scenario is the combined heat and power (CHP)production with a gas engine.The second scenario is the combination of heat generation for the asphalt production process in the summer and district heat production by a water boiler in the winter.The third scenario is the LFG upgrading to biomethane.The estimation results illustrate that the LFG collection ef ficiency affects strongly on the magnitudes of GHG emissions.According to the results,the CHP production gives the highest GHG emission savings and is hence recommended as a gas utilization option for case land fills.Furthermore,aspects related to the case land fills ’extraction are discussed.Crown Copyright Ó2012Published by Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.Introduction 1.1.BackgroundLand filling has been the only disposal method that can deal with all the materials in the solid waste stream and it has also been considered to be the simplest and in many areas the cheapest disposal method (Mc Dougall et al.,2001).Thus,the majority of the generated solid waste is disposed at land fills.The nature of the disposed waste is different compared to the material found in the surroundings of land fills,and it may thereby affect negatively the environment (Christensen,2011).Land fills may pose negative environmental impacts to air,land,and water,like GHG emissions,soil contaminations,and groundwater pollution.Since huge amounts of solid waste is disposed at land fills,it is really important to pay attention to the adequately environmental management within whole life cycle of land fills with the aim to mitigate the potential environmental impacts caused by land filling.Land filled organic waste generates land fill gas (LFG)when it degrades in anaerobic circumstances.Without treatment,the released methane of LFG can create notable greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions.In 2005,the total anthropogenic GHG emissions wereapproximately 49Gt CO 2Àeq and the emissions of the waste and wastewater management sector were approximately 1.5Gt CO 2Àeq (Bogner et al.,2008).Globally,LFG emissions from land fills contribute to approximately half of all GHG emissions from the waste and wastewater management sector (Bogner et al.,2008).According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),CH 4recovery from land fills is a key to the GHG mitigation practices in the waste management sector (IPCC,2007).According to Statistics Finland,municipal waste land fills generated 1.12Mt CO 2Àeq of emissions in 2008(Statistics of Finland,2010a ).This amount creates 84%of all GHG emissions from the waste management sector in Finland.The great attention paid to the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions has been the catalyst for numerous policies worldwide.EU and Finnish regulations and strategies on waste management strongly encourage restricting the land filling of biodegradable waste and increasing of the utilization of waste in order to decrease LFG emissions (EU 99/31/EC ;EU Commission,2005;Huhtinen et al.,2007;Ministry of the Environment,2010a ;VnP 861/97).In addition,gas energy utiliza-tion is preferred in the EU directive,Finnish regulations,and IPCC guidelines (EU 99/31/EC ;IPCC,2007;VnP 861/97).Moreover,at the national level,the Working Group called “Bioenergy from Waste ”proposed 13waste-to-energy actions in Finland in February 2010.One of those actions is the reduction of GHG emissions from land fills which means that in practice LFG should be recovered more ef ficiently (Ministry of the Environment,2010b ).Although*Corresponding author.Tel.:þ358400230627;fax:þ35856246399.E-mail address:Antti.Niskanen@lut.fi(A.Niskanen).Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirectJournal of Cleaner Productionjournal homepage:www.elsevier.co m/locate/jclepro0959-6526/$e see front matter Crown Copyright Ó2012Published by Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved./10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.05.042Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2012)1e 5the target of waste management regulations and strategies is to promote the LFG utilization,the number of landfills with an active gas collection system has not grown during the years2005e2008.After the closure of a landfill,the methane generation of LFG decreases making the utilization difficult.Although the amount of yearly generated methane reduces,the generation may continue decades after the closure and thus create notable cumulative GHG emissions in the long term.After an intensive gas generation phase, landfilled waste could also be recovered for energy production purposes.In the earlier studies(Obermeier and Saure,1995;Cossu et al.,1995;Rettenberger,1995;Hogland et al.,2004),energy values from11up to20MJ kgÀ1have been observed for extracted waste, and such high values can be sufficient for the incineration.On the other hand,naturally notable lower values can be obtained depending on the waste material content.The challenging long-term after-care of landfills could be shortened and made easier if the organic material were extracted and recovered for energy production.Thus,waste utilization could give GHG emission savings due to the replaced fossil fuels.In addition,impure wood and plastic fractions which are not suited for recycling could also be utilized in energy production.In addition to energy production and GHG emission saving advantages,also other environmental bene-fits could be achieved,like the avoidance of risks related to the surrounding soil or groundwater pollution.Also,economical benefits could be achieved because the after-care period is shorter and the overall costs of landfill operations decrease.Many economical drivers can also promote the extraction and utilization of waste materials from landfills,as van der Zee et al.have noticed (Van der Zee et al.,2004).Valuable precious metals of landfilled electrical devices can be separated and recovered,as well as other materials(Zhao et al.,2007).On the other hand,the impurity of the separated materials can limit their markets(Williams,2005).In addition,the observed pollution or the possibility of the pollution of the surrounding environment can be avoided which are the common motives for landfill extraction(Van der Zee et al.,2004). According to the directive on the landfill of waste,LFG collection and treatment is obligatory in European countries(EU99/31/EC).If LFG is recovered as an energy or material product,it can be regarded as a phase of landfill mining.Also,it can be considered as a necessary pre-treatment phase for later landfill mining.This study focuses on the LFG recovery and utilization and particularly on the LFG recovery performance improvements and the utilization option comparison using case landfills from the Kymenlaakso Jäte Oy in South-East Finland.During the recent years,the LFG generation in the new landfill has increased signif-icantly.Therefore,the LFG management solution examination is a very current topic.The objective of this paper is to estimate the yearly GHG emissions for three optional LFG management scenarios.In addition,landfilled waste extraction aspects are discussed.2.Materials and methods2.1.LFG generation at case landfillsTwo typical Finnish medium size municipal solid waste(MSW) landfills(the new landfill of7.8ha and the old landfill of9.1ha)are operated by Kymenlaakson jäte Oy in the Kymenlaakso region. Landfills are located next to each other.The old landfill was closed in2001and the new one was opened the same year.The bottom lining of new landfill fulfills the environmental protection requirements defined in the EU directive on the landfill of waste, whereas the lining of old landfill does not fulfill those require-ments.The amount of landfill gas collected from the old landfill is approximately0.88Â106m3yrÀ1with an average methane content of33%(Sarlin,2006,2007).According to the annual statistics of Kymenlaakson jäte Oy,from65Â103to72Â103t of waste(mainly MSW from households)is landfilled yearly in the new landfill.In2008,the total generation of landfill gas was eval-uated to be0.80Â106m3yrÀ1(Detes,2008).In spring2010,the Finnish Meteorological Institute carried out gas emission measurements with a micrometeorological method for the new landfill.According to micrometeorological measurements,the gas generation was approximated4.5Â106m3yrÀ1(Laurila,2010). According to these studies,the gas generation has increased significantly in the new landfill during the two years from2008to 2010.2.2.Scenario settings for gas recoveryBased on the gas generation and collection measurements carried out at case landfill sites,the energy potential of the landfill gas is shown in Table1.In this study,the gas collection efficiency for the new landfill is set to75%as recommend by USEPA(2008).With this collection efficiency,the total amount for available energy content of yearly collected LFG is21,300MWh which is a reference unit for each gas utilization scenario.In GHG emission estimations,the collected LFG is assumed to be utilized according to one of the following utili-zation options:Scenario1:Combined heat and power(CHP)production witha gas engine.Scenario2:The combination of heat generation for the asphalt production process in the summer and district heat production by a water boiler in the winter.Scenario3:LFG upgrading to biomethane(corresponding to the quality of natural gas).Scenarios1and2are chosen based on previous feasibility studies(Karttunen,2007;Niskanen et al.,2009a).Scenario3can be seen as an innovative option in Finland,and hence it is included in this study.The gas utilization options were studied to determine the GHG emissions that could be yearly avoided if energy produc-tion by fossil fuels is replaced by LFG.2.3.Other scenario assumptionsThe yearly utilization period is assumed to be8000h for each utilization option.When the collected landfill gas is not utilized,it is treated byflaring.The treatment efficiency for methane byflaring is assumed to be99%(SEPA,2002).The gas engine efficiency is assumed to be44%for heat and39%for electricity generation (Wong et al.,2001).The efficiency of heat generation both in district heating and in the asphalt production process is assumed to be90%. The overall internal energy consumption of the upgrading process is estimated to be9.1%,including the CH4loss which is set to1.5%of the total amount of collected CH4(Pertl et al.,2010).It is assumedTable1Energy potential of landfill gas from the old and new landfill.Landfill CollectedLFG[Â106m3yrÀ1]Methaneconcentration[%]Collectedmethane[Â106m3yrÀ1]Energy contentpotential[MWh/yr]Old landfill0.80a33a0.262600New landfill 3.34b,c56b 1.8718,700SUM 4.14 2.1321,300a Sarlin,2006and Sarlin,2007.b Laurila,2010.c with gas collection efficiency of75%.A.Niskanen et al./Journal of Cleaner Production xxx(2012)1e5 2that the lost CH4is not released into the atmosphere without treatment.It is also assumed that the LFG collection system consumes the electricity produced by the average Finnish elec-tricity production structure,and that the upgrading process would consume marginal electricity because if the utilization process is realized,it will increase the load of electricity consumption.GHG emissions for the average electricity production are assumed to be 207kg/MWh e and for the marginal electricity production with a coal condensing power plant823kg/MWh e(Dahlbo et al.,2005; Statistics of Finland,2010b).The methane oxidation efficiency in the landfill cover for released LFG is assumed to be10%.The GHG emission factor(GHG emissions per production,for energyproduction in unit:kg CO2Àeq /MWh)and other assumptions for LFGutilization and the emissions of replaced fuels are presented in Table2.For each Scenario,1,2,and3,the GHG emission and emission saving magnitudes(Fig.1)caused by the management of yearly collected LFG,as well as the GHG balances of yearly generated LFG (Fig.2)are estimated based on the collected data,scenario settings, and assumptions(presented above).3.Results and discussionThe GHG emissions due to the utilization of collected LFG (4.14Â106m3yrÀ1)for Scenarios1,2,and3are presented in Fig.1.As the results demonstrate(Fig.1),the highest amount of GHG emission savings,approximately8000t CO2Àeq/yr,can be achieved if the collected LFG is utilized in Scenario1.The main contributor for the avoided GHG emissions is the replaced electricity.If LFG is utilized in Scenario3,emission savings of approximately 6800t CO2Àeq/yr can be reached.On the other hand,the electricity consumption of the upgrading process leads to the highest GHG emissions,1200t CO2Àeq/yr,and thus reducing the GHG emission balance of Scenario 3.Scenario2leads to significantly lower emission savings,approximately4300t CO2Àeq/yr,than the other scenarios.The estimated GHG balances(including the GHG emis-sions from fugitively released LFG)for the generated LFG on three gas management options are shown in Fig.2.As the results clearly illustrate(Fig.2),the GHG emission balance for Scenario1,approximately3600t CO2Àeq/yr,is signifi-cantly lower than for Scenario2,approximately7300t CO2Àeq/yr,and for Scenario3,approximately6300t CO2Àeq/yr.The magnitude of the GHG emission balance for Scenario3is approximately14%lower than for Scenario2.With the LFG collection efficiency of75%,the gas utilization can notably compensate for the GHG emissions caused by the uncollected LFG of11,400t CO2Àeq/yr.As discovered in many studies(Börjesson et al.,2007;Spokas et al.,2006;Themelis and Ulloa,2007),the LFG collection efficiency ranges extensively in individual municipal landfills.USEPA has given75%as a default value for the collection efficiency(USEPA,2008;Sullivan,2010)when the collection system is in use and operates without problems.The collection efficiency of75%was the assumption also in this study for the new landfill.Obviously,assumptions related to the recovery of LFG can have significant impacts on the assessment of GHG emissions,as presented in earlier studies(Manfredi et al.,2009a; Moberg et al.,2005;Wanichpongpan and Gheewala,2007). Higher gas collection efficiency increases the amount of LFG available for utilization purposes and hence enables higher GHG emission savings while direct gas emissions from the landfills to the atmosphere decrease.As discussed in a number of other studies(Lombardi et al.,2006;Manfredi et al.,2009a;Niskanen et al.,2009b),the direct emissions are typically the main contributor to the GHG emissions from landfilling.In this case,if the gas collection efficiency were85%and all the collected LFG would be utilized in Scenario1,the fugitive emissions from the landfills would decrease by40%and the GHG emission savings through utilization would increase by11.8%.In other words,with higher collection efficiency(85%),the emission balance of Scenario1would be numerally negative,À2220t CO2Àeq/yr(Fig.3), when the GHG emission savings are higher than the emissions. On the other hand,if the collection efficiency were65%,the emissions from the landfill would grow by40%and the avoided emissions would be reduced by13.3%.In that case,the GHG emission balance of Scenario1would be9000t CO2Àeq/yr(Fig.3). Considering the fact that the gas collection efficiency is a crucial factor in the mitigation of GHG emissions,it is important to pursue as high collection efficiency as possible.After the gas is collected,it can be treated,thus decreasing the global warming effect strongly.Logically,gas utilization is more advantageous than treatment because the LFG utilization can replace the use of fossil fuels(Hao et al.,2008;Lombardi et al.,2006;Manfredi et al.,2009b).Due to the improved gas collection,it is possible to mitigate the GHG emissions resulting from landfilling significantly.In Finland, where the LFG emissions form84%of all GHG emissions caused by the waste management sector,the effective gas collection affects strongly the emissions of the entire waste management sector.Table2Assumptions of replaced processes and emission factors.Utilization process Replaced process Basis for theassumption GHG emission factor[kg CO2Àeq/MWh]CHP heat production by LFG Local heat productionby natural gasCurrent fuel fordistrict heating213aCHP electricity production by LFG Marginal electricityproduction by coalin FinlandChange in electricitygeneration823aDistrict heat by LFG Local heat productionby natural gas Current fuel fordistrict heating213aHeat production in asphalt production process Heat production by lightfuel oil(specific process)Current fuel in asphaltproduction process220bCHP heat production by up-graded LFG Local heat productionby natural gasCurrent fuel for districtheating213aCHP electricity production by up-graded LFG Marginal electricityproduction by coalin FinlandChange in electricitygeneration823aa GHG emissions based on fuel classification of Statistics of Finland(2010b)and heat and electricity production efficiencies reported by Flyktman and Helynen(2003).b The heat production efficiency for natural gas is assumed to be90%.A.Niskanen et al./Journal of Cleaner Production xxx(2012)1e53Like the LFG collection ef ficiency,the emission factors can also vary extensively.Obviously,the selected factors have a notable effect on the results of the GHG emission estimations of the considered processes.The amount of emission savings due to energy recovery substantially depends strongly on the data used for emissions calculations (Finnveden et al.,2005;Fruergaard et al.,2009;Manfredi et al.,2009a ).In this study,it is assumed that the additional electricity production by gas utilization replaces the marginal electricity produced by coal condensing power plants.The Finnish average electricity production includes a notable share of CO 2emission neutral production,such as hydropower and nuclear electricity generation.Thus,if average fuel mix were assumed to be replaced,the amount of emissions and emission savings from the electricity production could be signi ficantly lower,and hence the differences between utilization options would change.Country-speci fic emission data for energy production can vary signi fi-cantly,and hence dissimilar outcomes for emission estimations are possible (Fruergaard et al.,2009).However,the marginal data was used in this study for the replaced electricity data,as preferred by Fruergaard et al.(2009).Uncertainties related to emissions caused by collected LFG do not change the superiority of the examined utilization options from the GHG emission point of view.Higher amounts of emissions from the treatment process or a lower collection ef ficiency of LFG would diminish the overall GHG emission balance of the considered system.If the amount of available gas were lower,it would decrease the emission savings and the feasibility of utilization,and in contrast,an obviously higher amount of gas would increase the emission savings and decrease the investment risks.From the GHG emission point of view,the CHP utilization option seems to be the most rational alternative.However,the GHG emission aspect cannot be the only criterion in the selection of the most convenient gas utilization technology.Other aspects,such as technical and economic ones,have to be taken into account.Each utilization technology sets requirements for the amount and quality of the generated LFG.In addition,the utilization technology must be adaptable to the existing infrastructure.For example,thedistrict heat generation is locally-oriented and requires an existing district heating network,and the utilization in an industrial process requires a suitable business near the land fill.Long distance trans-portation of the collected LFG is not feasible,and hence the gas needs to be utilized on-site or near the land fill.Obviously,this restricts the choice of the location for the gas nd fills are often apart from residential areas,and thus,the possibilities for heat recovery from LFG may be limited.It is,nevertheless,possible to situate industry that demands heat close to the waste manage-ment site.A signi ficant supply of heat energy may encourage such industries to relocate near the land fill.Moreover,the decline of LFG generation after the land fill closure must be taken into account.After the gas generation is diminished and the methane content is too low for energy utilization purposes,the land fill after-care period can be reduced through extraction measures.The most valuable waste fraction can be separated and the residues can be routed to incineration.Thus,the recovery of energy can be maxi-mized,the material recovery is enhanced,and the risk of soil contamination and groundwater pollution decreases in after-care period.4.ConclusionThe results show that the performance of LFG collection has a very strong impact on the GHG emissions of the land fill and on the amount of LFG available for utilization.In addition,the results show that emission savings through the utilization of collected LFG can signi ficantly compensate for the released LFG.According to the estimated GHG balance results,the combined heat and power (CHP)production with a gas engine is the recommended option for collected gas utilization.After the methane generation is too low for gas utilization,land filled material could be extracted for incineration.Thus,the recovery of energy can be maximized,the material recovery is enhanced,and the risk of pollution decreases.Furthermore,possible economic bene fits can be achieved through reduced after-care period.AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like gratefully to acknowledge the Fortum Foundation and the Lappeenranta University of Technology Research Foundation for their financial support to this study.ReferencesBogner,J.,Pipatti,R.,Hashimoto,S.,Diaz,C.,Mareckova,K.,Diaz,L.,Kjeldsen,P.,Monni,S.,Faaij, A.,Gao,Q.,Zhang,T.,Ahmed,M.A.,Sutamihardja,R.T.M.,Gregory,R.,2008.Mitigation of global greenhouse gas emissions from waste:conclusions and strategies from the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateFig.3.Effect of LFG collection ef ficiency on the GHG emission balance,avoided GHG emissions,and GHG emissions caused by the released LFG of Scenario 1.Fig.2.Estimated overall 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微电子词典Abrupt junction 突变结Accelerated testing 加速实验Acceptor 受主Acceptor atom 受主原子Accumulation 积累、堆积Accumulating contact 积累接触Accumulation region 积累区Accumulation layer 积累层Active region 有源区Active component 有源元Active device 有源器件Activation 激活Activation energy 激活能Active region 有源（放大）区Admittance 导纳Allowed band 允带Alloy-junction device合金结器件Aluminum(Aluminium) 铝Aluminum – oxide 铝氧化物Aluminum passivation 铝钝化Ambipolar 双极的Ambient temperature 环境温度Amorphous 无定形的，非晶体的Amplifier 功放扩音器放大器Analogue(Analog) comparator 模拟比较器Angstrom 埃Anneal 退火Anisotropic 各向异性的Anode 阳极Arsenic (AS) 砷Auger 俄歇Auger process 俄歇过程Avalanche 雪崩Avalanche breakdown 雪崩击穿Avalanche excitation雪崩激发Background carrier 本底载流子Background doping 本底掺杂Backward 反向Backward bias 反向偏置Ballasting resistor 整流电阻Ball bond 球形键合Band 能带Band gap 能带间隙Barrier 势垒Barrier layer 势垒层Barrier width 势垒宽度Base 基极Base contact 基区接触Base stretching 基区扩展效应Base transit time 基区渡越时间Base transport efficiency基区输运系数Base-width modulation基区宽度调制Basis vector 基矢Bias 偏置Bilateral switch 双向开关Binary code 二进制代码Binary compound semiconductor 二元化合物半导体Bipolar 双极性的Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)双极晶体管Bloch 布洛赫Blocking band 阻挡能带Blocking contact 阻挡接触Body - centered 体心立方Body-centred cubic structure 体立心结构Boltzmann 波尔兹曼Bond 键、键合Bonding electron 价电子Bonding pad 键合点Bootstrap circuit 自举电路Bootstrapped emitter follower 自举射极跟随器Boron 硼Borosilicate glass 硼硅玻璃Boundary condition 边界条件Bound electron 束缚电子Breadboard 模拟板、实验板Break down 击穿Break over 转折Brillouin 布里渊Brillouin zone 布里渊区Built-in 内建的Build-in electric field 内建电场Bulk 体/体内Bulk absorption 体吸收Bulk generation 体产生Bulk recombination 体复合Burn - in 老化Burn out 烧毁Buried channel 埋沟Buried diffusion region 隐埋扩散区Can 外壳Capacitance 电容Capture cross section 俘获截面Capture carrier 俘获载流子Carrier 载流子、载波Carry bit 进位位Carry-in bit 进位输入Carry-out bit 进位输出Cascade 级联Case 管壳Cathode 阴极Center 中心Ceramic 陶瓷（的）Channel 沟道Channel breakdown 沟道击穿Channel current 沟道电流Channel doping 沟道掺杂Channel shortening 沟道缩短Channel width 沟道宽度Characteristic impedance 特征阻抗Charge 电荷、充电Charge-compensation effects 电荷补偿效应Charge conservation 电荷守恒Charge neutrality condition 电中性条件Charge drive/exchange/sharing/transfer/storage 电荷驱动/交换/共享/转移/存储Chemmical etching 化学腐蚀法Chemically-Polish 化学抛光Chemmically-Mechanically Polish (CMP) 化学机械抛光Chip 芯片Chip yield 芯片成品率Clamped 箝位Clamping diode 箝位二极管Cleavage plane 解理面Clock rate 时钟频率Clock generator 时钟发生器Clock flip-flop 时钟触发器Close-packed structure 密堆积结构Close-loop gain 闭环增益Collector 集电极Collision 碰撞Compensated OP-AMP 补偿运放Common-base/collector/emitter connection 共基极/集电极/发射极连接Common-gate/drain/source connection 共栅/漏/源连接Common-mode gain 共模增益Common-mode input 共模输入Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) 共模抑制比Compatibility 兼容性Compensation 补偿Compensated impurities 补偿杂质Compensated semiconductor 补偿半导体Complementary Darlington circuit 互补达林顿电路Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect-Transistor(CMOS)互补金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管Complementary error function 余误差函数Computer-aided design (CAD)/test(CAT)/manufacture(CAM) 计算机辅助设计/ 测试/制造Compound Semiconductor 化合物半导体Conductance 电导Conduction band (edge) 导带(底) Conduction level/state 导带态Conductor 导体Conductivity 电导率Configuration 组态Conlomb 库仑Conpled Configuration Devices 结构组态Constants 物理常数Constant energy surface 等能面Constant-source diffusion恒定源扩散Contact 接触Contamination 治污Continuity equation 连续性方程Contact hole 接触孔Contact potential 接触电势Continuity condition 连续性条件Contra doping 反掺杂Controlled 受控的Converter 转换器Conveyer 传输器Copper interconnection system 铜互连系统Couping 耦合Covalent 共阶的Crossover 跨交Critical 临界的Crossunder 穿交Crucible坩埚Crystal defect/face/orientation/lattice 晶体缺陷/晶面/晶向/晶格Current density 电流密度Curvature 曲率Cut off 截止Current drift/dirve/sharing 电流漂移/驱动/共享Current Sense 电流取样Curvature 弯曲Custom integrated circuit 定制集成电路Cylindrical 柱面的Czochralshicrystal 直立单晶Czochralski technique 切克劳斯基技术（Cz法直拉晶体J）Dangling bonds 悬挂键Dark current 暗电流Dead time 空载时间Debye length 德拜长度De.broglie 德布洛意Decderate 减速Decibel (dB) 分贝Decode 译码Deep acceptor level 深受主能级Deep donor level 深施主能级Deep impurity level 深度杂质能级Deep trap 深陷阱Defeat 缺陷Degenerate semiconductor 简并半导体Degeneracy 简并度Degradation 退化Degree Celsius(centigrade) /Kelvin 摄氏/开氏温度Delay 延迟Density 密度Density of states 态密度Depletion 耗尽Depletion approximation 耗尽近似Depletion contact 耗尽接触Depletion depth 耗尽深度Depletion effect 耗尽效应Depletion layer 耗尽层Depletion MOS 耗尽MOS Depletion region 耗尽区Deposited film 淀积薄膜Deposition process 淀积工艺Design rules 设计规则Die 芯片（复数dice）Diode 二极管Dielectric 介电的Dielectric isolation 介质隔离Difference-mode input 差模输入Differential amplifier 差分放大器Differential capacitance 微分电容Diffused junction 扩散结Diffusion 扩散Diffusion coefficient 扩散系数Diffusion constant 扩散常数Diffusivity 扩散率Diffusion capacitance/barrier/current/furnace 扩散电容/势垒/电流/炉Digital circuit 数字电路Dipole domain 偶极畴Dipole layer 偶极层Direct-coupling 直接耦合Direct-gap semiconductor 直接带隙半导体Direct transition 直接跃迁Discharge 放电Discrete component 分立元件Dissipation 耗散Distribution 分布Distributed capacitance 分布电容Distributed model 分布模型Displacement 位移Dislocation 位错Domain 畴Donor 施主Donor exhaustion 施主耗尽Dopant 掺杂剂Doped semiconductor 掺杂半导体Doping concentration 掺杂浓度Double-diffusive MOS(DMOS)双扩散MOS.Drift 漂移Drift field 漂移电场Drift mobility 迁移率Dry etching 干法腐蚀Dry/wet oxidation 干/湿法氧化Dose 剂量Duty cycle 工作周期Dual-in-line package （DIP）双列直插式封装Dynamics 动态Dynamic characteristics 动态属性Dynamic impedance 动态阻抗Early effect 厄利效应Early failure 早期失效Effective mass 有效质量Einstein relation(ship) 爱因斯坦关系Electric Erase Programmable Read Only Memory(E2PROM) 一次性电可擦除只读存储器Electrode 电极Electrominggratim 电迁移Electron affinity 电子亲和势Electronic -grade 电子能Electron-beam photo-resist exposure 光致抗蚀剂的电子束曝光Electron gas 电子气Electron-grade water 电子级纯水Electron trapping center 电子俘获中心Electron Volt (eV) 电子伏Electrostatic 静电的Element 元素/元件/配件Elemental semiconductor 元素半导体Ellipse 椭圆Ellipsoid 椭球Emitter 发射极Emitter-coupled logic 发射极耦合逻辑Emitter-coupled pair 发射极耦合对Emitter follower 射随器Empty band 空带Emitter crowding effect 发射极集边（拥挤）效应Endurance test =life test 寿命测试Energy state 能态Energy momentum diagram 能量-动量(E-K)图Enhancement mode 增强型模式Enhancement MOS 增强性MOS Entefic (低)共溶的Environmental test 环境测试Epitaxial 外延的Epitaxial layer 外延层Epitaxial slice 外延片Expitaxy 外延Equivalent curcuit 等效电路Equilibrium majority /minority carriers 平衡多数/少数载流子Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)可搽取（编程）存储器Error function complement 余误差函数Etch 刻蚀Etchant 刻蚀剂Etching mask 抗蚀剂掩模Excess carrier 过剩载流子Excitation energy 激发能Excited state 激发态Exciton 激子Extrapolation 外推法Extrinsic 非本征的Extrinsic semiconductor 杂质半导体Face - centered 面心立方Fall time 下降时间Fan-in 扇入Fan-out 扇出Fast recovery 快恢复Fast surface states 快界面态Feedback 反馈Fermi level 费米能级Fermi-Dirac Distribution 费米-狄拉克分布Femi potential 费米势Fick equation 菲克方程（扩散）Field effect transistor 场效应晶体管Field oxide 场氧化层Filled band 满带Film 薄膜Flash memory 闪烁存储器Flat band 平带Flat pack 扁平封装Flicker noise 闪烁（变）噪声Flip-flop toggle 触发器翻转Floating gate 浮栅Fluoride etch 氟化氢刻蚀Forbidden band 禁带Forward bias 正向偏置Forward blocking /conducting正向阻断/导通Frequency deviation noise频率漂移噪声Frequency response 频率响应Function 函数Gain 增益Gallium-Arsenide(GaAs) 砷化钾Gamy ray r 射线Gate 门、栅、控制极Gate oxide 栅氧化层Gauss（ian）高斯Gaussian distribution profile 高斯掺杂分布Generation-recombination 产生-复合Geometries 几何尺寸Germanium(Ge) 锗Graded 缓变的Graded (gradual) channel 缓变沟道Graded junction 缓变结Grain 晶粒Gradient 梯度Grown junction 生长结Guard ring 保护环Gummel-Poom model 葛谋-潘模型Gunn - effect 狄氏效应Hardened device 辐射加固器件Heat of formation 形成热Heat sink 散热器、热沉Heavy/light hole band 重/轻空穴带Heavy saturation 重掺杂Hell - effect 霍尔效应Heterojunction 异质结Heterojunction structure 异质结结构Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor（HBT）异质结双极型晶体High field property 高场特性High-performance MOS.( H-MOS)高性能MOS. Hormalized 归一化Horizontal epitaxial reactor 卧式外延反应器Hot carrior 热载流子Hybrid integration 混合集成Image - force 镜象力Impact ionization 碰撞电离Impedance 阻抗Imperfect structure 不完整结构Implantation dose 注入剂量Implanted ion 注入离子Impurity 杂质Impurity scattering 杂志散射Incremental resistance 电阻增量（微分电阻）In-contact mask 接触式掩模Indium tin oxide (ITO) 铟锡氧化物Induced channel 感应沟道Infrared 红外的Injection 注入Input offset voltage 输入失调电压Insulator 绝缘体Insulated Gate FET(IGFET)绝缘栅FET Integrated injection logic集成注入逻辑Integration 集成、积分Interconnection 互连Interconnection time delay 互连延时Interdigitated structure 交互式结构Interface 界面Interference 干涉International system of unions国际单位制Internally scattering 谷间散射Interpolation 内插法Intrinsic 本征的Intrinsic semiconductor 本征半导体Inverse operation 反向工作Inversion 反型Inverter 倒相器Ion 离子Ion beam 离子束Ion etching 离子刻蚀Ion implantation 离子注入Ionization 电离Ionization energy 电离能Irradiation 辐照Isolation land 隔离岛Isotropic 各向同性Junction FET(JFET) 结型场效应管Junction isolation 结隔离Junction spacing 结间距Junction side-wall 结侧壁Latch up 闭锁Lateral 横向的Lattice 晶格Layout 版图Lattice binding/cell/constant/defect/distortion 晶格结合力/晶胞/晶格/晶格常熟/晶格缺陷/晶格畸变Leakage current （泄）漏电流Level shifting 电平移动Life time 寿命linearity 线性度Linked bond 共价键Liquid Nitrogen 液氮Liquid－phase epitaxial growth technique 液相外延生长技术Lithography 光刻Light Emitting Diode(LED) 发光二极管Load line or Variable 负载线Locating and Wiring 布局布线Longitudinal 纵向的Logic swing 逻辑摆幅Lorentz 洛沦兹Lumped model 集总模型Majority carrier 多数载流子Mask 掩膜板，光刻板Mask level 掩模序号Mask set 掩模组Mass - action law质量守恒定律Master-slave D flip-flop主从D触发器Matching 匹配Maxwell 麦克斯韦Mean free path 平均自由程Meandered emitter junction梳状发射极结Mean time before failure (MTBF) 平均工作时间Megeto - resistance 磁阻Mesa 台面MESFET-Metal Semiconductor金属半导体FETMetallization 金属化Microelectronic technique 微电子技术Microelectronics 微电子学Millen indices 密勒指数Minority carrier 少数载流子Misfit 失配Mismatching 失配Mobile ions 可动离子Mobility 迁移率Module 模块Modulate 调制Molecular crystal分子晶体Monolithic IC 单片IC MOSFET金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管Mos. Transistor(MOST )MOS. 晶体管Multiplication 倍增Modulator 调制Multi-chip IC 多芯片ICMulti-chip module(MCM) 多芯片模块Multiplication coefficient倍增因子Naked chip 未封装的芯片（裸片）Negative feedback 负反馈Negative resistance 负阻Nesting 套刻Negative-temperature-coefficient 负温度系数Noise margin 噪声容限Nonequilibrium 非平衡Nonrolatile 非挥发（易失）性Normally off/on 常闭/开Numerical analysis 数值分析Occupied band 满带Officienay 功率Offset 偏移、失调On standby 待命状态Ohmic contact 欧姆接触Open circuit 开路Operating point 工作点Operating bias 工作偏置Operational amplifier (OPAMP)运算放大器Optical photon =photon 光子Optical quenching光猝灭Optical transition 光跃迁Optical-coupled isolator光耦合隔离器Organic semiconductor有机半导体Orientation 晶向、定向Outline 外形Out-of-contact mask非接触式掩模Output characteristic 输出特性Output voltage swing 输出电压摆幅Overcompensation 过补偿Over-current protection 过流保护Over shoot 过冲Over-voltage protection 过压保护Overlap 交迭Overload 过载Oscillator 振荡器Oxide 氧化物Oxidation 氧化Oxide passivation 氧化层钝化Package 封装Pad 压焊点Parameter 参数Parasitic effect 寄生效应Parasitic oscillation 寄生振荡Passination 钝化Passive component 无源元件Passive device 无源器件Passive surface 钝化界面Parasitic transistor 寄生晶体管Peak-point voltage 峰点电压Peak voltage 峰值电压Permanent-storage circuit 永久存储电路Period 周期Periodic table 周期表Permeable - base 可渗透基区Phase-lock loop 锁相环Phase drift 相移Phonon spectra 声子谱Photo conduction 光电导Photo diode 光电二极管Photoelectric cell 光电池Photoelectric effect 光电效应Photoenic devices 光子器件Photolithographic process 光刻工艺(photo) resist （光敏）抗腐蚀剂Pin 管脚Pinch off 夹断Pinning of Fermi level 费米能级的钉扎（效应）Planar process 平面工艺Planar transistor 平面晶体管Plasma 等离子体Plezoelectric effect 压电效应Poisson equation 泊松方程Point contact 点接触Polarity 极性Polycrystal 多晶Polymer semiconductor聚合物半导体Poly-silicon 多晶硅Potential (电)势Potential barrier 势垒Potential well 势阱Power dissipation 功耗Power transistor 功率晶体管Preamplifier 前置放大器Primary flat 主平面Principal axes 主轴Print-circuit board(PCB) 印制电路板Probability 几率Probe 探针Process 工艺Propagation delay 传输延时Pseudopotential method 膺势发Punch through 穿通Pulse triggering/modulating 脉冲触发/调制PulseWiden Modulator(PWM) 脉冲宽度调制Punchthrough 穿通Push-pull stage 推挽级Quality factor 品质因子Quantization 量子化Quantum 量子Quantum efficiency量子效应Quantum mechanics 量子力学Quasi – Fermi－level准费米能级Quartz 石英Radiation conductivity 辐射电导率Radiation damage 辐射损伤Radiation flux density 辐射通量密度Radiation hardening 辐射加固Radiation protection 辐射保护Radiative - recombination辐照复合Radioactive 放射性Reach through 穿通Reactive sputtering source 反应溅射源Read diode 里德二极管Recombination 复合Recovery diode 恢复二极管Reciprocal lattice 倒核子Recovery time 恢复时间Rectifier 整流器（管）Rectifying contact 整流接触Reference 基准点基准参考点Refractive index 折射率Register 寄存器Registration 对准Regulate 控制调整Relaxation lifetime 驰豫时间Reliability 可靠性Resonance 谐振Resistance 电阻Resistor 电阻器Resistivity 电阻率Regulator 稳压管（器）Relaxation 驰豫Resonant frequency共射频率Response time 响应时间Reverse 反向的Reverse bias 反向偏置Sampling circuit 取样电路Sapphire 蓝宝石（Al2O3）Satellite valley 卫星谷Saturated current range电流饱和区Saturation region 饱和区Saturation 饱和的Scaled down 按比例缩小Scattering 散射Schockley diode 肖克莱二极管Schottky 肖特基Schottky barrier 肖特基势垒Schottky contact 肖特基接触Schrodingen 薛定厄Scribing grid 划片格Secondary flat 次平面Seed crystal 籽晶Segregation 分凝Selectivity 选择性Self aligned 自对准的Self diffusion 自扩散Semiconductor 半导体Semiconductor-controlled rectifier 可控硅Sendsitivity 灵敏度Serial 串行/串联Series inductance 串联电感Settle time 建立时间Sheet resistance 薄层电阻Shield 屏蔽Short circuit 短路Shot noise 散粒噪声Shunt 分流Sidewall capacitance 边墙电容Signal 信号Silica glass 石英玻璃Silicon 硅Silicon carbide 碳化硅Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 二氧化硅Silicon Nitride(Si3N4) 氮化硅Silicon On Insulator 绝缘硅Siliver whiskers 银须Simple cubic 简立方Single crystal 单晶Sink 沉Skin effect 趋肤效应Snap time 急变时间Sneak path 潜行通路Sulethreshold 亚阈的Solar battery/cell 太阳能电池Solid circuit 固体电路Solid Solubility 固溶度Sonband 子带Source 源极Source follower 源随器Space charge 空间电荷Specific heat(PT) 热Speed-power product 速度功耗乘积Spherical 球面的Spin 自旋Split 分裂Spontaneous emission 自发发射Spreading resistance扩展电阻Sputter 溅射Stacking fault 层错Static characteristic 静态特性Stimulated emission 受激发射Stimulated recombination 受激复合Storage time 存储时间Stress 应力Straggle 偏差Sublimation 升华Substrate 衬底Substitutional 替位式的Superlattice 超晶格Supply 电源Surface 表面Surge capacity 浪涌能力Subscript 下标Switching time 开关时间Switch 开关Tailing 扩展Terminal 终端Tensor 张量Tensorial 张量的Thermal activation 热激发Thermal conductivity 热导率Thermal equilibrium 热平衡Thermal Oxidation 热氧化Thermal resistance 热阻Thermal sink 热沉Thermal velocity 热运动Thermoelectricpovoer 温差电动势率Thick-film technique 厚膜技术Thin-film hybrid IC薄膜混合集成电路Thin-Film Transistor(TFT) 薄膜晶体Threshlod 阈值Thyistor 晶闸管Transconductance 跨导Transfer characteristic 转移特性Transfer electron 转移电子Transfer function 传输函数Transient 瞬态的Transistor aging(stress) 晶体管老化Transit time 渡越时间Transition 跃迁Transition-metal silica 过度金属硅化物Transition probability 跃迁几率Transition region 过渡区Transport 输运Transverse 横向的Trap 陷阱Trapping 俘获Trapped charge 陷阱电荷Triangle generator 三角波发生器Triboelectricity 摩擦电Trigger 触发Trim 调配调整Triple diffusion 三重扩散Truth table 真值表Tolerahce 容差Tunnel(ing) 隧道（穿）Tunnel current 隧道电流Turn over 转折Turn - off time 关断时间Ultraviolet 紫外的Unijunction 单结的Unipolar 单极的Unit cell 原（元）胞Unity-gain frequency 单位增益频率Unilateral-switch单向开关Vacancy 空位Vacuum 真空Valence(value) band 价带Value band edge 价带顶Valence bond 价键Vapour phase 汽相Varactor 变容管Varistor 变阻器Vibration 振动Voltage 电压Wafer 晶片Wave equation 波动方程Wave guide 波导Wave number 波数Wave-particle duality 波粒二相性Wear-out 烧毁Wire routing 布线Work function 功函数Worst-case device 最坏情况器件Yield 成品率Zener breakdown 齐纳击穿Zone melting 区熔法。

黑龙江省哈尔滨师范大学附属中学2024-2025学年高三上学期10月月考英语试题一、听力选择题1．How many of the dresses does the woman have?A．One.B．Two.C．Three.2．How does the man feel about the shoes?A．Satisfied.B．Embarrassed.C．Dissatisfied.3．Where are the speakers probably?A．In a store.B．In an office.C．In a classroom.4．What is the relationship between the speakers?A．Strangers.B．Friends.C．Husband and wife. 5．What is the weather like now?A．Cloudy.B．Sunny.C．Rainy.听下面一段较长对话，回答以下小题。

6．What do we know about the woman?A．She likes the outdoors.B．She tripped up on a rock.C．She never camped in the woods.7．What is hard in the dark according to the man?A．Setting up a tent.B．Avoiding rocks.C．Building a fire.听下面一段较长对话，回答以下小题。

8．What did the man do yesterday?A．He called his friends.B．He visited the gallery.C．He made a reservation. 9．What is the man’s problem?A．He found the gallery was full of people.B．He didn’t know where to pick up the tickets.C．His name is not on the list.10．What will the woman most likely do next?A．Give some tickets to the man.B．Close the gallery.C．Contact a lady.听下面一段较长对话，回答以下小题。

李军等：一种智控型烟气余热深度回收装置的实践探索第14卷第4期（2024-04）油田加热炉作为一种以天然气为燃料的加热装置，在各大油田采油场站均有广泛应用，天然气燃烧生成的高温烟气，与低温液态介质完成热交换后，烟气由尾部烟道经烟囱排空。

通常加热炉设计一种智控型烟气余热深度回收装置的实践探索李军1耿景明2樊鹏3（1.大庆油田有限责任公司第一采油厂；2.大庆油田天宇工程设计有限责任公司；3.深圳市佳运通电子有限公司）摘要：为了解决大庆油田加热炉排烟温度高、生产能耗大的问题，在加热炉排烟系统增设智控型烟气余热深度回收装置，以加热炉进液为冷源，将排烟温度冷却至50℃以下，综合回收烟气的显热和潜热，达到深度回收烟气余热的目的，并对烟气降温过程中产生的冷凝水进行全部回收，从根本上解决了冷凝水排放问题。

应用装置前后系统整体热效率分别为79.94%和87.47%，综合计算得到装置的节能率为8.35%，节能效果显著；此外，对于1.0MW 加热炉，年平均负荷率50%，年运行时间330h，测算得到每年节约天然气4.58×104m 3，折合7.4万元，具有良好的经济效益。

关键词：油田加热炉；烟气余热；烟气冷凝水；冷凝水回收；节能降碳DOI :10.3969/j.issn.2095-1493.2024.04.012Practical exploration of recovery device for an intelligent-controlled flue gas waste heat LI Jun 1，GENG Jingming 2，FAN Peng 31No.1Oil Production Plant of Daqing Oilfield Co.，Ltd.2Daqing Oilfield Tianyu Engineering Design Co.，Ltd.3Shenzhen Jiayuntong Electronic Co.，Ltd.Abstract：In order to solve the problems of high exhaust gas temperature and high production energy consumption in Daqing oilfield，an intelligent-controlled waste heat recovery device is installed in the exhaust gas system of heating furnace.The heating furnace inlet liquid is used as as cooling source，and the exhaust gas temperature will be cooled down to below 50℃，which comprehensively recovers the sensible heat and latent heat of flue gas，and achieves the purpose of recovering the waste heat of flue gas.In addition，all the condensation produced during the flue gas cooling process is recovered，which fundamentally solves the problem of condensation.The practical results show that the overall thermal ef-ficiency of the system before and after application is 79.94%and 87.47%respectively，and the energy conservation rate of device achieved comprehensively is 8.35%，which makes energy conservation ef-fect significant.Even more to the point，in view of the heating furnace of 1.0MW，the annual average load rate is 50%，and the annual running time is 330hours.It is estimated that natural gas is saved by 4.58×104m 3per year，which is equivalent to 74000yuan and has better economic benefits.Keywords：oilfield heating furnace；flue gas waste heat；flue gas condensation；condensation recov-ery；energy conservation and carbon reduction第一作者简介：李军，2008年毕业于大庆石油学院（石油与天然气开采专业）黑龙江省大庆市让胡路区东湖小区10区，163000。

Home Search Collections Journals About Contact us My IOPscienceGallium nitride devices for power electronic applicationsThis content has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text.2013 Semicond. Sci. Technol. 28 074011(/0268-1242/28/7/074011)View the table of contents for this issue, or go to the journal homepage for moreDownload details:IP Address: 121.33.190.167This content was downloaded on 26/09/2013 at 01:23Please note that terms and conditions apply.IOP P UBLISHING S EMICONDUCTOR S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY Semicond.Sci.Technol.28(2013)074011(8pp)doi:10.1088/0268-1242/28/7/074011INVITED REVIEWGallium nitride devices for power electronic applicationsB Jayant BaligaElectrical and Computer Engineering Department,North Carolina State University,Raleigh,NC27695,USAE-mail:bjbaliga@Received27July2012,infinal form30August2012Published21June2013Online at /SST/28/074011AbstractRecent success with the fabrication of high-performance GaN-on-Si high-voltage HFETs hasmade this technology a contender for power electronic applications.This paper discusses theproperties of GaN that make it an attractive alternative to established silicon and emerging SiCpower devices.Progress in development of vertical power devices from bulk GaN is reviewedfollowed by analysis of the prospects for GaN-on-Si HFET structures.Challenges andinnovative solutions to creating enhancement-mode power switches are reviewed.(Somefigures may appear in colour only in the online journal)IntroductionSilicon power devices have dominated the power electronics application space during the second half of the20th century. Beginning with bipolar power transistors and thyristors in the 1950s,the industry migrated to MOS-gated devices in the 1980s.The silicon power MOSFET became well established as the device of choice for applications operating at power supply voltages below200V.This includes the lucrative automotive market and the computing sector.The high specific on-resistance of silicon power MOSFETs with larger breakdown voltages spurred the creation of MOS-bipolar functional integration resulting in the emergence of the insulated gate bipolar iransistor(IGBT)in the1980s[1].The low on-state voltage drop of high-voltage IGBTs,together with ease of control and superb ruggedness,greatly reduced the cost and size of power electronic circuits making it the predominant technology in consumer,industrial,transportation,lighting and renewable energy applications.Any new technology must offer substantial improvements to the on-state voltage drop and switching losses,while retaining all the other attributes of ease of control and ruggedness,in order to displace this widely accepted technology.A detailed description and analysis of silicon unipolar and bipolar power devices is available in a recent textbook[2].During the1990s,many innovative ideas have been proposed and demonstrated for silicon power devices that have now become available as products.These ideas have been described and analyzed in supplementary books published during the last several years[3–5].Any new proposed technology must surpass the performance of not only the traditional silicon power devices but be able to compete with these enhanced-performance silicon devices as well.Thefirst analysis relating the performance of power devices to the basic material properties of semiconductors was developed at GE in1980and published in1982[6].The analysis produced a simple equation,now commonly referred to as Baliga’sfigure of merit(BFOM),to evaluate the potential improvements in the drift region resistance of unipolar power devices by substituting silicon with other semiconductor materials.This analysis indicated a13.7-times improvement by replacing silicon with gallium arsenide.Based upon this projection,GaAs power devices with high performance were developed at GE in the1980s[7,8].Subsequently,GaAs Schottky power rectifiers with breakdown voltage of200V became commercially available from several companies by leveraging this work.These devices represent thefirst-power semiconductor products based upon replacing silicon with wide bandgap semiconductor material.The predicted BFOM for silicon carbide of more than 1000provided strong motivation for development of unipolar devices from the available6H-SiC polytype material in the 1990s.Thefirst high-voltage(400V)SiC Schottky rectifier with low(∼1V)on-state voltage drop and excellent reverse recovery characteristics was reported by NCSU in1992[9]. This work demonstrated the promise of SiC-based power devices for mainstream power electronic applications whichchanged the industry perspective that was focused until that time on specialty high-temperature niche markets for power devices made from this material.Significant effort in the 1990s to grow high-quality4H-SiC polytype material with large wafer diameter and the development of processes for making ohmic contacts,Schottky contacts and improved MOS interfaces has resulted in the introduction of SiC Schottky rectifier and power MOSFET products by many companies including CREE Inc,Rohm,Infineon and GeneSiC.These devices represent a new benchmark that must be surpassed by any emerging technology such as GaN-based power devices.A comprehensive review of the design and operating characteristics of SiC power devices was published in 2006[10].Interest in gallium nitride grew in the1990s due its potential for applications in the lighting and cellular amplifier markets[11,12].Commercial products based upon this material have become highly successful in these markets. Recently,significant interest has emerged in utilizing this material for making power devices that could surpass the performance of silicon high-voltage devices and be more cost effective than silicon carbide power devices.This review provides a description of GaN power device options. Recent measurements of the impact ionization coefficients are included here because of their important role in defining the critical electricfield for breakdown,which is essential to the design of any GaN high-voltage structures.Impact ionization coefficientsThe maximum voltage that a semiconductor device can sustain is limited by the on-set of avalanche breakdown created by the impact ionization process[2].The impact ionization phenomenon is characterized by the impact ionization coefficients for electrons and holes which are defined as the number of electron-hole pairs created by the mobile particle traversing1cm through the depletion region along the direction of the electricfield.The measurement of these coefficients is complicated by the presence of defects in the semiconductor material,nonuniform electricfields within the structure,and the onset of premature breakdown at the edges of the chips.The impact ionization coefficients for electrons and holes in gallium nitride have been successfully measured after a3year effort at NCSU by using a pulsed electron beam technique[13].A pulsed electron beam technique was used for this work to localize the measurements to avoid defects detected in the material using electron beam induced current (EBIC)scans.Schottky barrier diodes were fabricated on N-type GaN epitaxial layers with low doping concentration grown on highly doped N+GaN substrates.The problem of high electricfields at the edges of the diodes was solved by using argon ion implantation which raised the breakdown voltage from300V to1650V[14].Pulsing the electron beam during the impact ionization measurements greatly improved the signal to noise ratio by using a lock-in amplifier.Extensive numerical simulations of the experimental procedure for extraction of the impact ionization coefficients from the multiplication factor obtained as a function ofthe Figure1.Measured impact ionization coefficients for electrons and holes in gallium nitride.reverse bias on the Schottky diodes were performed.It was found that the impact ionization coefficient for electrons could be obtained by using low electron beam energy to produce excitation close to the Schottky contact.In contrast,it was found that the impact ionization coefficient for holes could be obtained by using high electron beam energy to produce excitation through most of the depletion region[15].The experimental results are shown infigure1as the data points with appropriate standard deviation due to performing multiple measurements at a site and across multiple diodes.The straight lines provide afit to Chynoweth’s equation[16]:α=a e(−b/E).(1) From the measured data for electrons in GaN,a n has a value of1.5×105(+or−0.2×105)cm−1and b n has a value of1.41×107(+or−0.03×107)V cm−1at room temperature.From the measured data for holes in GaN,a p has a value of6.4×105(+or−0.1×105)cm−1and b p has a value of1.46×107(+or−0.01×107)V cm−1at room temperature.The temperature dependence of these parameters for GaN has also been measured by using a heating stage installed inside the scanning electron microscope used for the pulsed electron beam experiments[13]:a n=2.82×106−6.34×103T(2)a p=2.98×106−7.02×103T.(3) The coefficientsb n and b p were found to be independent of temperature within experimental tolerances.These data are valuable for use in numerical simulation software used for the analysis of any GaN devices such as lateral microwave transistors,and vertical or lateral power devices.Vertical power devicesMost silicon power devices are manufactured with a vertical device structure because this allows placement of the highFigure2.One-dimensional electricfield distribution within vertical power devices.current carrying terminals on opposite surfaces of the silicon chip.This design allows maintaining a uniform current density within the chip and avoids the need to pattern veryfine metal lines during device processing.The typical structures for the vertical Schottky power rectifier and the vertical planar power MOSFET are shown infigure2together with the electric field distribution obtained using one-dimensional analysis of Poisson’s equation for the drift region.In these devices,the maximum electricfield(E M)occurs at the blocking interface (metal–semiconductor contact in the Schottky rectifier or the P–N junction in the power MOSFET)with a linear reduction in magnitude to zero at a width W D for the depletion region. The devices undergo avalanche breakdown when the ionization integral across the depletion region becomes equal to unity[2]. Simple equations for the breakdown condition can be derived if a power law approximation is used for the impact ionization coefficients.For a given doping concentration(N D)in the drift region,the analysis then predicts that avalanche breakdown occurs when the maximum electricfield becomes equal to a critical electricfield for breakdown(E C)with a corresponding maximum depletion width W PP.The ideal specific on-resistance is defined as the resistance of this drift region for unit cross sectional area.It is given byR ON,SP=4BV2εSμn E3C(4)where BV is the breakdown voltage,εS is the dielectric constant andμn is the mobility.The denominator of this expression is commonly referred to as Baliga’sfigure of merit(BFOM).In order to obtain the BFOM for GaN,it is necessary to obtain the critical electricfield for breakdown which is a function of the doping concentration of the drift region.The critical electricfield for breakdown in silicon is commonly obtained by using a Fulops power lawfit to the impact ionization data[17].In a similar manner,the Ozbek–Baliga power lawfit for GaN has been proposed[13]:α=1.5×10−42E7.(5)parison of GaN maximum depletion width with Si andSiC.parison of GaN critical electricfield with Si and SiC. Solving the ionization integral with this power law provides the following relationships for the drift region for an ideal GaN vertical power device:W PP=1.57×1011N(−7/8)D(6)E C=3.19×104N(1/8)D(7)BV PP=2.51×1015N(−3/4)D.(8) The values for the maximum depletion layer width,the critical electricfield for breakdown and the breakdown voltage predicted by these equations are plotted infigures3–5, respectively.In order to verify the accuracy of the analytical model,data were obtained by performing numerical simulations with the impact ionization coefficients given by equation(1)[13].The data obtained from the numerical simulations for the above parameters are shown by the dots in thefigures.It can be concluded that the proposed analytical model in equation(5)provides an accurate match to the results of numerical ing the analytical model,it is found that the critical electricfield for GaN is1.23-timesFigure parison of GaN breakdown voltage with Si andSiC.Figure parison of GaN ideal specific on-resistance with Si and SiC.larger than that for 4H–SiC and 7.97-times larger than that for silicon.Using the above equations,the ideal specific on-resistance for the drift region of a vertical GaN power device is given byR ON ,SP (GaN )=3.12×10−12BV 2.5(9)if a mobility of 1000cm 2(V s)−1is used independent of the doping concentration.Values for the specific on-resistance for GaN obtained by using this equation are compared with those for silicon and 4H-SiC devices in figure 6.It can be concluded that the ideal specific on-resistance for GaN vertical power devices is 1.78-times smaller than that for 4H-SiC and 2130-times smaller than that for silicon at all breakdown voltages.Vertical GaN power devices can be fabricated either from bulk GaN substrates or by the homo-epitaxial growth of lightly doped thin GaN layers on thick more heavily doped GaN substrates.The development of Schottky rectifiers from GaN grown on a variety of substrates has been reviewed by Zhang et al [18].The emphasis of this work was on achieving high breakdown voltages with relatively poor on-state characteristics.Edge terminations for the devices playan important role in determining the breakdown voltages [19].Recently,nearly ideal breakdown voltage has been achieved by using an argon implanted edge termination [14,20].With this approach,the breakdown voltage of GaN Schottky rectifiers was improved from 300V to 1600V for a 4μm thick epitaxial layer with doping concentration of 1×1014cm −3grown on a N +GaN substrate.The critical electric field for breakdown extracted from these punch-through diode structures was 3.75×106V cm −1.It is worth pointing out that this is much larger than the critical electric field of 1.8×106V cm −1at a doping concentration of 1×1014cm −3(see figure 4)obtained for GaN using the impact ionization coefficients.This difference is due to the very small depletion width of 4μm where impact ionization occurs for the punch-through structure when compared with a depletion width of 900μm for the nonpunch through structure represented in figure 4.Using eqution (9),the projected ideal specific on-resistance for GaN power MOSFETs at a breakdown voltage of 600V is found to be 0.0275m cm 2.Although the projected drift region resistance is extremely small,it is unfortunately overwhelmed by the specific on-resistance of available GaN substrates (in the range of 2m cm 2).From this observation,it can be concluded that vertical GaN power devices will not be competitive with SiC devices until the GaN substrate technology is substantially improved.Despite this limitation,vertical FET structures have been reported on GaN substrates using a ‘current aperture vertical electron transistor (CA VET)structure’[21,22].Although the basic functionality of the FET structure has been demonstrated,these devices had low blocking voltages (∼65V)with relatively high specific on-resistance (2.6m cm 2).Vertical GaN FETs are being considered for automotive applications but their voltage ratings are well below system requirements [23].Consequently,most of the focus of the development effort in academia and the industry has been directed toward lateral GaN devices based upon GaN layers grown on silicon substrates as discussed in the next section.Lateral HEMT figure-of-meritThe ability to grow high-quality gallium nitride layers on silicon substrates has been a major technological breakthrough.Due to the low cost of large diameter silicon wafers,this has created the opportunity to develop high-performance GaN power devices circumventing the road-block of the high cost and small size of GaN substrates.In addition,a powerful approach to achieving low on-resistance has evolved based upon using the high electron mobility transistor (HEMT)structure.The HEMT structure was first developed for microwave applications using GaN layers grown on high-resistivity SiC and sapphire substrates [24].In the HEMT structure shown in figure 7,an AlGaN layer is grown on top of the GaN layer to create a large polarization effect which produces a two-dimensional electron gas at the AlGaN /GaN interface.A typical sheet carrier density of 1×1013cm −2with an electron mobility of 2000cm 2(V s)−1has been reported in the 2D-gas [25].Figure7.GaN HEMT structure with ideal electricfield distribution.A simple analysis of the ultimate performance for the lateral HEMT structure can be performed by assuming an idealized uniform electricfield distribution along the x-axis between the edge of the gate and the drain.The structure undergoes breakdown when the maximum electricfield becomes equal to the critical electricfield(E C,L)for breakdown in a structure with uniform electricfield along the drift region. This critical electricfield is different from the previously derived critical electricfield for devices with triangular shaped electricfield distribution as discussed later in this section.The length of the drift region is given byL D(HEMT)=BVE C,L.(10)In order to obtain the ideal specific on-resistance for a lateral HEMT structure,only the resistance of the drift region is taken into account while neglecting the space occupied by the source, gate and drain contacts.The on-resistance of the drift region is given byR ON(HEMT)=L DqμQ S Z(11)whereμis the free carrier mobility in the2D-gas,Q S is the sheet carrier density and Z is the width of the structure orthogonal to the cross-section.The specific on-resistance for the lateral HEMT structure is obtained by multiplying the on-resistance by the area(L D.Z):R ON,SP(HEMT)=L2DqμQ S.(12)Using equation(10)yieldsR ON,SP(HEMT)=BV2qμQ S E2C,L.(13)The denominator of this equation serves as afigure-of-merit for lateral HEMT structures:BFOM(HEMT)=qμQ S E2C,L.(14) The critical electricfield for breakdown for the lateral HEMT structure is a function of the breakdown voltage of the structure (as is also the case for the vertical power FET structures).The critical electricfield for breakdown for the lateral HEMT structure can be derived by performing the ionization integral with a uniform electricfield in the drift region with equation(5) for the impact ionization coefficient.Equating the ionization integral to unity yieldsE C,L=6.667×1041BV1/6.(15) The solution indicates that the critical electricfield for breakdown of a lateral HEMT structure will decrease with increasing breakdown voltage.This is due to the longer impact ionization path along the drift region with increasing breakdown bining equation(15)with equation(10),L D(HEMT)=1.07×10−7BV7/6.(16) Substituting this expression into equation(12),R ON,SP(HEMT)=7.154×104BV7/3S.(17) Using the typical sheet carrier density of1×1013cm−2with an electron mobility of2000cm2(V s)−1reported in the2D-gas for the AlGaN/GaN HEMT structures yieldsR ON,SP(HEMT)=3.577×10−12BV7/3.(18) It is worth pointing out that the power law relating the specific on-resistance to the breakdown voltage for a lateral HEMT structure is different from that given by equation(9)for a vertical power FET structure.The specific on-resistance for the lateral GaN HEMT structure is plotted infigure6.The line corresponding to the lateral GaN HEMT devices is not parallel to the lines for the other vertical device structures shown in thefigure.The above analysis indicates that the ideal specific on-resistance for lateral GaN HEMT devices is lower than that predicted for the vertical GaN FET devices,and consequently superior to4H-SiC and Si devices as well.The lateral GaN HEMT structures are expected to have an ideal specific on-resistance that is1.88,2.76and4.05-times smaller than for the vertical GaN FET devices at breakdown voltages of100,1000and 10000V,respectively.Lateral GaN HEMT devicesAlGaN/GaN HEMT structures fabricated on GaN layers grown on silicon substrates have attracted the most commercial interest for power electronic applications in recent years due to the prospects for creating a high-performance FET technology on a low-cost panies that are pursuing this approach include International Rectifier[26],MicroGaN[27], Transphorm[28]and EPC[29].Although the research effort on GaN HFETs spans a broad range of blocking voltages, 600V devices are considered an important target for solar inverters and motor drives for hybrid electric cars[30].Several reviews of the development activity for GaN HFETs have been recently published[31,32].Most of the early work has been focused on achieving high breakdown voltages and preventing the current collapse phenomenon.This was achieved by using gate and source connectedfield plates asFigure 8.Improved GaN HEMT structures.illustrated in the structure on the left-hand side of figure 8[33].Normally on or depletion-mode devices with blocking voltage of 1.3kV were successfully fabricated with a maximum current of 120amperes and a specific on-resistance of 5.2m cm 2.Although an excellent low specific on-resistance was achieved when compared with silicon devices,it is 2orders of magnitude above the ideal specific on-resistance predicted by the analysis in the previous section indicating room for further improvements.For example,the gate-to-drain length used for these devices was 15μm when compared with only 3.4μm for the ideal case indicating that there is opportunity to make the electric field more uniform along the drift region.Promising approaches that have been proposed and demonstrated to increase the breakdown voltage are a greater buffer layer thickness [34]and source vias to ground the silicon substrate [35].For power electronic applications,it is essential that transistors have a normally off or enhancement-mode characteristic to prevent shoot-through problems during circuit power up.Since the basic AlGaN /GaN HFET structure has a normally on or depletion mode characteristic,modifications have been proposed to move the threshold voltage from negative to positive values.One of the methods to achieve normally off behavior in the AlGaN /GaN HFETs is to make a ‘recessed-gate’structure as illustrated on the left-hand side of figure 8.The typical thickness for the AlGaN layer is 20nm.In order to obtain a zero threshold voltage,it is necessary to reduce the AlGaN layer under the gate to only 5nm [36].The recess process must not only accurately reduce the AlGaN layer thickness but must be uniform across the wafer.580V HFETs have been fabricated with AlGaN layer thickness of only 2nm [37]with zero threshold voltage and a specific on-resistance of 1.25m cm 2.A 600V HFET with a positive threshold voltage of 0.8V and specific on-resistance of 2.8m cm 2has also been reported by using a recessed-gate structure with NiOx gate material [38].These results are far superior to the specific on-resistance of 100m cm 2for the typical 600V silicon power MOSFET and 30m cm 2for the 600V silicon COOLMOS technology [4].However,the threshold voltages of these HFETs are too low for secure operation in power circuits.Another approach taken to achieve a normally off AlGaN /GaN HFET device is to use the recessed MOS gate structure illustrated on the right-hand side of figure 8.Furukawa Electric has reported 500V ,70-A devices with a positive threshold voltage of 2.8V in 2009[39]with specific on-resistance of 16m cm 2.These structures utilized a p-type magnesium-doped GaN layer.Subsequently,600V ,100-A normally off AlGaN /GaN HFET devices with a threshold voltage of 2.7V and specific on-resistance of 9.3m cm 2have been reported by this group in 2010[40].Although these results are very promising,the specific on-resistance for the AlGaN /GaN MOS-HFET structures remains substantially larger than that for normally on AlGaN /GaN HFET structures with the same blocking voltage.Hybrid GaN /Si devicesIn the 1990s,the development of power MOSFETs from silicon carbide was stymied by poor mobility for electrons in inversion layers and catastrophic failure of devices due to high electric fields generated in the gate oxide [10].Better progress was made on the development of high-voltage JFET structures with low specific on-resistance but these devices had normally on characteristics.The Baliga–Pair configuration [41],named after the inventor analogous to the Darlington–Pair [42],was proposed to address these problems.The concept was first reported in the literature in 1996[43].In the Baliga–Pair configuration,a high-voltage normally on SiC JFET or MESFET structure is paired with a low-voltage normally off Si power MOSFET to create a composite three-terminal device as shown in figure 9.In the Baliga–Pair configuration,the source of the high-voltage FET is connected to the drain of the Si power MOSFET and the gate of the high-voltage FET is connected to the source of the Si power MOSFET which serves as the ground or reference terminal.The device can be controlled by biasing the gate of the Si power MOSFET while the drain of the high-voltage FET is connected to the load and the output power source.If the SiC JFET /MESFET is designed with a pinch-off voltage of 20V ,a 30V Si power MOSFET with very low on-resistance can be used in this circuit while very high voltages can be controlled viaFigure9.The Baliga–Pair device configuration.the high-voltage JFET/MESFET.The circuit provides the benefits of high blocking voltage capability with very low specific on-resistance,excellent switching behavior and wide safe-operating-area characteristics[2,10].Although these references discuss the use of a normally on high-voltage SiC JFET,it is obvious that the idea would work well with a normally on high-voltage FET made from any other material.The Baliga–Pair concept has been experimentally validated by extensive work done by Siemens[44,45]using their planar-gate vertical SiC JFET technology.These authors refer to the Baliga–Pair configuration as a‘cascode circuit’. This is a misnomer because the term cascode has been previously used to describe an analog circuit where one bipolar transistor serves as the load for a second bipolar transistor to increase the output resistance[46].Neither bipolar transistor is normally on in these circuits.In contrast,a normally on high-voltage FET made from wide band gap material is controlled by a silicon power MOSFET in the Baliga–Pair circuit.As discussed previously,currently normally on high-voltage AlGaN/GaN FET structures have the best specific on-resistance.Consequently,the Baliga–Pair circuit with a normally on high-voltage AlGaN/GaN HFET and a low-voltage Si power MOSFET is considered the most commercially viable solution at this time[27–29].With this approach,very high efficiencies have been demonstrated for a dc to dc boost circuit operating at100kHz with220V at the input[47].ConclusionsThis paper provides a review of GaN-based devices for power electronic applications.Recent measurements of the impact ionization coefficients for holes and electrons in GaN confirm and quantify the larger critical electricfield for breakdown for this material when compared with Si and ing the impact ionization data,analytical models for the breakdown voltage and the ideal specific on-resistance for the drift region of vertical power devices have been derived.The ideal specific on-resistance for vertical GaN devices is found to be1.78-times smaller than that for4H-SiC and2130-times smaller than that for silicon at all breakdown voltages.The prospects for vertical GaN power devices fabricated from GaN substrates is hindered by the high-resistivity,small size and high cost of the substrates.The demonstration of high-quality GaN layers on silicon substrates has created the opportunity to create a high-performance power device technology that is potentially less expensive than silicon carbide devices.Normally on high-voltage AlGaN/GaN HFETs have been demonstrated with nearly2orders of magnitude smaller specific on-resistance when compared to silicon devices with the same blocking voltage capability.Although normally off high-voltage HFETs have also been demonstrated,their specific on-resistance is much larger than for the normally on structures.Consequently, most commercial manufacturers are using a normally on high-voltage AlGaN/GaN HFET with a low-voltage silicon power MOSFET in the Baliga–Pair configuration to produce a high-performance normally off high-voltage power switch for solar inverter and motor drive applications.One barrier to commercial viability of GaN-based HEMT power devices is their reliability.Degradation of the output characteristics and on-resistance of AlGaN/GaN HEMT structures has been reported due to hot electron induced charge trapping[48].The generation of traps has been ascribed to strain produced in the AlGaN layer due to the inverse piezoelectric effect[49]resulting from the high electricfield at the edge of the gate electrode.The electricfield at the gate edge can be reduced by usingfield plates as already described in the paper.An alternative approach that is being explored is the InAlN/GaN HEMT structure which has been projected to have two to three times superior quantum well polarization induced charge[50].The projections have been validated by several recent experimental results[51–53]for GaN grown on4H-SiC and sapphire.This work needs to be extended to silicon substrates to make the technology cost effective. References[1]Baliga B J1988Evolution of MOS-bipolar powersemiconductor technology Proc.IEEE74409–18[2]Baliga B J2008Fundamentals of Power SemiconductorDevices(New York:Springer-Science)[3]Baliga B J2009Advanced Power Rectifier Concepts(NewYork:Springer-Science)[4]Baliga B J2010Advanced Power MOSFET Concepts(NewYork:Springer-Science)[5]Baliga B J2011Advanced High Voltage Power DeviceConcepts(New York:Springer-Science)[6]Baliga B J1982Semiconductors for high voltage verticalchannelfield effect transistors J.Appl.Phys.531759–64 [7]Campbell P M et al1982150-V vertical channel GaAs FETIEEE Int.Electron Devices Meeting258–60Abstract10.4 [8]Baliga B J et al1985Gallium Arsenide Schottky powerrectifiers IEEE Trans.Electron Devices ED-321130–4 [9]Bhatnagar M et al1992Silicon carbide high-voltage(400V)Schottky barrier diodes IEEE Electron Device Lett.EDL-13501–3[10]Baliga B J2006Silicon Carbide Power Devices(Singapore:World Scientific Publishers)[11]Denbaars S P1997Gallium-nitride-based materials for blueand ultraviolet optoelectronic devices Proc.IEEE851740–9[12]Mishra U K,Parikh P and Wu Y F2002AlGaN/GaNHEMTs—an overview of device operation and applicationsProc.IEEE901022–31[13]Ozbek A M Measurement of impact ionization coefficients inGaN PhD Thesis North Carolina State University。

浙江省教育考试院2025届高三第三次测评英语试卷考生须知：1．全卷分选择题和非选择题两部分，全部在答题纸上作答。

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第一部分（共20小题，每小题1.5分，满分30分）1．His strong sense of humor was make everyone in the room burst out laughing.A．so as to B．such as toC．so that D．such that2．Thanks to Mrs Smith, the father and the son eventually ______after ten years’ cold relationship between them. A．took up B．picked up C．made up D．turned up3．After I left _______ Linchuan No.2 Middle School, I began college classes in _______ September 2010.A．a; the B．不填; the C．the; the D．不填；不填4．The online word “selfie” is gaining ______ and more and more people tend to use it nowadays.A．access B．admissionC．control D．currency5．— Do you often come here to have a walk?— No, only _________, because we are much too busy.A．occasionally B．eventuallyC．merely D．frequently6．In the early morning all of us stood at the top of the mountain ___________ east of the city, watching__________burning sun rising.A．/; a B．the; aC．the; the D．/; the7．—What about watching a ballet show this evening?—Thanks for inviting me, but ballet isn’t really ______.A．the apple of my eye B．my feet of clayC．my cup of tea D．the salt of the earth8．-I feel caught between experience and jobs after graduation.-It’s really_________—without experience you can’t get a job and without a job you can’t get experience.A．a catch-22 B．a Herculean taskC．a sacred cow D．a Mickey Mouse course9．—Which do you prefer, the former option or the latter one?—I think the former one is no better than the latter one. So I’ll choose ________.A．the former one B．the latter oneC．either of them D．neither of them10．Mary_______ to writing classes every night since June and the course will end this week.A．had gone B．has been goingC．is going D．went11．To make extra-class education run on the right track, China is tightening _____ of after-school training institutions. A．application B．regulationC．adaptation D．cooperation12．Check your paper carefully to see ________ you have made any mistakes.A．what B．which C．whether D．that13．When it comes to in public, no one can match him.A．speak B．speaking C．being spoken D．be spoken14．Y ou have a big mouth,Tom. You have told everybody the secret.A．shouldn’t B．mustn’t C．can’t D．mightn’t15．—What do you think of Putin?—He is an outstanding leader who _______his reputation.A．looks out for B．comes up withC．lives up to D．looks forward to16．I found my computer functioning much better, ________ a new operating system.A．to install B．installingC．having installed D．installed17．－Could you possilby take to the railway station tomorrow?A．No way B．Never mind C．Not at all D．No problem18．As its economy is maturing，China’s _________a greater role in critical issues like climate and development. A．defining B．assuming C．guaranteeing D．assuring19．In the past few years, we’ve seen works by Chinese sci-fi writers winning international ______.A．conclusion B．standardC．potential D．recognition20．Although the test ________ look like a simple one, great care is needed.A．may B．must C．should D．need第二部分阅读理解（满分40分）阅读下列短文，从每题所给的A、B、C、D四个选项中，选出最佳选项。

Feature articleAdvanced functional polymer membranesMathias Ulbricht *Lehrstuhl fu¨r Technische Chemie II,Universita ¨t Duisburg-Essen,Essen 45117,Germany Received 13October 2005;received in revised form 24January 2006;accepted 25January 2006Available online 28February 2006AbstractThis feature article provides a comprehensive overview on the development of polymeric membranes having advanced or novel functions in the various membrane separation processes for liquid and gaseous mixtures (gas separation,reverse osmosis,pervaporation,nanofiltration,ultrafiltration,microfiltration)and in other important applications of membranes such as biomaterials,catalysis (including fuel cell systems)or lab-on-chip technologies.Important approaches toward this aim include novel processing technologies of polymers for membranes,the synthesis of novel polymers with well-defined structure as ‘designed’membrane materials,advanced surface functionalizations of membranes,the use of templates for creating ‘tailored’barrier or surface structures for membranes and the preparation of composite membranes for the synergistic combination of different functions by different (mainly polymeric)materials.Self-assembly of macromolecular structures is one important concept in all of the routes outlined above.These rather diverse approaches are systematically organized and explained by using many examples from the literature and with a particular emphasis on the research of the author’s group(s).The structures and functions of these advanced polymer membranes are evaluated with respect to improved or novel performance,and the potential implications of those developments for the future of membrane technology are discussed.q 2006Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Functional polymer;Polymer membrane;Membrane technology1.IntroductionA membrane is an interphase between two adjacent phases acting as a selective barrier,regulating the transport of substances between the two compartments.The main advantages of membrane technology as compared with other unit operations in (bio)chemical engineering are related to this unique separation principle,i.e.the transport selectivity of the membrane.Separations with membranes do not require additives,and they can be performed isothermally at low temperatues and—compared to other thermal separation processes—at low energy consumption.Also,upscaling and downscaling of membrane processes as well as their integration into other separation or reaction processes areeasy.Polymer 47(2006)2217–2262/locate/polymer0032-3861/$-see front matter q 2006Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.polymer.2006.01.084Abbreviations:4Vpy,4-vinyl pyridine;AAm,acrylamide;AFM,atomic force microscopy;ATRP,atom transfer radical polymerization;-b -,.block (copolymer);BP,benzophenone;BSA,bovine serum albumin;CA,cellulose acetate;CMR,catalytic membrane reactor;-co -,.(linear)copolymer;CVD,chemical vapor deposition;D,dialysis;DNA,desoxyribonucleic acid;ED,electrodialysis;EIPS,evaporation induced phase separation;EMR,enzyme-membrane reactor;-g -,.graft (copolymer);GMA,glycidyl methacrylate;GS,gas separation;HEMA,hydroxyethyl methacrylate;i ,isotactic;LB,Langmuir–Blodgett;LBL,layer-by-layer;LCST,lower critical solution temperature;M ,molar mass;MEA,membrane electrode assembly;MF,microfiltration;MIP,molecularly imprinted polymer;MPC,methacryloxyethylpho-sphorylcholin;NCA,N -carboxyanhydride;NF,nanofiltration;NIPAAm,N -isopropyl acrylamide;NIPS,non-solvent induced phase separation;PA,polyamide;PAA,polyacrylic acid;PAH,polyallylamine hydrochloride;PAN,polyacrylonitrile;PBI,polybenzimidazol;PC,polycarbonate;PDMS,poly(dimethylsiloxane);PEEKK,polyetheretherketone;PEG,polyethyleneglycol;PEGMA,polyethyleneglycol methacrylate;PEM,polymer electrolyte membrane;PEMFC,polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells;PES,polyethersulfone;PET,polyethylene terephthalate;PFSA,perfluorosulfonic acid;PGMA,polyglycidyl methacrylate;PH,poly(1-hexene);PI,polyisopren;PL,polylactide;PP,polypropylene;PS,phase separation;PSf,polysulfone;PSt,polystyrene;PU,polyurethane;PV,pervaporation;PVC,polyvinylchloride;PVDF,polyvinylidenefluoride;PVP,polyvinylpyrrolidone;RhB,rhodamin B;RO,reverse osmosis;s ,syndiotactic;SAM,self-assembled monolayer;SAXS,small angle X-ray scattering;SEM,scanning electron microscopy;SPSf,sulfonated polysulfone;SRNF,solvent-resistant nanofiltration;TEM,transmission electron microscopy;TFC,thin-film composite;TIPS,thermally induced phase separation;UV,ultraviolet;VIPS,vapor induced phase separation;VP,vinylpyrrolidone.*Tel.:C 492011833151;fax:C 492011833147.E-mail address:mathias.ulbricht@uni-essen.deAfter a long period of inspiration by biological membranes and scepticism about the ultimate technical feasibility,membrane technologies have now been industrially established in impressively large scale [1].The markets are rather diverse—from medicine to the chemical industry—and the most important industrial market segments are ‘medical devices’and ‘water treatment’.The worldwide sales of synthetic membranes is estimated at over US $2billion (in 2003)[2].Considering that membranes account for only about 40%of the total investment for a membrane separation system,1the total annual turnover for the membrane based industry can be considered more than US $5billion.The annual growth rate for most membrane products are more than 5%,in some segments up to 12–15%.For example,the market of the by far largest commercial membrane process,the ‘artificial kidney’(hemodialysis),represents a turnover of US $1billion,and O 230Mio m 2membrane area are produced annually for that application.At the same time,the extremely high quality standards at falling prices 2are only possible by a very high degree of automatization of the manufacturing process,integrating continuos (hollow-fiber)membrane preparation,all post-treatment steps and the assembly of the membrane modules into one production line [3].In industrially established applications,some of the state-of-the-art synthetic membranes have a better overall performance than their biological counterparts.The very high salt rejections and water fluxes through reverse osmosis membranes obtained using transmembrane pressures of up to 100bar may serve as an example for the adaptation of the membrane concept to technical requirements.However,relatively few of the many possible separation principles and processes have been fully explored yet.Consequently,a strong motivation for improving established membrane materials and processes is driving the current research in the field (cf.3).Today this can be done on a sound technical and economical basis for the development and technical implementation of novel membrane materials and processes.The membrane process conditions must be engineered very carefully,but the performance limits are clearly determined by the membrane itself.This will be briefly explained by giving an overview on the main membrane processes and separation mechanisms (cf.2.1).Even when ceramic,metal and liquid membranes are gaining more importance,the majority of membranes are and will be made from solid polymers.In general,this is due to the wide variability of barrier structures and properties,which can be designed by polymer materials.Current (1st generation)membrane polymers are biopolymers(mainly cellulose derivatives)or (less than 20major)synthetic engineering polymers,which had originally been developed for different purposes.The typical membrane structures and manufacturing technologies will be briefly summarized (cf.2.2).The development of synthetic membranes had always been inspired by the fact that the selective transport through biological membranes is enabled by highly specialized macromolecular and supramolecular assemblies based on and involved in molecular recognition.The focus of this feature article will be onto improved or novel functional polymer membranes (the ‘next generation’of membrane materials),and important trends in this field include:†the synthesis of novel polymers with well-defined structure as ‘tailored’membrane materials†advanced surface functionalizations,yielding novel barrier structures or enabling the combination of existing barrier structure with ‘tailored’modes of interactions (from ‘affin’to ‘inert’)†the use of templates for creating tailored barrier or surface structures for membranes†preparation of mixed matrix or composite membranes for the synergistic combination of different functions by different (polymeric)materials†improved or novel processing of polymers for membranes,especially thin-layer technologies or the miniaturization of membrane manufacturing.The main part of this article will be organized into two sub-chapters,the most comprehensive one will be concerned with syntheses and/or preparation methods and resulting membrane structures (cf.4)and thereafter the functions and/or perform-ance of the improved or novel membranes will be discussed organized according to the different membrane processes (cf.5).An attempt had been made to cover most important trends (at least by mentioning them in the respective context).However,due to the wide diversity of the field,selections had to be made which also reflect the particular interests of the author.2.Membrane technology—state-of-the-art 2.1.Membrane processes and separation mechanisms Passive transport through membranes occurs as conse-quence of a driving force,i.e.a difference in chemical potential by a gradient across the membrane in,e.g.concentration or pressure,or by an electrical field [4].The barrier structure of membranes can be classified according to their porous character (Table 1).Active development is also concerned with the combination of nonporous or porous membranes with additional separation mechanisms,and the most important ones are electrochemical potentials and affinity interactions.For non-porous membranes,the interactions between permeand and membrane material dominate transport rate and selectivity;the transport mechanism can be described by the solution/diffusion model [5,6].The separation selectivity between two compounds can be determined by the solution1Because membrane processes are typical examples for enabling technol-ogies,it will become more and more complicated to ‘separate’the membrane units from large and complex technical systems where the membrane still plays the key role.The best example for a field with a very large degree of integration along the value chain is the hemodialysis segment of the medical industry,where membrane companies form the high-technology core of a business which also owns complete hospitals for the treatment of patients suffering from kidney failure and related diseases.2The current market price of one high-end dialysis module,for example with up to 15,000hollow-fibers yielding up to 2.2m 2membrane area,is 7–10US$.M.Ulbricht /Polymer 47(2006)2217–22622218selectivity or by the diffusion selectivity.However,even for systems without changes of the membrane by the contact with the permeand—as it is the case for permanent gases with dense glassy polymers—a dual-mode transport model is the most appropriate description offluxes and selectivities[7].This model takes into account that two different regions in a polymer, the free volume and more densely packed domains,will contribute differently to the overall barrier properties.For a rigid polymer,especially in the glassy state,the contribution of free volume can become dominating.Moreover,with most other real mixtures—in particular for separations in liquid state—a strong coupling of transport rates for different components can occur.This is mainly due to an increase of(non-selective) diffusibility in the membrane due to swelling(plastification)of the membrane by the more soluble component.With non-porous membranes,a high transport-selectivity can be obtained for a limited number of molecule pairs or mixtures.An alternative approach towards molecule-selective non-porous membranes is the use of special(coupled)transport mechanisms, e.g.facilitated transport by affine carriers[8].For porous membranes,transport rate and selectivity are mainly influenced by viscousflow and sieving or size exclusion [9].Nevertheless,interactions of solutes with the membrane (pore)surface may significantly alter the membrane perform-ance.Examples include the GS using micro-and mesoporous membranes due to surface and Knudsen diffusion,and the rejection of charged substances in aqueous mixtures by microporous NF membranes due to their Donnan potential. Furthermore,with meso-and macroporous membranes, selective adsorption can be used for an alternative separation mechanism,(affinity)membrane adsorbers are the most important example[10].In theory,porous barriers could be used for very precise continuos permselective separations based on subtle differences in size,shape and/or functional groups.In addition,ion-exchange membranes represent an import-ant group of technical materials,and the best example for a well established application is the production of chlor and soda, where perfluorinated cation-exchange membranes have almost completely replaced older set-ups.Electrodialysis has—besides RO—also relevance for water desalination.It is essential to mention that both membrane permeability and selectivity can be completely controlled by concentration polarization(due to the enhancement of the concentration of rejected species on the membrane surface as function of transmembraneflow)or membrane fouling(due to unwanted adsorption or deposition of matter on/in the separation layer of the membrane).These phenomena can significantly reduce the performance,which would be expected based on intrinsic membrane properties.A high product purity and yield(by selectivity)and a high throughput(by permeability),i.e.the optimum membrane separation’s performance,can only be achieved by process conditions adapted to the separation problem and the membrane material.Therefore,before it can come to real applications,optimizations of the membrane module configuration and design as well as of the process conditions will be most important[1].One should note that in one of the technically most successful membrane processes,dialysis(‘artificial kidney’), the transmembraneflux and hence the concentration polariz-ation are relatively low.Consequently,also the fouling is much less pronounced than in other membrane processes for separation in liquid phase.The desired overall performance (highflux,i.e.throughput)is achieved by a very large membrane area(in hollowfiber modules[3]).In conclusion,several completely different modes of separation can all be done very efficiently using membranes:†removal of a small amount of substance(s)from a large feed stream yielding a large amount of purified product,by:–retention of the small fraction by the membrane,e.g.desalination of water by RO;–selective permeation of the small fraction through themembrane, e.g.solvent dehydratation or azeotropeseparation by PV;†concentrating a small amount of a product by selective permeation of the solvent through the membrane, e.g.concentrating or/and desalting of valuable proteins by UF;†separation of two or more components,present in low to moderate amounts in a solution,by their selective permeation through or retention by the membrane,e.g.fractionation of biomolecules by UF,NF,D or ED.Membrane separation technologies commercially estab-lished in large scale are:†D for blood detoxification and plasma separation(‘medical devices’);†RO for the production of ultrapure water,including potable water(‘water treatment’);†MF for particle removal,including sterilefiltration(various industries);†UF for many concentration,fractionation or purification processes(various industries including‘water treatment’);†GS for air separation or natural gas purification.Table1Classification of membranes and membrane processes for separations via passive transportMembrane barrier structure Trans-membrane gradientConcentration Pressure ElectricalfieldNon-porous Pervaporation(PV)Gas separation(GS)Electrodialysis(ED)Reverse Osmosis(RO)Microporous pore diameter d p%2nm Dialysis(D)Nanofiltration(NF)Mesoporous pore diameter d p Z2–50nm Dialysis Ultrafiltration(UF)ElectrodialysisMacroporous pore diameter d p Z50–500nm Microfiltration(MF)M.Ulbricht/Polymer47(2006)2217–22622219A more detailed overview on industrial separations using the main membrane technologies (cf.Table 1)can be found,for example,in Refs.[1,11,12](cf.also 5).Important other membrane applications with significant activities in the development of improved or novel polymers are materials for controlled release or advanced package materials.While these special areas are not covered here,the development of membranes for fuel cells or as battery separators will be discussed in some more detail (cf.4.2.1,5.1.5).2.2.Polymer membrane preparation and structuresConsidering the large diversity of membranes suited for technical applications [12],it will be useful to introduce the following main classifications:†Membrane materials .Organic polymers,inorganic materials (oxides,ceramics,metals),mixed matrix or composite materials.3†Membrane cross-section .Isotropic (symmetric),integrally anisotropic (asymmetric),bi-or multilayer,thin-layer or mixed matrix composite.†Preparation method .Phase separation (phase inversion)of polymers,sol–gel process,interface reaction,stretching,extrusion,track-etching,micro-fabrication.†Membrane shape .Flat-sheet,hollow fiber,hollow capsule.Membranes for pressure-driven molecule-selective fil-trations (UF,NF,RO,GS)have an anisotropic cross-section structure—integral or composite—with a thin (w 50nm to a few micrometres)mesoporous,microporous or nonporous selective layer on top of a macroporous support (100–300m m thick)providing sufficient mechanical stability.By this means,the resistance of the barrier layer is minimized,thus ensuring a high membrane permeability.Macroporous membranes with an isotropic cross-section (100–300m m thick)are typical materials for MF,but become also increasingly relevant as base materials for composite membranes,e.g.for membrane adsorbers.For niche appli-cations,track-etched polymer membranes (8–35m m thick)with well-defined cylindrical pores of even size (between w 20nm and a few micrometres)are also available (cf.4.1).By far the most of the technically used membranes (including support membranes for composite GS,RO,NF and PV membranes)are made from organic polymers and via phase separation (PS)methods.Technically most relevant are four variants for processing a film of a polymer solution into a porous membrane with either isotropic or anisotropic cross-section:†precipitation in a non-solvent (typically water)—non-solvent induced,NIPS;†solvent evaporation—evaporation induced,EIPS;†precipitation by absorption of non-solvent (water)from the vapor phase—vapour induced,VIPS;†precipitation by cooling—thermally induced,TIPS.For membrane technologies in general,the development of the first high-flux anisotropic RO membranes (via NIPS from cellulose acetate)by Loeb and Sourirajan [13]was one of the most critical breakthroughs.Today,extensive knowledge exists on how to ‘finetune’the membrane’s pore structure including it’s cross-section morphology by the selection of polymer solvents and non-solvents,additives,residence times and other parameters during NIPS [4,14–21].The key for high performance is the very thin ‘skin’layer which enables a high permeability.This skin layer is non-porous for GS,RO,PV and NF membranes.All membranes with a mesoporous skin,prepared by the NIPS process and developed for D,UF and NF,have a pore size distribution in their barrier layer—which typically is rather broad—so that the selectivity for size-based separations is limited (Fig.1).Commercial MF membranes with a rather isotropic cross-section morphology are prepared via the TIPS process (most important for polyolefins as membrane materials [22,23])and via the EIPS or,in some cases,the VIPS process [24].Recently,more and more sophisticated variants,including combinations of various PS mechanisms have been developed in order to control the pore size distribution even more precisely.An example is a novel polyethersulfone MF membrane with a much higher filtration capacity,and that had been achieved by a modification in the NIPS manufactur-ing process leading a very pronounced anisotropic cross-section morphology with an internal separation layer ensuring that the rejection specifications are identical to the previously established materials (Fig.2)[25].Various composite membranes prepared by interface polymerization reactions or coating processes—mainly on asymmetric support membranes—had been established for RO,GS,PV,NF [26,27]and also recently for low-fouling UF.Pioneering work for the interface polycondensation or polyaddition towards ultra-thin polymer barriers on support UF membranes,a technique which is now technically implemented in large scale in several different variations,had been performed by Cadotte et al.[28,29].The first protocol had been based on the reaction between a polyamine in water,filling the pores of the support membrane,with an aromatic diacid chloride in hexane.Alternatively,aromatic diisocya-nates were also used.Similar chemistries had later been proposed for the surface modification of UF membranes [30,31](cf.4.3.4).An overview of the state-of-the-art polymeric materials,used for the manufacturing of commercial membranes,is given in Table 2.A closer inspection reveals that most of the membranes currently on the market are based on relatively few polymers which had originally been developed for other engineering applications.3A definition may be introduced here:while composite membranes are prepared by starting with a membrane (or filter)defining the shape of the final membrane (cf.4.5),during preparation of mixed matrix membranes the two matrices can also be formed or synthesized simultaneously.Hybrid materials of organic polymers and inorganic fillers or networks are beyond the scope of this article.M.Ulbricht /Polymer 47(2006)2217–226222203.Motivation and guidelines for development of advanced or novel functional membranesIn the last two decades,membrane technology had been established in the market,in particular for tasks where no technically and/or economically feasible alternatives exist.The successful implementation had been due to the unique separation principle based on using a membrane (cf.1and 2.1).By far the most processes in liquid separation are dealing with aqueous solutions,mostly at ambient or relatively low temperatures.Technically mature membrane separations with a large growth potential in the next few years include especially UF and NF or D (with large membrane area modules)for concentration,fractionation and purification in the food,pharma and other industries [1].Here,the selectivity of separation is still often limited,especially due to an uneven pore size distribution of the membranes (cf.Fig.1).GS with membranes is also industrially established for selected applications,some in large scale.Nevertheless,many more processes could be realized if membranes with high selectivities,competitive flux and sufficient long-term stability would be available.Emerging applications based on partially ‘mature’membranes and processes which still need to demonstrate full commercial viability are PV and ED [1].Here,main limitations are due to insufficient membrane selectivity and/or stability.In addition,mem-branes suited for all kinds of applications in organic media,including higher temperatures,are still rare.Progress in all these latter areas will open the doors into large scale membrane applications in the chemical industry [11].Furthermore,the presumably largest potential for mem-brane technology is in process intensification, e.g.via implementation of reaction/separation hybridprocessesFig.1.Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)image of the outer surface (‘skin’layer)of a commercial UF membrane made from polysulfone with a nominal molar mass cut-off of 100kg/mol and separation curve analysis after UF of a dextran mixture with a broad molar mass distribution—both data reveal the broad pore sizedistribution of typical UF membranes prepared by state-of-the-art casting/immersion precipitation phase separation (NIPS)(data measured at Universita ¨t Duisburg-Essen,2005).Fig.2.SEM cross section images of a DuraPES w MF membrane (cut-off pore diameter 0.2m m;Membrana GmbH Wuppertal):left,overview;right,detail—these membranes have a strongly anisotropic pore structure providing an ‘internal protected separation’layer with the smallest transmembrane pores about 10m m remote from the outer surface (cf.right)and a layer of up to 100m m thickness with a very pronounced macropore volume which can be used as a depth filter with a high capacity at only small effects onto permeability (cf.left).M.Ulbricht /Polymer 47(2006)2217–22622221(membrane reactors;cf.5.64).Therefore,membrane processes will largely contribute to the development of sustainable technologies[32].Finally,using specialized support and/or separation membranes in cell and tissue culture will pave the road towards biohybrid and artificial organs for medical and other applications[33].Here,‘biomimetic’synthetic mem-branes will be integrated into living systems,supporting and facilitating biological processes in order to directly serve human needs.Many scientifically interesting,technically challenging and commercially attractive separation problems cannot be solved with membranes according to the state-of-the-art.Novel membranes with a high selectivity,e.g.for isomers,enantio-mers or special biomolecules are required.Consequently, particular attention should be paid to truely molecule-selective separations,i.e.advanced membranes for NF and UF. Especially the development of NF membranes for separations in organic solvents will require a much better understanding of the underlying transport mechanisms and,hence,the require-ments to the polymeric materials.In addition,a membrane selectivity which can be switched by an external stimulus or which can adapt to the environment/process conditions is an important vision.Such advanced or novel selective mem-branes,first developed for separations,would immediatelyfind applications also in otherfields such as analytics,screening, membrane reactors or bio-artificial membrane systems.Specialized(tailor-made)membranes should not only have a significantly improved selectivity but also a highflux along with a sufficient stability of membrane performance.Of similar relevance is a minimized fouling tendency,i.e.the reduction or prevention of undesired interactions with the membrane. Furthermore,it should be possible to envision membrane manufacturing using or adapting existing technologies or using novel technologies at a competitive cost.The following general strategies will lead to a higher separation’s performance:†non-porous membranes—composed of a selective transport and a stable matrix phase at an optimal volume ratio along with a minimal tortuosity of the transport pathways,thus combining high selectivity and permeability with high stability;†porous membranes—with narrow pore size distribution, high porosity and minimal tortuosity(ideally:straight aligned pores though the barrier);†additional functionalities for selective interactions(based on charge,molecular recognition or catalysis)combined with non-porous or porous membrane barriers;†membrane surfaces(external,internal or both)which are ‘inert’towards uncontrolled adsorption and adhesion processes.In addition,minimizing the thickness of the membrane barrier layer will be essential.For certain completely novel membrane processes,e.g.in micro-fluidic systems,it should be possible to fulfill special processing requirements.This can be envisioned considering the largeflexibility with respect to the processing of polymeric materials.All these above outlined requirements can efficiently be addressed by various approaches within thefield of nanotechnology.4.Synthesis or preparation routes towards functional polymer membranesThe various routes to functional polymer membranes are ordered infive categories.Advanced polymer processing,i.e. the preparation of membrane barrier structures using technol-ogies beyond the state-of-the-art for membranes(cf.2.2),is based on established polymers,and the innovations come from plastic(micro-)engineering(4.1).The synthesis of novel polymers,especially those with controlled architecture,and subsequent membrane formation is very promising.Some of the limitations due to the relatively low number of established membrane polymers(cf.Table2)could be overcome because a wide variation of barrier structures and hence membrane functions will be also possible with the novel polymers(4.2). The surface functionalization of preformed(established) membranes has already become a key technology in membrane manufacturing;the major aim is to improve the performance of the existing material by either reducing unwanted interactions or by introducing sites for additional(tailored)interactions (4.3).The in situ synthesis of polymers as membranes barriers had already been established for selected commercial membranes(cf.2.2),but the potential of this approach for tailoring the barrier chemistry and morphology as well as its shape simultaneously is definitely much larger(4.4).Compo-site membranes can be prepared using or adapting novel polymers(cf.4.2),surface functionalizations(cf.4.3)or/and in situ syntheses(4.4)—the ultimate aim is to achieve a synergy between the function of the base membrane and the added polymeric component(4.5).Ultimately,several of the above mentioned innovations could also be integrated into advanced processing(cf.4.1)towards membranes with even more complex functions.4.1.Advanced polymer processingIn the context of microsystem engineering—largely driven by technologies originally developed for the semiconductor industries—a wide variety of methods had been established to create micro-or even nanostructures in or from established engineering polymers[34].With respect to membranes,the‘top–down’fabrication of pores in barriers made from plastics may be considered a rather straightfor-ward approach.Especially,attractive would be the possibility to control the density,size,size distribution,shape and vertical alignment of membrane pores,because this is not possible with all the other established membrane formation technologies(cf.2.2).Two different types of commercial membranes close to such an‘ideal’structure are already available,track-etched polymer and anodically oxidized aluminia membranes.Even when the4Note that fuel-cell systems will also fall into this category(cf.5.1.5).M.Ulbricht/Polymer47(2006)2217–22622223。

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1. What is the man?A. A teacher.B. A surgeon.C. A manager.2. Why can’t the woman keep still?A. She is excited.B. She is nervous.C. She is ill.3. What are the speakers talking about?A. Why the electricity bill went up.B. Where they can pay the electricity bill.C. How they can reduce the electricity usage.4. Why is the man phoning the woman?A. To ask her out for dinner.B. To tell her he will be late.C. To inform her of an accident.5. What are the speakers mainly talking about?A. A psychological term.B. A chemical reaction.C. The man’s coat.第二节(共15 小题；每小题 1. 5 分，满分22. 5分)听下面5 段对话或读白，每段对话或独白后有几个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项。

半导体微电子专业词汇中英文对照Accelerated testing 加速实验Acceptor 受主Acceptor atom 受主原子Accumulation 积累、堆积Accumulating contact 积累接触Accumulation region 积累区Accumulation layer 积累层Acoustic Surface Wave 声表面波Active region 有源区Active component 有源元Active device 有源器件Activation 激活Activation energy 激活能Active region 有源（放大）区A/D conversion 模拟-数字转换Adhesives 粘接剂Admittance 导纳Aging 老化Airborne 空载Allowed band 允带allowance 容限，公差Alloy-junction device合金结器件Aluminum(Aluminum) 铝Aluminum – oxide 铝氧化物Aluminum Nitride 氮化铝Aluminum passivation 铝钝化Ambipolar 双极的Ambient temperature 环境温度A M light 振幅调制光，调幅光amplitude limiter 限幅器Amorphous 无定形的，非晶体的Amplifier 功放放大器Analogue(Analog) comparator 模拟比较器Angstrom 埃Anneal 退火Anisotropic 各向异性的Anode 阳极Antenna 天线Aperture 孔径Arsenide (As) 砷Array 阵列Atomic 原子的Atom Clock 原子钟Attenuation 衰减Audio 声频Auger 俄歇Automatic 自动的Automotive 汽车的Availability 实用性Avalanche 雪崩Avalanche breakdown 雪崩击穿Avalanche excitation雪崩激发Background carrier 本底载流子Background doping 本底掺杂Backward 反向Backward bias 反向偏置Ball bond 球形键合Band 能带Band gap 能带间隙Bandwidth 带宽Bar 巴条发光条Barrier 势垒Barrier layer 势垒层Barrier width 势垒宽度Base 基极Base contact 基区接触Base stretching 基区扩展效应Base transit time 基区渡越时间Base transport efficiency基区输运系数Base-width modulation基区宽度调制Batch 批次Battery 电池Beam 束光束电子束Bench 工作台Bias 偏置Bilateral switch 双向开关Binary code 二进制代码Binary compound semiconductor 二元化合物半导体Bipolar 双极性的Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)双极晶体管Bit 位比特Blocking band 阻带Body - centered 体心立方Body-centred cubic structure 体立心结构Boltzmann 波尔兹曼Bond 键、键合Bonding electron 价电子Bonding pad 键合点Boron 硼Borosilicate glass 硼硅玻璃Bottom-up 由下而上的Boundary condition 边界条件Bound electron 束缚电子Bragg effect 布拉格效应Breadboard 模拟板、实验板Break down 击穿Break over 转折Brillouin 布里渊 FBrillouin zone 布里渊区Buffer 缓冲器Built-in 内建的Build-in electric field 内建电场Bulk 体/体内Bulk absorption 体吸收Bulk generation 体产生Bulk recombination 体复合Burn-in 老化Burn out 烧毁Buried channel 埋沟Buried diffusion region 隐埋扩散区Bus 总线Calibration 校准，检定，定标、刻度，分度Capacitance 电容Capture cross section 俘获截面Capture carrier 俘获载流子Carbon dioxide (CO2) 二氧化碳Carrier 载流子、载波Carry bit 进位位Cascade 级联Case 管壳Cathode 阴极Cavity 腔体Center 中心Ceramic 陶瓷（的）Channel 沟道Channel breakdown 沟道击穿Channel current 沟道电流Channel doping 沟道掺杂Channel shortening 沟道缩短Channel width 沟道宽度Characteristic impedance 特征阻抗Charge 电荷、充电Charge-compensation effects 电荷补偿效应Charge conservation 电荷守恒Charge drive/exchange/sharing/transfer/storage 电荷驱动/交换/共享/转移/存储Chemical etching 化学腐蚀法Chemically-Polish 化学抛光Chemically-Mechanically Polish (CMP) 化学机械抛光Chemical vapor deposition (cvd)化学汽相淀积Chip 芯片Chip yield 芯片成品率Circuit 电路Clamped 箝位Clamping diode 箝位二极管Cleavage plane 解理面Clean 清洗Clock rate 时钟频率Clock generator 时钟发生器Clock flip-flop 时钟触发器Close-loop gain 闭环增益Coating 涂覆涂层Coefficient of thermal expansion 热膨胀系数Coherency 相干性Collector 集电极Collision 碰撞Compensated OP-AMP 补偿运放Common-base/collector/emitter connection 共基极/集电极/发射极连接Common-gate/drain/source connection 共栅/漏/源连接Common-mode gain 共模增益Common-mode input 共模输入Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) 共模抑制比Communication 通信Compact 致密的Compatibility 兼容性Compensation 补偿Compensated impurities 补偿杂质Compensated semiconductor 补偿半导体Complementary Darlington circuit 互补达林顿电路Complementary Metal-Oxide-SemiconductorField-Effect-Transistor(CMOS) 互补金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管Computer-aided design(CAD)/test(CAT)/manufacture(CAM) 计算机辅助设计/ 测试 /制造Component 元件Compound Semiconductor 化合物半导体Conductance 电导Conduction band (edge) 导带(底)Conduction level/state 导带态Conductor 导体Conductivity 电导率Configuration 结构Conlomb 库仑Constants 物理常数Constant energy surface 等能面Constant-source diffusion恒定源扩散Contact 接触Continuous wave 连续波Continuity equation 连续性方程Contact hole 接触孔Contact potential 接触电势Controlled 受控的Converter 转换器Conveyer 传输器Cooling 冷却Copper interconnection system 铜互连系统Corrosion 腐蚀Coupling 耦合Covalent 共阶的Crossover 交叉Critical 临界的Cross-section 横断面Crucible坩埚Cryogenic cooling system 冷却系统Crystal defect/face/orientation/lattice 晶体缺陷/晶面/晶向/晶格Cubic crystal system 立方晶系Current density 电流密度Curvature 曲率Current drift/drive/sharing 电流漂移/驱动/共享Current Sense 电流取样Curve 曲线Custom integrated circuit 定制集成电路Cut off 截止Cylindrical 柱面的Czochralshicrystal 直立单晶Czochralski technique 切克劳斯基技术（Cz法直拉晶体J）)Dangling bonds 悬挂键Dark current 暗电流Dead time 空载时间Decade 十进制Decibel (dB) 分贝Decode 解码Deep acceptor level 深受主能级Deep donor level 深施主能级Deep energy level 深能级Deep impurity level 深度杂质能级Deep trap 深陷阱Defeat 缺陷Degenerate semiconductor 简并半导体Degeneracy 简并度Degradation 退化Degree Celsius(centigrade) /Kelvin 摄氏/开氏温度Delay 延迟Density 密度Density of states 态密度Depletion 耗尽Depletion approximation 耗尽近似Depletion contact 耗尽接触Depletion depth 耗尽深度Depletion effect 耗尽效应Depletion layer 耗尽层Depletion MOS 耗尽MOS Depletion region 耗尽区Deposited film 淀积薄膜Deposition process 淀积工艺Design rules 设计规则Detector 探测器Developer 显影剂Diamond 金刚石Die 芯片（复数dice）Diode 二极管Dielectric Constant 介电常数Dielectric isolation 介质隔离Difference-mode input 差模输入Differential amplifier 差分放大器Differential capacitance 微分电容Diffraction 衍射Diffusion 扩散Diffusion coefficient 扩散系数Diffusion constant 扩散常数Diffusivity 扩散率Diffusion capacitance/barrier/current/furnace 扩散电容/势垒/电流/炉Digital circuit 数字电路Dimension (1)尺寸(2)量钢(3)维，度Diode 二极管Dipole domain 偶极畴Dipole layer 偶极层Direct-coupling 直接耦合Direct-gap semiconductor 直接带隙半导体Direct transition 直接跃迁Directional antenna 定向天线Discharge 放电Discrete component 分立元件Disorder 无序的Display 显示器Dissipation 耗散Dissolution 溶解Distribution 分布Distributed capacitance 分布电容Distributed model 分布模型Displacement 位移Dislocation 位错Domain 畴Donor 施主Donor exhaustion 施主耗尽Dopant 掺杂剂Doped semiconductor 掺杂半导体Doping concentration 掺杂浓度Dose 剂量Double-diffusive MOS(DMOS)双扩散MOS Drift 漂移Drift field 漂移电场Drift mobility 迁移率Dry etching 干法腐蚀Dry/wet oxidation 干/湿法氧化Dose 剂量Dual-polarization 双偏振，双极化Duty cycle 工作周期Dual-in-line package （DIP）双列直插式封装Dynamics 动态Dynamic characteristics 动态属性Dynamic impedance 动态阻抗Early effect 厄利效应Early failure 早期失效Effect 效应Effective mass 有效质量Electric Erase Programmable Read Only Memory(E2PROM) 电可擦除只读存储器Electrode 电极Electromigration 电迁移Electron affinity 电子亲和势Electron-beam 电子束Electroluminescence 电致发光Electron gas 电子气Electron trapping center 电子俘获中心Electron Volt (eV) 电子伏Electro-optical 光电的Electrostatic 静电的Element 元素/元件/配件Elemental semiconductor 元素半导体Ellipse 椭圆Emitter 发射极Emitter-coupled logic 发射极耦合逻辑Emitter-coupled pair 发射极耦合对Emitter follower 射随器Empty band 空带Emitter crowding effect 发射极集边（拥挤）效应Endurance test =life test 寿命测试Energy state 能态Energy momentum diagram 能量-动量(E-K)图Enhancement mode 增强型模式Enhancement MOS 增强性MOSEnteric (低)共溶的Environmental test 环境测试Epitaxial 外延的Epitaxial layer 外延层Epitaxial slice 外延片Epoxy 环氧的Equivalent circuit 等效电路Equilibrium majority /minority carriers 平衡多数/少数载流子Equipment 设备Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)可搽取（编程）存储器Erbium laser 掺铒激光器Error function complement 余误差函数Etch 刻蚀Etchant 刻蚀剂Etching mask 抗蚀剂掩模Excess carrier 过剩载流子Excitation energy 激发能Excited state 激发态Exciton 激子Exponential 指数的Extrapolation 外推法Extrinsic 非本征的Extrinsic semiconductor 杂质半导体Fabry-Perot amplifier 法布里-珀罗放大器Face - centered 面心立方Fall time 下降时间Fan-in 扇入Fan-out 扇出Fast recovery 快恢复Fast surface states 快表面态Feedback 反馈Fermi level 费米能级Femi potential 费米势Fiber optic 光纤Field effect transistor 场效应晶体管Field oxide 场氧化层Figure of merit 品质因数Filter 滤波器Filled band 满带Film 薄膜Fine pitch 细节距Flash memory 闪存存储器Flat band 平带Flat pack 扁平封装Flatness 平整度Flexible 柔性的Flicker noise 闪烁（变）噪声Flip-chip 倒装芯片Flip- flop toggle 触发器翻转Floating gate 浮栅Fluoride etch 氟化氢刻蚀Focal plane 焦平面Forbidden band 禁带Formulation 列式，表达Forward bias 正向偏置Forward blocking /conducting 正向阻断/导通Free electron 自由电子Frequency deviation noise 频率漂移噪声Frequency response 频率响应Function 函数Gain 增益Gallium-Arsenide(GaAs) 砷化镓Gallium Nitride 氮化镓Gate 门、栅、控制极Gate oxide 栅氧化层Gate width 栅宽Gauss（ian）高斯Gaussian distribution profile 高斯掺杂分布Generation-recombination 产生-复合Geometries 几何尺寸Germanium(Ge) 锗Gold 金Graded 缓变的Graded (gradual) channel 缓变沟道Graded junction 缓变结Grain 晶粒Gradient 梯度Graphene 石墨烯Grating 光栅Green laser 绿光激光器Ground 接地Grown junction 生长结Guard ring 保护环Guide wave 导波波导Gunn - effect 狄氏效应Gyroscope 陀螺仪Hardened device 辐射加固器件Harmonics 谐波Heat diffusion 热扩散Heat sink 散热器、热沉Heavy/light hole band 重/轻空穴带Hell - effect 霍尔效应Hertz 赫兹Heterojunction 异质结Heterojunction structure 异质结结构Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor（HBT）异质结双极型晶体High field property 高场特性High-performance MOS(H-MOS)高性能MOS器件High power 大功率Hole 空穴Homojunction 同质结Horizontal epitaxial reactor 卧式外延反应器Hot carrier 热载流子Hybrid integration 混合集成Illumination (1)照明(2)照明学Image - force 镜象力Impact ionization 碰撞电离Impedance 阻抗Imperfect structure 不完整结构Implantation dose 注入剂量Implanted ion 注入离子Impurity 杂质Impurity scattering 杂志散射Inch 英寸Incremental resistance 电阻增量（微分电阻）In-contact mask 接触式掩模Index of refraction 折射率Indium 铟Indium tin oxide (ITO) 铟锡氧化物Inductance 电感Induced channel 感应沟道Infrared 红外的Injection 注入Input power 输入功率Insertion loss 插入损耗Insulator 绝缘体Insulated Gate FET(IGFET) 绝缘栅FET Integrated injection logic 集成注入逻辑Integration 集成、积分Integrated Circuit 集成电路Interconnection 互连Interconnection time delay 互连延时Interdigitated structure 交互式结构Interface 界面Interference 干涉International system of unions 国际单位制Internally scattering 谷间散射Interpolation 内插法Intrinsic 本征的Intrinsic semiconductor 本征半导体Inverse operation 反向工作Inversion 反型Inverter 倒相器Ion 离子Ion beam 离子束Ion etching 离子刻蚀Ion implantation 离子注入Ionization 电离Ionization energy 电离能Irradiation 辐照Isolation land 隔离岛Isotropic 各向同性Junction FET(JFET) 结型场效应管Junction isolation 结隔离Junction spacing 结间距Junction side-wall 结侧壁Laser 激光器Laser diode 激光二极管Latch up 闭锁Lateral 横向的Lattice 晶格Layout 版图Lattice binding/cell/constant/defect/distortion 晶格结合力/晶胞/晶格/晶格常熟/晶格缺陷/晶格畸变Lead 铅Leakage current （泄）漏电流Life time 寿命linearity 线性度Linked bond 共价键Liquid Nitrogen 液氮Liquid－phase epitaxial growth technique 液相外延生长技术Lithography 光刻Light Emitting Diode(LED) 发光二极管Linearity 线性化Liquid 液体Lock in 锁定Longitudinal 纵向的Long life 长寿命Lumped model 集总模型Magnetic 磁的Majority carrier 多数载流子Mask 掩膜板，光刻板Mask level 掩模序号Mask set 掩模组Mass - action law 质量守恒定律Master-slave D flip-flop 主从D 触发器Matching 匹配Material 材料Maxwell 麦克斯韦Mean free path 平均自由程Mean time before failure (MTBF) 平均工作时间Mechanical 机械的Membrane (1)薄腊，膜片(2)隔膜Megeto - resistance 磁阻Mesa 台面MESFET-Metal Semiconductor 金属半导体FET Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition MOCVD 金属氧化物化学汽相淀积Metallization 金属化Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS)金属氧化物半导体MeV 兆电子伏Microelectronic technique 微电子技术Microelectronics 微电子学Microelectromechanical System (MEMS) 微电子机械系统Microwave 微波Millimeterwave 毫米波Minority carrier 少数载流子Misfit 失配Mismatching 失配Mobility 迁移率Module 模块Modulate 调制Molecular crystal 分子晶体Monolithic IC 单片MOSFET 金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管Mount 安装Multiplication 倍增Modulator 调制Multi-chip IC 多芯片ICMulti-chip module(MCM) 多芯片模块Multilayer 多层Multiplication coefficient 倍增因子Multiplexer 复用器Multiplier 倍增器Naked chip 未封装的芯片（裸片）Nanometer 纳米Nanotechnology 纳米技术Negative feedback 负反馈Negative resistance 负阻Negative-temperature-coefficient负温度系数Nesting 套刻Noise figure 噪声系数Nonequilibrium 非平衡Nonvolatile 非挥发（易失）性Normally off/on 常闭/开Nuclear 核Numerical analysis 数值分析Occupied band 满带Offset 偏移、失调On standby 待命状态Ohmic contact 欧姆接触Open circuit 开路Operating point 工作点Operating bias 工作偏置Operational amplifier (OPAMP)运算放大器Optical photon 光子Optical quenching 光猝灭Optical transition 光跃迁Optical-coupled isolator 光耦合隔离器Organic semiconductor 有机半导体Orientation 晶向、定向Oscillator 振荡器Outline 外形Out-of-contact mask 非接触式掩模Output characteristic 输出特性Output power 输出功率Output voltage swing 输出电压摆幅Overcompensation 过补偿Over-current protection 过流保护Over shoot 过冲Over-voltage protection 过压保护Overlap 交迭Overload 过载Oscillator 振荡器Oxide 氧化物Oxidation 氧化Oxide passivation 氧化层钝化Package 封装Pad 压焊点Parameter 参数Parasitic effect 寄生效应Parasitic oscillation 寄生振荡Pass band 通带Passivation 钝化Passive component 无源元件Passive device 无源器件Passive surface 钝化界面Parasitic transistor 寄生晶体管Pattern 图形Payload 有效载荷Peak-point voltage 峰点电压Peak voltage 峰值电压Permanent-storage circuit 永久存储电路Period 周期Permeable - base 可渗透基区Phase-lock loop 锁相环Phase drift 相移Phonon spectra 声子谱Photo conduction 光电导Photo diode 光电二极管Photoelectric cell 光电池Photoelectric effect 光电效应Photonic devices 光子器件Photolithographic process 光刻工艺Photoluminescence 光致发光Photo resist （光敏）抗腐蚀剂Photo mask 光掩模Piezoelectric effect 压电效应Pin 管脚Pinch off 夹断Pinning of Fermi level 费米能级的钉扎（效应）Planar process 平面工艺Planar transistor 平面晶体管Plasma 等离子体Plane 平面的Plasma 等离子体Plate 板电路板P-N junction pn结Poisson equation 泊松方程Point contact 点接触Polarity 极性Polycrystal 多晶Polymer semiconductor 聚合物半导体Poly-silicon 多晶硅Positive 正的Potential (电)势Potential barrier 势垒Potential well 势阱Power electronic devices电力电子器件Power dissipation 功耗Power transistor 功率晶体管Preamplifier 前置放大器Primary flat 主平面Print-circuit board(PCB) 印制电路板Probability 几率Probe 探针Procedure 工艺Process 工艺Projector 投影仪Propagation delay 传输延时Proton 质子Proximity effect 邻近效应Pseudopotential method 赝势法Pump 泵浦Punch through 穿通Pulse triggering/modulating 脉冲触发/调制Pulse Widen Modulator(PWM) 脉冲宽度调制Punchthrough 穿通Push-pull stage 推挽级Q Q值Quality factor 品质因子Quantization 量子化Quantum 量子Quantum efficiency 量子效应Quantum mechanics 量子力学Quasi – Fermi－level 准费米能级Quartz 石英Radar 雷达Radiation conductivity 辐射电导率Radiation damage 辐射损伤Radiation flux density 辐射通量密度Radiation hardening 辐射加固Radiation protection 辐射保护Radiative - recombination 辐照复合Radio 无线电射电射频Radio-frequency RF 射频Raman 拉曼Random 随机Range 测距Radio 比率系数Ray 射线Reactive sputtering source 反应溅射源Real time 实时Receiver 接收机Recombination 复合Recovery diode 恢复二极管Record 记录Recovery time 恢复时间Rectifier 整流器（管）Rectifying contact 整流接触Red light 红光Reference 基准点基准参考点Refractive index 折射率Register 寄存器Regulate 控制调整Relative 相对的Relaxation 驰豫Relaxation lifetime 驰豫时间Relay 中继Reliability 可靠性Remote 远程Repeatability 可重复性Reproduction 重复制造Residual current 剩余电流Resonance 谐振Resin 树脂Resistance 电阻Resistor 电阻器Resistivity 电阻率Regulator 稳压管（器）Resolution 分辨率Response time 响应时间Return signal 回波信号Reverse 反向的Reverse bias 反向偏置Ribbon 光纤带Ridge waveguide 脊形波导Ring laser 环形激光器Rotary wave 旋转波Run 运行Sampling circuit 取样电路Sapphire 蓝宝石（Al2O3）Satellite valley 卫星谷Saturated current range 电流饱和区Scan 扫描Scaled down 按比例缩小Scattering 散射Schematic layout 示意图，简图Schottky 肖特基Schottky barrier 肖特基势垒Schottky contact 肖特基接触Screen 筛选Scribing grid 划片格Secondary flat 次平面Seed crystal 籽晶Segregation 分凝Selectivity 选择性Self aligned 自对准的Self diffusion 自扩散Semiconductor 半导体Semiconductor laser半导体激光器Semiconductor-controlled rectifier 半导体可控硅Sensitivity 灵敏度Sensor 传感器Serial 串行/串联Series inductance 串联电感Settle time 建立时间Sheet resistance 薄层电阻Shaping 成型Shield 屏蔽Shifter 移相器Short circuit 短路Shot noise 散粒噪声Shunt 分流Sidewall capacitance 边墙电容Signal 信号Silica glass 石英玻璃Silicon 硅Silicon carbide 碳化硅Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 二氧化硅Silicon Nitride(Si3N4) 氮化硅Silicon On Insulator 绝缘体上硅Silver whiskers 银须Simple cubic 简立方Simulation 模拟Single crystal 单晶Sink 热沉Sinter 烧结Skin effect 趋肤效应Slot 槽隙Slow wave 慢波Smooth 光滑的Subthreshold 亚阈值的Solar battery/cell 太阳能电池Solid circuit 固体电路Solid Solubility 固溶度Solution 溶液Sonband 子带Source 源极Source follower 源随器Space charge 空间电荷Space Craft 宇宙飞行器Spacing 间距Specific heat(PT) 比热Spectral 光谱Spectrum 光谱(复数)Speed-power product 速度功耗乘积Spherical 球面的Spin 自旋Split 分裂Spontaneous emission 自发发射Spot 斑点Spray 喷涂Spreading resistance 扩展电阻Sputter 溅射Square root 平方根Stability 稳定性Stacking fault 层错Standard 标准的Standing wave 驻波State-of-the-art 最新技术Static characteristic 静态特性Statistical analysis 统计分析Steady state 稳态Step motor 步进式电动机Stimulated emission 受激发射Stimulated recombination 受激复合Stopband 阻带Storage time 存储时间Stress 应力Stripline 带状线Subband 次能带Sublimation 升华Submillimeter 亚毫米波Substrate 衬底Substitutional 替位式的Superconductor 超导(电)体Superlattice 超晶格Supply 电源Surface mound表面安装Surge capacity 浪涌能力Switching time 开关时间Switch 开关Synchronizer 同步器，同步装置Synthetic-aperture 合成孔径System 系统Technical 技术的，工艺的Telecommunication 远距通信，电信Telescope 望远镜Terahertz 太赫兹Terminal 终端Template 模板Temperature 温度Tensor 张量Test 测试试验Thermal activation 热激发Thermal conductivity 热导率Thermal equilibrium 热平衡Thermal Oxidation 热氧化Thermal resistance 热阻Thermal sink 热沉Thermal velocity 热运动Thick- film technique 厚膜技术Thin- film hybrid IC 薄膜混合集成电路Thin-Film Transistor(TFT) 薄膜晶体Three dimension 三维Threshold 阈值Through Silicon Via 硅通孔Thyistor 晶闸管Time resolution 时间分辨率Tolerance 公差T/R module 发射/接收模块Transconductance 跨导Transfer characteristic 转移特性Transfer electron 转移电子Transfer function 传输函数Transient 瞬态的Transistor aging(stress) 晶体管老化Transit time 渡越时间Transition 跃迁Transition-metal silica 过度金属硅化物Transition probability 跃迁几率Transition region 过渡区Transmissivity 透射率Transmitter 发射机Transceiver 收发机Transport 输运Transverse 横向的Trap 陷阱Trapping 俘获Trapped charge 陷阱电荷Travelling wave 行波Trigger 触发Trim 调配调整Triple diffusion 三重扩散Tolerance 容差Tube 管子电子管Tuner 调节器Tunnel(ing) 隧道（穿）Tunnel current 隧道电流Turn - off time 关断时间Ultraviolet 紫外的Ultrabright 超亮的Ultrasonic 超声的Underfilling 下填充Undoped 无掺杂Unijunction 单结的Unipolar 单极的Unit cell 原（元）胞Unity- gain frequency 单位增益频率Unilateral-switch 单向开关Vacancy 空位Vacuum 真空Valence(value) band 价带Value band edge 价带顶Valence bond 价键Vapour phase 汽相Varactor 变容管Variable 可变的Vector 矢量Vertical 垂直的Vibration 振动Visible light 可见光Voltage 电压Volt 伏特Wafer 晶片Watt 瓦Wave guide 波导Wavelength 波长Wave-particle duality 波粒二相性Wear-out 烧毁Wetting 浸润Wideband 宽禁带Wire 引线Wire routing 布线Work function 功函数Worst-case device 最坏情况器件X-ray X射线Yield 成品率Zinc 锌欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！致力为企业和个人提供合同协议，策划案计划书，学习资料等等打造全网一站式需求。

AAbrupt junction 突变结Accelerated testing 加速实验Acceptor 受主Acceptor atom 受主原子Accumulation 积累、堆积Accumulating contact 积累接触Accumulation region 积累区Accumulation layer 积累层Active region 有源区Active component 有源元Active device 有源器件Activation 激活Activation energy 激活能Active region 有源（放大）区Admittance 导纳Allowed band 允带Alloy-junction device 合金结器件Aluminum(Aluminium) 铝Aluminum – oxide 铝氧化物Aluminum passivation 铝钝化Ambipolar 双极的Ambient temperature 环境温度Amorphous 无定形的，非晶体的Amplifier 功放扩音器放大器Analogue(Analog) comparator 模拟比较器Angstrom 埃Anneal 退火Anisotropic 各向异性的Anode 阳极Arsenic (AS) 砷Auger 俄歇Auger process 俄歇过程Avalanche 雪崩Avalanche breakdown 雪崩击穿Avalanche excitation 雪崩激发Bbrute-force attack 强力攻击Background carrier 本底载流子Background doping 本底掺杂Backward 反向Backward bias 反向偏置Ballasting resistor 整流电阻Ball bond 球形键合Band 能带Band gap 能带间隙Barrier 势垒Barrier layer 势垒层Barrier width 势垒宽度Base 基极Base contact 基区接触Base stretching 基区扩展效应Base transit time 基区渡越时间Base transport efficiency 基区输运系数Base-width modulation 基区宽度调制Basis vector 基矢Bias 偏置Bilateral switch 双向开关Binary code 二进制代码Binary compound semiconductor二元化合物半导体Bipolar 双极性的Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)双极晶体管Bloch 布洛赫Blocking band 阻挡能带Blocking contact 阻挡接触Body - centered 体心立方Body-centred cubic structure 体立心结构Boltzmann 波尔兹曼Bond 键、键合Bonding electron 价电子Bonding pad 键合点Bootstrap circuit 自举电路Bootstrapped emitter follower 自举射极跟随器Boron 硼Borosilicate glass 硼硅玻璃Boundary condition 边界条件Bound electron 束缚电子Breadboard 模拟板、实验板Break down 击穿Break over 转折Brillouin 布里渊Brillouin zone 布里渊区Built-in 内建的Build-in electric field 内建电场Bulk 体/ 体内Bulk absorption 体吸收Bulk generation 体产生Bulk recombination 体复合Burn - in 老化Burn out 烧毁Buried channel 埋沟Buried diffusion region 隐埋扩散区CCaesar cipher 凯撒加密法capacitance 电容capturecategorize 分类chaining mode 链接模式challenge 质询cipher feedback 加密反馈collision 冲突combine 集成compatibility n.[计]兼容性component 原件confidentiality 保密性constraint 约束corresponding to 相应的Cryptography 密码学Can 外壳Capacitance 电容Capture cross section 俘获截面Capture carrier 俘获载流子Carrier 载流子、载波Carry bit 进位位Carry-in bit 进位输入Carry-out bit 进位输出Cascade 级联Case 管壳Cathode 阴极Center 中心Ceramic 陶瓷（的）Channel 沟道Channel breakdown 沟道击穿Channel current 沟道电流Channel doping 沟道掺杂Channel shortening 沟道缩短Channel width 沟道宽度Characteristic impedance 特征阻抗Charge 电荷、充电Charge-compensation effects 电荷补偿效应Charge conservation 电荷守恒Charge neutrality condition 电中性条件Chargedrive/exchange/sharing/transfer/st1orage 电荷驱动/ 交换/ 共享/ 转移/ 存储Chemmical etching 化学腐蚀法Chemically-Polish 化学抛光Chemmically-Mechanically Polish (CMP) 化学机械抛光Chip 芯片Chip yield 芯片成品率Clamped 箝位Clamping diode 箝位二极管Cleavage plane 解理面Clock rate 时钟频率Clock generator 时钟发生器Clock flip-flop 时钟触发器Close-packed structure 密堆积结构Close-loop gain 闭环增益Collector 集电极Collision 碰撞Compensated OP-AMP 补偿运放Common-base/collector/emitter connection 共基极/ 集电极/ 发射极连接Common-gate/drain/source connection 共栅/ 漏/ 源连接Common-mode gain 共模增益Common-mode input 共模输入Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) 共模抑制比Compatibility 兼容性Compensation 补偿Compensated impurities 补偿杂质Compensated semiconductor 补偿半导体Complementary Darlington circuit 互补达林顿电路ComplementaryMetal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect-Transistor(CMOS)互补金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管Complementary error function 余误差函数Compound Semiconductor 化合物半导体Conductance 电导Conduction band (edge) 导带( 底) Conduction level/state 导带态Conductor 导体Conductivity 电导率Configuration 组态Conlomb 库仑Conpled Configuration Devices结构组态Constants 物理常数Constant energy surface 等能面Constant-source diffusion 恒定源扩散Contact 接触Contamination 治污Continuity equation 连续性方程Contact hole 接触孔Contact potential 接触电势Continuity condition 连续性条件Contra doping 反掺杂Controlled 受控的Converter 转换器Conveyer 传输器Copper interconnection system 铜互连系统Couping 耦合Covalent 共阶的Crossover 跨交Critical 临界的Crossunder 穿交Crucible 坩埚Crystaldefect/face/orientation/lattice 晶体缺陷/ 晶面/ 晶向/ 晶格Current density 电流密度Curvature 曲率Cut off 截止Current drift/dirve/sharing 电流漂移/ 驱动/ 共享Current Sense 电流取样Curvature 弯曲Custom integrated circuit 定制集成电路Cylindrical 柱面的Czochralshicrystal 直立单晶Czochralski technique 切克劳斯基技术（Cz 法直拉晶体J ）Ddedicate 专用的，单一的denial of service(DOS)拒绝服务攻击diffusion 扩散digital signature algorithm 数字签名算法dynamic 动态的Dangling bonds 悬挂键Dark current 暗电流Dead time 空载时间Debye length 德拜长度De.broglie 德布洛意Decderate 减速Decibel (dB) 分贝Decode 译码Deep acceptor level 深受主能级Deep donor level 深施主能级Deep impurity level 深度杂质能级Deep trap 深陷阱Defeat 缺陷Degenerate semiconductor 简并半导体Degeneracy 简并度Degradation 退化Degree Celsius(centigrade)/Kelvin 摄氏/ 开氏温度Delay 延迟Density 密度Density of states 态密度Depletion 耗尽Depletion approximation 耗尽近似Depletion contact 耗尽接触Depletion depth 耗尽深度Depletion effect 耗尽效应Depletion layer 耗尽层Depletion MOS 耗尽MOSDepletion region 耗尽区Deposited film 淀积薄膜Deposition process 淀积工艺Design rules 设计规则Die 芯片（复数dice ）Diode 二极管Dielectric 介电的Dielectric isolation 介质隔离Difference-mode input 差模输入Differential amplifier 差分放大器Differential capacitance 微分电容Diffused junction 扩散结Diffusion 扩散2Diffusion coefficient 扩散系数Diffusion constant 扩散常数Diffusivity 扩散率Diffusioncapacitance/barrier/current/furnac e 扩散电容/ 势垒/ 电流/ 炉Digital circuit 数字电路Dipole domain 偶极畴Dipole layer 偶极层Direct-coupling 直接耦合Direct-gap semiconductor 直接带隙半导体Direct transition 直接跃迁Discharge 放电Discrete component 分立元件Dissipation 耗散Distribution 分布Distributed capacitance 分布电容istributed model 分布模型Displacement 位移Dislocation 位错Domain 畴Donor 施主Donor exhaustion 施主耗尽Dopant 掺杂剂Doped semiconductor 掺杂半导体oping concentration 掺杂浓度Double-diffusive MOS(DMOS) 双扩散MOS. Drift 漂移Drift field 漂移电场Drift mobility 迁移率Dry etching 干法腐蚀Dry/wet oxidation 干/ 湿法氧化Dose 剂量Duty cycle 工作周期Dual-in-line package （DIP ）双列直插式封装Dynamics 动态Dynamic characteristics 动态属性Dynamic impedance 动态阻抗Eexpertise 专长extractorEarly effect 厄利效应Early failure 早期失效Effective mass 有效质量Einstein relation(ship) 爱因斯坦关系Electric Erase ProgrammableRead Only Memory(E2PROM)一次性电可擦除只读存储器Electrode 电极Electrominggratim 电迁移Electron affinity 电子亲和势Electronic -grade 电子能Electron-beam photo-resistexposure 光致抗蚀剂的电子束曝光Electron gas 电子气Electron-grade water 电子级纯水Electron trapping center 电子俘获中心Electron V olt (eV) 电子伏Electrostatic 静电的Element 元素/ 元件/ 配件Elemental semiconductor 元素半导体Ellipse 椭圆Ellipsoid 椭球Emitter 发射极Emitter-coupled logic 发射极耦合逻辑Emitter-coupled pair 发射极耦合对Emitter follower 射随器Empty band 空带Emitter crowding effect 发射极集边（拥挤）效应Endurance test =life test 寿命测试Energy state 能态Energy momentum diagram 能量- 动量(E-K) 图Enhancement mode 增强型模式Enhancement MOS 增强性MOS Entefic ( 低) 共溶的Environmental test 环境测试Epitaxial 外延的Epitaxial layer 外延层Epitaxial slice 外延片Expitaxy 外延Equivalent curcuit 等效电路Equilibrium majority /minoritycarriers 平衡多数/ 少数载流子Erasable Programmable ROM(EPROM) 可搽取（编程）存储器Error function complement 余误差函数Etch 刻蚀Etchant 刻蚀剂Etching mask 抗蚀剂掩模Excess carrier 过剩载流子Excitation energy 激发能Excited state 激发态Exciton 激子Extrapolation 外推法Extrinsic 非本征的Extrinsic semiconductor 杂质半导体Ffabrication伪造fleshed outFace - centered 面心立方Fall time 下降时间Fan-in 扇入Fan-out 扇出Fast recovery 快恢复Fast surface states 快界面态Feedback 反馈Fermi level 费米能级Fermi-Dirac Distribution 费米-狄拉克布Femi potential 费米势Fick equation 菲克方程（扩散）Field effect transistor 场效应晶体管Field oxide 场氧化层Filled band 满带Film 薄膜Flash memory 闪烁存储器Flat band 平带Flat pack 扁平封装Flicker noise 闪烁（变）噪声Flip-flop toggle 触发器翻转Floating gate 浮栅Fluoride etch 氟化氢刻蚀Forbidden band 禁带Forward bias 正向偏置Forward blocking /conducting 正向阻断/ 导通Frequency deviation noise 频率3漂移噪声Frequency response 频率响应Function 函数GgridGain 增益Gallium-Arsenide(GaAs) 砷化钾Gamy ray r 射线Gate 门、栅、控制极Gate oxide 栅氧化层Gauss （ian ）高斯Gaussian distribution profile 高斯掺杂分布Generation-recombination 产生- 复合Geometries 几何尺寸Germanium(Ge) 锗Graded 缓变的Graded (gradual) channel 缓变沟道Graded junction 缓变结Grain 晶粒Gradient 梯度Grown junction 生长结Guard ring 保护环Gummel-Poom model 葛谋- 潘模型Gunn - effect 狄氏效应Hhandle 处理hierarchical 层次Hardened device 辐射加固器件Heat of formation 形成热Heat sink 散热器、热沉Heavy/light hole band 重/轻空穴带Heavy saturation 重掺杂Hell - effect 霍尔效应Heterojunction 异质结Heterojunction structure 异质结结构Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor （HBT ）异质结双极型晶体High field property 高场特性High-performance MOS.( H-MOS) 高性能MOS.Hormalized 归一化Horizontal epitaxial reactor 卧式外延反应器Hot carrior 热载流子Hybrid integration 混合集成Iimplementinductance 电感initialization vector IV初始化向量integrity完整性interception 截获interruption中断Image - force 镜象力Impact ionization 碰撞电离Impedance 阻抗Imperfect structure 不完整结构Implantation dose 注入剂量Implanted ion 注入离子Impurity 杂质Impurity scattering 杂志散射Incremental resistance 电阻增量（微分电阻）In-contact mask 接触式掩模Indium tin oxide (ITO) 铟锡氧化物Induced channel 感应沟道Infrared 红外的Injection 注入Input offset voltage 输入失调电压Insulator 绝缘体Insulated Gate FET(IGFET) 绝缘栅FET Integrated injection logic 集成注入逻辑Integration 集成、积分Interconnection 互连Interconnection time delay 互连延时Interdigitated structure 交互式结构Interface 界面Interference 干涉International system of unions 国际单位制Internally scattering 谷间散射Interpolation 内插法Intrinsic 本征的Intrinsic semiconductor 本征半导体Inverse operation 反向工作Inversion 反型Inverter 倒相器Ion 离子Ion beam 离子束Ion etching 离子刻蚀Ion implantation 离子注入Ionization 电离Ionization energy 电离能Irradiation 辐照Isolation land 隔离岛Isotropic 各向同性Jjava applet Java小程序Junction FET(JFET) 结型场效应管Junction isolation 结隔离Junction spacing 结间距Junction side-wall 结侧壁Kkey wrapping 密钥包装LLatch up 闭锁Lateral 横向的Lattice 晶格Layout 版图Latticebinding/cell/constant/defect/distortion 晶格结合力/ 晶胞/ 晶格/ 晶格常熟/ 晶格缺陷/ 晶格畸变Leakage current （泄）漏电流Level shifting 电平移动Life time 寿命linearity 线性度Linked bond 共价键Liquid Nitrogen 液氮Liquid －phase epitaxial growthtechnique 液相外延生长技术Lithography 光刻Light Emitting Diode(LED) 发光二极管Load line or Variable 负载线Locating and Wiring 布局布线Longitudinal 纵向的Logic swing 逻辑摆幅Lorentz 洛沦兹Lumped model 集总模型4Mmasquerade伪装message digest 消息摘要modification 修改multidrop 多站, 多支路Majority carrier 多数载流子Mask 掩膜板，光刻板Mask level 掩模序号Mask set 掩模组Mass - action law 质量守恒定律Master-slave D flip-flop 主从D 触发器Matching 匹配Maxwell 麦克斯韦Mean free path 平均自由程Meandered emitter junction 梳状发射极结Mean time before failure (MTBF) 平均工作时间Megeto - resistance 磁阻Mesa 台面MESFET-Metal Semiconductor 金属半导体FET Metallization 金属化Microelectronic technique 微电子技术Microelectronics 微电子学Millen indices 密勒指数Minority carrier 少数载流子Misfit 失配Mismatching 失配Mobile ions 可动离子Mobility 迁移率Module 模块Modulate 调制Molecular crystal 分子晶体Monolithic IC 单片IC MOSFET 金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管Mos. Transistor(MOST )MOS. 晶体管Multiplication 倍增Modulator 调制Multi-chip IC 多芯片ICMulti-chip module(MCM) 多芯片模块Multiplication coefficient 倍增因子N network level attack网络层攻击non-repudiation 不可抵赖Naked chip 未封装的芯片（裸片）Negative feedback 负反馈Negative resistance 负阻Nesting 套刻Negative-temperature-coefficient负温度系数Noise margin 噪声容限Nonequilibrium 非平衡Nonrolatile 非挥发（易失）性Normally off/on 常闭/ 开Numerical analysis 数值分析Ooptimize 使最优化Occupied band 满带Officienay 功率Offset 偏移、失调On standby 待命状态Ohmic contact 欧姆接触Open circuit 开路Operating point 工作点Operating bias 工作偏置Operational amplifier (OPAMP)运算放大器Optical photon =photon 光子Optical quenching 光猝灭Optical transition 光跃迁Optical-coupled isolator 光耦合隔离器Organic semiconductor 有机半导体Orientation 晶向、定向Outline 外形Out-of-contact mask 非接触式掩模Output characteristic 输出特性Output voltage swing 输出电压摆幅Overcompensation 过补偿Over-current protection 过流保护Over shoot 过冲Over-voltage protection 过压保护Overlap 交迭Overload 过载Oscillator 振荡器Oxide 氧化物Oxidation 氧化Oxide passivation 氧化层钝化Pparallelparasitic 寄生的partition [简明英汉词典]n.分割,划分, 瓜分, 分开, 隔离物vt.区分, 隔开, 分割presentation n.介绍, 陈述, 赠送,表达primitiveprivateprobablyproceedingprofoundpropertypseudocollision伪冲突Package 封装Pad 压焊点Parameter 参数Parasitic effect 寄生效应Parasitic oscillation 寄生振荡Passination 钝化Passive component 无源元件Passive device 无源器件Passive surface 钝化界面Parasitic transistor 寄生晶体管Peak-point voltage 峰点电压Peak voltage 峰值电压Permanent-storage circuit 永久存储电路Period 周期Periodic table 周期表Permeable - base 可渗透基区Phase-lock loop 锁相环Phase drift 相移Phonon spectra 声子谱Photo conduction 光电导Photo diode 光电二极管Photoelectric cell 光电池Photoelectric effect 光电效应Photoenic devices 光子器件Photolithographic process 光刻工艺(photo) resist （光敏）抗腐蚀剂Pin 管脚5Pinch off 夹断Pinning of Fermi level 费米能级的钉扎（效应）Planar process 平面工艺Planar transistor 平面晶体管Plasma 等离子体Plezoelectric effect 压电效应Poisson equation 泊松方程Point contact 点接触Polarity 极性Polycrystal 多晶Polymer semiconductor 聚合物半导体Poly-silicon 多晶硅Potential ( 电) 势Potential barrier 势垒Potential well 势阱Power dissipation 功耗Power transistor 功率晶体管Preamplifier 前置放大器Primary flat 主平面Principal axes 主轴Print-circuit board(PCB) 印制电路板Probability 几率Probe 探针Process 工艺Propagation delay 传输延时Pseudopotential method 膺势发Punch through 穿通Pulse triggering/modulating 脉冲触发/ 调制Pulse Widen Modulator(PWM) 脉冲宽度调制Punchthrough 穿通Push-pull stage 推挽级QQuality factor 品质因子Quantization 量子化Quantum 量子Quantum efficiency 量子效应Quantum mechanics 量子力学Quasi –Fermi －level 准费米能级Quartz 石英Rrelease of message contents发布消息内容register 寄存器registration 注册, 报到, 登记resistance 电阻routingrunning key cipher 运动密钥加密法Radiation conductivity 辐射电导率Radiation damage 辐射损伤Radiation flux density 辐射通量密度Radiation hardening 辐射加固Radiation protection 辐射保护Radiative - recombination 辐照复合Radioactive 放射性Reach through 穿通Reactive sputtering source 反应溅射源Read diode 里德二极管Recombination 复合Recovery diode 恢复二极管Reciprocal lattice 倒核子Recovery time 恢复时间Rectifier 整流器（管）Rectifying contact 整流接触Reference 基准点基准参考点Refractive index 折射率Register 寄存器Registration 对准Regulate 控制调整Relaxation lifetime 驰豫时间Reliability 可*性Resonance 谐振Resistance 电阻Resistor 电阻器Resistivity 电阻率Regulator 稳压管（器）Relaxation 驰豫Resonant frequency 共射频率Response time 响应时间Reverse 反向的Reverse bias 反向偏置Sscratchscratchpad缓存secret 密钥substrate 衬底synchronizesynthesizesymmetric key cryptography 对称密钥加密sophisticate 复杂的suspend 悬挂，延缓Sampling circuit 取样电路Sapphire 蓝宝石（Al2O3 ）Satellite valley 卫星谷Saturated current range 电流饱和区Saturation region 饱和区Saturation 饱和的Scaled down 按比例缩小Scattering 散射Schockley diode 肖克莱二极管Schottky 肖特基Schottky barrier 肖特基势垒Schottky contact 肖特基接触Schrodingen 薛定厄Scribing grid 划片格Secondary flat 次平面Seed crystal 籽晶Segregation 分凝Selectivity 选择性Self aligned 自对准的Self diffusion 自扩散Semiconductor 半导体Semiconductor-controlled rectifier可控硅Sendsitivity 灵敏度Serial 串行/ 串联Series inductance 串联电感Settle time 建立时间Sheet resistance 薄层电阻Shield 屏蔽Short circuit 短路Shot noise 散粒噪声Shunt 分流Sidewall capacitance 边墙电容Signal 信号Silica glass 石英玻璃Silicon 硅Silicon carbide 碳化硅Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 二氧化硅Silicon Nitride(Si3N4) 氮化硅Silicon On Insulator 绝缘硅Siliver whiskers 银须6Simple cubic 简立方Single crystal 单晶Sink 沉Skin effect 趋肤效应Snap time 急变时间Sneak path 潜行通路Sulethreshold 亚阈的Solar battery/cell 太阳能电池Solid circuit 固体电路Solid Solubility 固溶度Sonband 子带Source 源极Source follower 源随器Space charge 空间电荷Specific heat(PT) 热Speed-power product 速度功耗乘积Spherical 球面的Spin 自旋Split 分裂Spontaneous emission 自发发射Spreading resistance 扩展电阻Sputter 溅射Stacking fault 层错Static characteristic 静态特性Stimulated emission 受激发射Stimulated recombination 受激复合Storage time 存储时间Stress 应力Straggle 偏差Sublimation 升华Substrate 衬底Substitutional 替位式的Superlattice 超晶格Supply 电源Surface 表面Surge capacity 浪涌能力Subscript 下标Switching time 开关时间Switch 开关Ttoken 令牌trace 追溯traffic analysis 分析通信量Trojan horse 特洛伊木马Tailing 扩展Terminal 终端Tensor 张量Tensorial 张量的Thermal activation 热激发Thermal conductivity 热导率Thermal equilibrium 热平衡Thermal Oxidation 热氧化Thermal resistance 热阻Thermal sink 热沉Thermal velocity 热运动Thermoelectricpovoer 温差电动势率Thick-film technique 厚膜技术Thin-film hybrid IC 薄膜混合集成电路Thin-Film Transistor(TFT) 薄膜晶体Threshlod 阈值Thyistor 晶闸管Transconductance 跨导Transfer characteristic 转移特性Transfer electron 转移电子Transfer function 传输函数Transient 瞬态的Transistor aging(stress) 晶体管老化Transit time 渡越时间Transition 跃迁Transition-metal silica 过度金属硅化物Transition probability 跃迁几率Transition region 过渡区Transport 输运Transverse 横向的Trap 陷阱Trapping 俘获Trapped charge 陷阱电荷Triangle generator 三角波发生器Triboelectricity 摩擦电Trigger 触发Trim 调配调整Triple diffusion 三重扩散Truth table 真值表Tolerahce 容差Tunnel(ing) 隧道（穿）Tunnel current 隧道电流Turn over 转折Turn - off time 关断时间UUltraviolet 紫外的Unijunction 单结的Unipolar 单极的Unit cell 原（元）胞Unity-gain frequency 单位增益频率Unilateral-switch 单向开关Vvarietyvectorverify 检验victoryverticalvia 通孔virus病毒Vacancy 空位Vacuum 真空Valence(value) band 价带Value band edge 价带顶Valence bond 价键Vapour phase 汽相Varactor 变容管Varistor 变阻器Vibration 振动Voltage 电压WWorm 蠕虫Wafer 晶片Wave equation 波动方程Wave guide 波导Wave number 波数Wave-particle duality 波粒二相性Wear-out 烧毁Wire routing 布线Work function 功函数Worst-case device 最坏情况器件YYield 成品率ZZener breakdown 齐纳击穿Zone melting 区熔法7。

Performance Data SheetSystem PerformanceThis system has been tested according to NSF/ANSI 58 for reduction of the substances listed below. The concentration of the indicated substances in water leaving the system was reduced to a concentration less than or equal to the permissible limit for water leaving the system, as specified in NSF/ANSI 58. Do not use with water that is microbiologically unsafe or of unknown quality without adequate disin -fection before or after the system. Systems certified for cyst reduction may be used on disinfected water that may contain filterable cysts. This system has been tested for the treatment of water containing pentavalent arsenic (also known as AS(V), As +5 , or arsenate) at concen -trations of </= 300 ppb. This system reduces pentavalent arsenic, but may not reduce other forms of arsenic. This system is to be used on water supplies containing a detectable free chlorine residual at the system outlet or on water supplies that have been demonstrated to contain only pentavalent arsenic. Treatment with chloramine (combined chlorine) is not sufficient to ensure complete conversion of trivalent arsenic to pentavalent arsenic. Please see the Arsenic Facts section of the Performance Data Sheet for further information.Testing was performed under standard laboratory conditions, actual performance may vary. Incoming water must be free of potential membrane foulants such as Iron, Hydrogen Sulfide and Manganese. Efficiency rating means the percentage of the influent water to the system that is available to the user as reverse osmosis treated water under operating conditions that approximate typical daily usage.Recovery rating means the percentage of the influent water to the membrane portion of the system that is available to the user as reverse osmosis treated water when the system is operated without a storage tank or when the storage tank is bypassed.Influent Challenge ConcentrationMaximum Allowable Concentration Actual Minimum % ReductionAverage Percent Reduction Arsenic (pentavalent)50 ppb 10 ppb 98.199.0Barium 10.0 mg/L ± 10% 2.0 mg/L 95.098.8Cadmium0.03 mg/L ± 10%0.005 mg/L 94.098.3Chromium 6 (Hexavalent)0.3 mg/L ± 10%0.1 mg/L 95.598.3Chromium 3 (Trivalent)0.3 mg/L ± 10%0.1 mg/L 98.499.0Copper 3.0 mg/L ± 10% 1.3 mg/L 95.098.4Cysts Min 50,000/mL 110 counts/mL>99.99>99.99Fluoride 8.0 mL ± 10% 1.5 mL 87.093.8Lead 0.15 mL ± 25%0.010 mL 90.496.8Radium 226/22825 pCi/L ± 10% 5 pCi/L 95.098.8Selenium 0.10 mg/L ± 10%0.05 mg/L 94.497.9Turbidity11 ± 1 NTU 0.5 NTU 96.498.7TDS (Total Dissolved Solids)740 mL187 mL86.693.1System MaintenanceThis reverse osmosis system contains a replaceable component critical to the efficiency of the system. Replacement of the reverse osmosis component should be with one of identical specifications, as defined by the manufacturer, to ensure the same efficiency and contaminant reduction performance. System manual at /products/residential/watermakerfive.html. Feed water conditions may affect replacement intervals.Part Number Description Replacement Interval 104592 TF50, 4 stage cartridge 12 months 104803 5th stage inline post filter6-12 monthsModel Number: WaterMaker Five, WM5-50 Avg Daily Production Rate: 67.76 L/d (17.9 gpd)Avg. Recovery: 30.7%Avg Efficiency: 17.8%Temperature: 4°C - 38°C (40°F - 100°F)Pressure: 2.81 - 5.62 kg/cm 2 (40-80 psi)Performance Data Sheet - Arsenic FactsArsenic (AS) is a naturally occurring contaminant found in many ground waters. Arsenic in water has no color, taste or odor. It must be measured by a lab test. Public water utilities must have their water tested for arsenic. You can get the results from your water utility. If you have your own well, you can have the water tested. The local health department or the state environmental health agency can provide a list of certified labs. The cost is typically $15 to $30. Information about arsenic in water can be found on the Internet at the US Environmental Protection Agency website: /safewater/arse-nic.html.There are two forms of arsenic: pentavalent arsenic (also called AS(V), As+5, and arsenate) and trivalent arsenic (also called AS(III), As+3, and arsenite). In well water, arsenic may be pentavalent, trivalent, or a combination of both. Special sampling procedures are needed for a lab to determine what type and how much of each type of arsenic is in the water. Check with the labs in your area to see if they can provide this type of service.Reverse osmosis (RO) water treatment systems are very effective at removing pentavalent arsenic. RO systems do not remove trivalent arsenic from water very well. A free chlorine residual will rapidly convert trivalent arsenic to pentavalent arsenic. Other water treatment chemicals such as ozone and potassium permanganate will also change trivalent arsenic to pentavalent arsenic. A combined chlorine residual (also called chloramine) may not convert all the trivalent arsenic. If you get your water from a public water utility, contact the utility to find out if free chlorine or combined chlorine is used in the water system.The WM5-50 system is designed to remove pentavalent arsenic. It will not convert trivalent arsenic to pentavalent arsenic. The system was tested in a lab. Under those conditions, the system reduced 300 ppb pentavalent arsenic to 10 ppb (the USEPA standard for drinking water) or less. The performance of the system may be different at your installation. Have the water tested for arsenic to check if the system is working properly.The RO component of the WM5-50 system must be replaced yearly to ensure the system will continue to remove pentava-lent arsenic. The component identification and location where you can purchase the component are listed in the installa-tion/operation manual.Performance Data Sheet - WarrantyThis Limited Warranty extends to the original purchaser of the system only. This warranty covers all Manufacturer-supplied items only that prove to be defective in material, workmanship or factory preparation. This warranty covers parts only; all labor is excluded from this war-ranty, including, but not limited to, services related to the removal, replacement, installation, adjustment, maintenance and/or repair of the unit or its components items. excludes all non-Manufacturer labor required for any servicing of the unit, including, but not limited to, servicing related to installation, adjustment, maintenance and repair of the unit. This warranty applies only for the first full calendar year from date of purchase. The following items are excluded from this warranty: membranes, filters, O-rings, and all other parts or compo-nents that require regular replacement as a result of ordinary usage.Disclaimers: This Limited Warranty applies only if the system is installed, used and maintained in compliance with all instructions and requirements enclosed with the system. This warranty will be void for failure to observe the following conditions:1. The system is to be used with potable water from a municipal water system.2. Feed water pressure to the unit is no less than 40 PSI and no greater than 80 PSI.3. The system is to be used on water supplies with chlorine concentrations of 1.0 mg/L (ppm) or less.4. Feed water temperature to the unit must be no less than 40°F and no more than 100°F.5. Total dissolved solids in feed water must be less than 2,000 mg/L (ppm).6. Feed water must have a pH between 4 and 8.7. Turbidity must be less than 1.0 NTU.8. SDI must be less than 5.9. Feed water must be completely free of iron, manganese or hydrogen sulfide.Do not use with water that is microbiologically unsafe or of unknown quality without adequate disinfection before or after the system.The Manufacturer does not know the characteristics of your water supply. The quality of water supplies may vary seasonably or over a period of time. Your water usage may vary as well. Water characteristics can also change if the drinking water appliance is moved to a new location. The Manufacturer assumes no liability for the determination of the proper equipment necessary to meet your requirements, and we do not authorize others to assume such obligation on our behalf.This Limited Warranty does not cover any Manufacturer-supplied items that are defective as a result of the use of improper parts, equip-ment or materials. This warranty does not cover alterations or modifications of the unit, or failure of a unit caused by such alterations and modificationsThis Limited Warranty does not cover malfunctions of the unit due to tampering, misuse, alteration, lack of regular maintenance, misap-plication, fouling due to hydrogen sulfide, manganese or iron, scaling from excessive hardness, turbidity greater than 1.0 NTU, Silt Density Index (SDI) greater than 5.0 SDI, or excessive membrane hydrolysis due to chlorine levels in excess of 1.0 mg/L (ppm). In addition, damage to the unit due to fire, accident, negligence, act of God, or events beyond the control of the Manufacturer are not covered by this war-ranty.Incidental and Consequential Damages Limitation: The Manufacturer will not be responsible for any incidental or consequential damages as a result of the failure of this unit to comply with express or implied warranties or any defect in the unit, including but not limited to, lost time, inconvenience, damage to personal property, loss of revenue, commercial losses, postage, travel, telephone expenditures, or other losses of this nature. Some states do not allow the exclusion or limitation of incidental or consequential damages, so this exclusion may not apply to you.Owner’s Warranty Responsibilities: As a condition of this Limited Warranty, the owner must ensure periodic maintenance of the system is performed as described in the literature enclosed with the system. Neglect, improper maintenance, abuse, modification or alteration of the unit will invalidate this Warranty. Should your unit develop a defect or otherwise fail to perform in accordance with this warranty, you should contact the retailer from whom the product was originally purchased.Implied Warranties: The implied at-law warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose shall terminate on the date one year after the date of purchase. Note: some states do not allow limitations on how long an implied warranty lasts, so the above limitations may not apply to you.Other Rights: This Warranty gives you specific legal rights and you may also have other rights which vary from state to state.。

雅思听力机经词汇（强化）9 liters 9升a clear argument 清晰的论据A College Tour 学院游A Plus 学习成绩A+a printed list 一个印刷好的清单A sheet of paper 一张纸abuse 弊端，恶习Academic circle 学术圈子academic record 学习成绩academic scholarship 学术奖学金Accidents 事故accountant 会计achievement n.成就，成绩action plan 行动计划action point 行动要点activity 活动add panic 增加恐慌administration n.实施, 管理, 行政, 行政部门Administration Office 行政办公室administration officer 办公室管理人员administrator 行政人员；admission 准许进(加)入；入场费(卷)；advertisement 广告advertising leaflet 广告传单advice 建议；advisor 顾问，导师Against birds 抵御鸟类攻击agricultural：adj. 农业的air conditioning 中央空调air pollution 空气污染alarm system：报警系统Alaska 阿拉斯加alternative energy 替代能源American history美国历史an application form 申请表analysis 分析Angle 角度Animals’behavior动物行为antibiotics 抗生素ape hours观赏猿的时间application 申请，应用approach 研究方法Approval 赞同areas concerned 所涉及的领域arrangement 安排artificial ：人造的artistic 有艺术技巧的assessed 被评定assessment n. 评估at risk 濒危atmosphere 氛围，气氛Attach rings 系上环带attacks 攻击attitude n.态度，看法authority 权威automatically registered自动注册Average reader 普通读者Award 奖励Back wheel 后轮background 背景Baked Earth 《炽热的地球》（书名）bakery：面包店balcony n.阳台bank statements 银行结单battery 电池behavior行为belongings 财产, 所有物Big Five （南非）五大（野生动物）Biography 传记biological a.生物学(上)的bird-watching 鸟瞰Blood flow 血流量bones 骨头bonus 奖金book loan 贷书（服务）booklet n. 小册子Books on Forbes 《福布斯》（财富杂志）boring general science 乏味的科学理论boring令人厌烦的bottled water 瓶装水brain：n. 大脑、智力brake 刹车，闸Branch 分支breaks 休息breeding：繁殖，饲养brick 砖British Library 大英博物馆brushfire n. 前卫战, 山林火灾budget 预算buried 埋葬的Business card 名片butterflies 蝴蝶by E-mail/email/e-mail 通过电子信calculation 计算calculator：计算器camel farm骆驼农场camel 骆驼campsite 营地Candle 蜡烛capacity n.容量, 容积car taxes 车税caravan 大篷车carbon dioxides 二氧化碳card catalogue 卡片目录carpenter 木匠cartoon 卡通case study 案例研究cashier 出纳员cassettes 盒式磁带Celebrities 名人Center Manager 中心主任职位Chain 锁链challenge 挑战challenging 富有挑战的chartists n. 制图师, 图表分析员chat rooms 闲聊室Chat Show （电视或广播电台的）访谈节目check identities 检查身份Checked 已经检查过的checklist n.(核对用的)一览表Cheese 奶酪chemicals 化学物质chemist 药剂师chemistry lab 化学实验室chest infection 肺部感染children’s background 孩子们的背景choir 合唱团City Centre Branch 市中心分店/分行City Council 市议会city overhead view 城市鸟瞰风景Classical History（课程名称）classification 分类classifying 把。