A comparison of SLM and PTS peak-to-average power ratio reduction schemes for OFDM systems

High power pulsed magnetron sputtering:A review on scienti fic and engineering state of the artK.Sarakinos a ,⁎,1,J.Alami b ,1,S.Konstantinidis c ,1a Materials Chemistry,RWTH Aachen University,52074Aachen,Germanyb Sulzer Metaplas GmbH,Am Böttcherberg 30-38,51427,Bergisch Gladbach,GermanycLaboratoire de Chimie Inorganique et Analytique,Universitéde Mons,Avenue Copernic 1,7000Mons,Belgiuma b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 31March 2009Accepted in revised form 6November 2009Available online 19January 2010Keywords:HPPMS HiPIMSIonized PVDHigh power pulsed magnetron sputtering (HPPMS)is an emerging technology that has gained substantial interest among academics and industrials alike.HPPMS,also known as HIPIMS (high power impulse magnetron sputtering),is a physical vapor deposition technique in which the power is applied to the target in pulses of low duty cycle (b 10%)and frequency (b 10kHz)leading to pulse target power densities of several kW cm −2.This mode of operation results in generation of ultra-dense plasmas with unique properties,such as a high degree of ionization of the sputtered atoms and an off-normal transport of ionized species,with respect to the target.These features make possible the deposition of dense and smooth coatings on complex-shaped substrates,and provide new and added parameters to control the deposition process,tailor the properties and optimize the performance of elemental and compound films.©2009Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.Contents 1.Introduction ..............................................................16622.HPPMS:power supplies and processes .................................................16623.Plasma dynamics in HPPMS ......................................................16643.1.On the HPPMS plasma .....................................................16643.2.Determination of plasma properties:a theoretical overview ....................................16653.3.The HPPMS plasma properties ..................................................16663.3.1.The effect of the pulse on/off time con figuration on the plasma properties .........................16683.3.2.Rarefaction in the HPPMS plasma ............................................16693.4.Instabilities in the HPPMS plasma ................................................16713.4.1.Plasma instabilities:an overview ............................................16713.4.2.Plasma initiation and the relationship between plasma instabilities and the chargetransport in the HPPMS plasma .....16714.Plasma-surface interactions and deposition rate .............................................16734.1.Non-reactive HPPMS ......................................................16734.1.1.Target-plasma interactions and target erosion rate ....................................16734.1.2.Transport of ionized sputtered species ..........................................16754.2.Reactive HPPMS ........................................................16755.Growth of thin films by HPPMS ....................................................16765.1.HPPMS use for deposition on complex-shaped substrates .....................................16765.2.Interface engineering by HPPMS .................................................16775.3.The effect of HPPMS on the film microstructure .........................................16785.4.Phase composition tailoring of films deposited using HPPMS ...................................16796.Towards the industrialization of HPPMS ................................................16816.1.Examples of industrially relevant coatings by HPPMS .................................. (1681)Surface &Coatings Technology 204(2010)1661–1684⁎Corresponding author.Tel.:+492418025974,+492204299390,+3265554956.E-mail address:sarakinos@mch.rwth-aachen.de (K.Sarakinos).1All authors have contributed equally to the preparation of themanuscript.0257-8972/$–see front matter ©2009Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2009.11.013Contents lists available at ScienceDirectSurface &Coatings Technologyj o u r n a l h om e p a g e :w w w.e l s ev i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /s u r fc o a t6.2.Up-scaling of the HPPMS process (1682)6.3.Positioning HPPMS in the coating and components market (1682)Acknowledgements (1682)References (1682)1.IntroductionThinfilms are used in diverse technological applications,such as surface protection and decoration,data storage,and optical and microelectronic devices.The increasing demand for new functional films has been a strong incentive for research towards not only understanding the fundamentals and technical aspects of thinfilm growth,but also developing new deposition techniques which allow for a better control of the deposition process.Among the various methods employed forfilm growth,Physical Vapor Deposition(PVD)techniques, such as magnetron sputtering,are widely used[1].Magnetron sputtering is a plasma-based technique,in which inert gas(commonly Ar)atoms are ionized and accelerated as a result of the potential difference between the negatively biased target(cathode)and anode.The interactions of the ions with the target surface cause ejection(sputtering)of atoms which condensate on a substrate and form afilm[1,2].The condensation and film growth processes frequently occur far from the thermodynamic equilibrium,due to kinetic restrictions[2,3].Thus,a good control of both the thermodynamic and the kinetic conditions has implications on the growth dynamics and enables the tailoring of the structural,optical, electrical,and mechanical properties of thefilms[4].One way to control the growth dynamics is by heating the substrate during the deposition [2].The magnitude of the deposition temperature affects the energy transferred to thefilm forming species(adatoms)[2].This energy is,for instance,decisive for the activation of surface and bulk diffusion processes[5,6]and enables control over thefilm morphology[7–10]. Another source of energy are the plasma particles that impinge onto the growingfilm transferring energy and momentum to the adatoms[4,5]. The bombardingflux consists both of neutral and charged gas particles,as well as sputtered species.Numerous studies have shown that the energy, theflux,the angle of incidence,and the nature of the bombarding species are of importance for the properties of the depositedfilms[4,5,11,12].In general,the plasma particles exhibit a relatively broad energy distribu-tion with a mean value of several eV[13].The particle energy,andflux are affected by the target-to-substrate distance and the working pressure[1]. When the particles are charged the control of their energy can additionally be achieved by the use of electricfields,e.g.by applying a bias voltage to the substrate[4,14],while theirflux depends on a number of factors including the plasma density,the target power,and the magneticfield configuration at the target[4,14].It is therefore evident, that a high ion fraction in a depositingflux facilitates a more efficient and accurate control of the bombardment conditions providing,thus,added means for the tuning of thefilm properties.In magnetron sputtering processes the degree of ionization of the plasma particles is relatively low[13],resulting in a low total ionflux towards the growingfilm[13].As a consequence,in many cases bias voltage values of several tenths or even hundreds of V are required in order to increase the average energy provided to the deposited atoms and significantly affect thefilm properties[5].Moreover,the degree of ionization of sputtered species is typically less than1%[13,15,16].As a result,the majority of the charged bombarding particles is made of Ar+ions[13].This fact in combination with the relatively high bias voltages may cause subplantation of the Ar atoms in thefilm[17,18], leading to a generation of lattice defects,[18,19]high residual stresses [20–23],a deterioration of the quality of thefilm/substrate interface [21],and a poorfilm adhesion[24].Thus,the increase of the fraction of the ionized sputtered species has been an objective of many research works during the recent decades.Some of the approaches that have been demonstrated include the use of an inductively coupled plasma (ICP)superimposed on a magnetron plasma[25],the use of a hollow cathode magnetron[25],and the use of an external ion source[26]. Parallel to the above mentioned approaches Mozgrin et al.[27], Bugaev et al.[28]and Fetisov et al.[29]demonstrated in the mid90s that the operation of a conventional sputtering source in a pulsed mode,with a pulse duration ranging from1µs to1s and a frequency less than1kHz,allowed for pulsed target currents two orders of magnitude higher than the average target current in a conventional sputtering technique,such as direct current magnetron sputtering (dcMS)[27–29].These high pulse currents resulted,in turn,in ultra-dense plasmas with electron densities in the order of1018m−3[27–29],which are much higher than the values of1014–1016m−3 commonly obtained for dcMS[13,30].A few years later,Kouznetsov et al.[31]demonstrated in a publication,that received much acclaim,the high power pulsed operation of the sputtered target showing that in the case of Cu the high plasma densities obtained using this pulsed technique resulted in a total ionflux two orders of magnitude higher than that of a dcMS plasma,and a sputtered material ionization of ∼70%.The new deposition technique was called High Power Pulsed Magnetron Sputtering(HPPMS).In the years after Kouzsetov's report, HPPMS received extensive interest from researchers and led to a substantial increase of the HPPMS-related publications(Fig.1).Later, several research groups[25]adopted the alternative name High Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering(HiPIMS)for this technique.The aim of this review paper is to describe the scientific and engineering state of the art of HPPMS.For this purpose,the principle and the basic structure of the existing HPPMS power supplies are described and the various existing approaches to produce high power pulses are demonstrated.The spatial and the temporal evolution of the HPPMS plasma and its interactions with the target and the growingfilm are discussed both from a theoretical and an experi-mental perspective.Furthermore,the effect of the HPPMS operation on the deposition rate and thefilm properties is presented.Finally,the use of HPPMS in industry and the challenges that the latter faces regarding the use of HPPMS are briefly addressed.2.HPPMS:power supplies and processesThe experimental realization of HPPMS requires power supplies different than those used in conventional magnetron sputtering processes. Those power supplies must be able to provide the target with pulses of high power density(typically in the range of a few kW cm−2),while maintaining the time-averaged target power density in values similarto Fig.1.Number of HPPMS-related publications in the period1999–2008.1662K.Sarakinos et al./Surface&Coatings Technology204(2010)1661–1684those during dcMS (i.e.a few W cm −2).The low average target power density is necessary to prevent overheating of the cathode and damage of the magnets and the target.A number of research groups and companies have developed HPPMS arrangements for both laboratorial and industrial use.These devices exhibit similarities in their basic structure which is schematically depicted in Fig.2.A dc generator is used to load the capacitor bank of a pulsing unit,which is connected to the magnetron.The charging voltage of the capacitor bank ranges typically from several hundreds of V up to several kV.The stored energy is released in pulses of de fined width and frequency using transistors with a switching capability in the µs range,located between the capacitors and the cathode.The pulse width (also referred to as pulse on-time)ranges,typically,from 5to 5000µs,while the pulse repetition frequency spans from 10Hz to 10kHz.Under these conditions,the peak target current density may reach values of up to several Acm −2,which are up to 3orders of magnitude higher than the current densities in dcMS [25].The high target current densities during the pulse on-time are accompanied by differences in the electrical characteristics of the discharge,as manifested by the current –voltage (I –V )curves of a magnetron operating in a dcMS and an HPPMS mode (Fig.3).According to Thornton [32]the target and the voltage of the magnetron are linked by the power law I ∝Vnð1ÞIn dcMS processes the exponent n in Eq.(1)ranges from 5up to 15(Fig.3).In HPPMS the exponent n changes from values similar to dcMS at low target voltages to values close to the unity when high voltages are applied (Fig.3)[33,34].Despite their common basic architecture,the available HPPMS power supplies exhibit differences primarily in the width and the shape of the pulses they can deliver,and in whether they can sustain a constant voltage during the pulse on-time.Arrangements able to provide high power pulses were already developed in the mid 90s,in order to explore the feasibility of producing high-current quasi-stationary magnetron glow discharges for high rate deposition [27–29].However,it was in 1999when Kouznetsov et al.[31]emphasizedthat the high power pulsing could allow for a high ionization degree of copper vapor (70%)as well as a homogeneous filling of 1:2aspect ratio trenches (see Fig.4).The time-dependent target current and target voltage curves of the HPPMS power supply developed by Kouznetsov et al.[31]are plotted in Fig.5where it is shown that the ignition of the plasma is accompanied by a drop of the voltage from ∼1000V to ∼800V,as the current increases to its peak value ranging from 200to 230A at the highest applied working pressure [35,36].A characteristic of this power supply is that the loading voltage is not maintained constant during the pulse on-time,and its temporal evolution is rather determined by the size of the capacitor bank and the time-dependent plasma impedance.Other power generators were designed to deliver voltage pulses with a rectangular shape (see Fig.6),i.e.a constant voltage value during the pulse on-time [34,37–39].It is to be noted that pulses with widths larger than about 50µs allow for a saturation of the discharge current and establishment of a steady-state plasma [40]provided that enough energy is stored in the capacitor bank.A common problem encountered in sputtering processes is the occurrence of arcs.This phenomenon is particularly pronounced during the deposition from conducting targets covered by insulating layers and can be detrimental for the quality of the films,due to the ejection of µm sized droplets from the target [41,42].The high peak target currents during the HPPMS operation may enhance the frequency of the arc events [43].Therefore,sophisticated electronics can be used in conjunction with the HPPMS power supplies to limit their effect if formed [43].An alternative way to alleviate this problem is to operate HPPMS using short pulses with widths ranging from 5to 20µs [44].A waveform during this mode of operation is presented in Fig.7.Within this short period of time,the glow discharge remains in a transient regime [40](as manifested by the triangular form of the target current)so that an eventual glow-to-arc transition is prevented.These short pulses have been,for instance,shown to allow for a stable and an arc-free reactive deposition of metal oxide films [45,46].However,in order to eliminate the time lag for plasma ignition which would allow for the production of high-current pulses within this short period of time,a pre-ionization stage has to be implemented [44,47].The pre-ionization of the discharge ensures that a low density plasma is maintained between the pulses as the charge carriers are already present before the voltage is turned on.The plasma pre-ionization step may be achieved by super-imposing a secondary plasma (such as a dc,a microwave,or an inductively coupled plasma)on the HPPMS plasma or by running the discharge at relatively high frequencies [44,47–49].The latter pre-ionization method is extensively implemented in mid-frequency pulsed plasmas [50–53].In contrast to the short pulses described above,long pulses with a width of several thousands of µs can also be used [54](Fig.8).In this case the pulse is composed of two (or more)stages.TheFig.2.Basic architecture of an HPPMS power supply.The dc generator charges the capacitor bank of a pulsing unit.The energy stored in the capacitors is dissipated into the plasma in pulses of well-de fined width and frequency using ultra fastswitches.Fig.3.Current –voltage curves of a magnetron during operation in dcMS and HPPMS mode.The change of the slope from 7to 1at a voltage value of 650V indicates loss of the electron con finement (data taken from [33]).Fig. 4.Cross-section SEM image of two via holes with an aspect ratio 1:2homogeneously filled by Cu using HPPMS (reprinted from [31]after permission,1999©Elsevier).1663K.Sarakinos et al./Surface &Coatings Technology 204(2010)1661–1684first step of the discharge is made of a weakly ionized regime,while the second part of the pulse brings the glow discharge to the high ionization state.The weakly ionized regime allows for the formation of a stable discharge prior to entering the highly ionized regime which helps to suppress the arc formation during the high power mode of operation [54].3.Plasma dynamics in HPPMS 3.1.On the HPPMS plasmaPlasmas are partially ionized gases characterized by,for example,the charge (electron)density or the electron energy distribution function [55].A classi fication of different plasmas could be based on the charge density as shown in Fig.9,where the magnetron sputtering plasmas are shown to exhibit densities ranging from ∼1014up to 1020m −3.It is known that high density plasmas such as arc plasmas exhibit high ionization fractions [25,31].This is not the case for conventional magnetron plasmas where the electron density does not exceed the value of 1016m −3,penning ionization is the main ionization mechanism [30]and therefore the ionization of the sputtered species is at the best of few percent [13].In order to achieve a high ion fraction in a discharge it is necessary to promote the electron impact ionization [55]which is best realized by increasing the electron density and temperature.Different approaches have been made to achieve this,for example by using an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR)plasma as a plasma electron source [56],or by employing an inductively coupled plasma (ICP)[57,58].A higher frequency of electron impact ionization collisions can alsobeFig.5.Target current and voltage waveforms produced by the power supply developed by Kouznetsov et al.at working pressures of (a)0.06Pa,(b)0.26Pa,(c)1.33Pa and (d)2.66Pa.The charging voltage of 1000V drops down to 800V and the plasma is ignited.Peak target currents of up to 230A are achieved.The time lag for the ignition of the plasma decreases when the pressure is increased (reprinted from [35]after permission,2002©Elsevier).Fig.6.Rectangular shape voltage waveforms generated by the HPPMS power supply developed by MELEC GmbH.The data were recorded from an Ar –Al HPPMS discharge operating at pulse on/off time con figuration 25/475µs (K.Sarakinos,unpublisheddata).Fig.7.Temporal evolution of target voltage and current during operation using a 10µs long pulse.The target current is interrupted before the plasma enters into the steady-state regime.The data were recorded from an Ar –Ti HPPMS discharge (S.Konstantinidis unpublished data).1664K.Sarakinos et al./Surface &Coatings Technology 204(2010)1661–1684achieved by increasing the power to the sputter source and therewith the electron density.This approach is,however,limited since a power excess can result in an overheating of the target or an exceeding of the Curie temperature of the magnetron's magnets.Thus,the work of Kouznetsov et al.[31]opened a new era of magnetron sputtering deposition and plasma studies,since it allowed for the generation of highly ionized plasmas using a conventional magnetron source.The early analyses of the HPPMS plasma showed that its temporal characteristics are complex and unique [35,59,60].Understanding the discharge evolution and the mechanisms that take place in the plasma is therefore of utmost importance as this sheds light on the growth conditions during the thin film deposition.To achieve this,modeling and a number of analytical studies have been carried out,using Langmuir probes as well as optical emission,mass,and absorption spectroscopy techniques.These studies are reviewed in the following chapters and the basic properties of the HPPMS plasma are thus outlined.3.2.Determination of plasma properties:a theoretical overview Plasmas are commonly modeled as fluids,and each species is described with its fluid equation [61].The fluid approximation is suf ficiently accurate to describe the majority of observed plasma phenomena.When this is not viable,the accumulated behavior of anensemble of charged particles is described using a statistical approach,in the form of the velocity distribution function which is given as f (r,u,t )d 3r d 3u ,i.e.the number of particles inside a six-dimensional phase space volume d 3r d 3u at (r ,u )and time t [55].Here,r is the position vector and u is the speed vector.Knowing the distribution function,fundamental features of a large ensemble can be quanti fied,i.e.by integrating over the velocity,the average (macroscopic)quantities associated with the plasma are de fined as:n ðr ;t Þ=∫f ðr ;u ;t Þd u plasmanumber ðion ;electron ;orneutral Þdensityð2Þu Àðr ;t Þ=1n∫u f ðr ;u ;t Þd u plasmabulkfluid velocity ð3ÞεÀðr ;t Þ=m 2n∫ðu À−u Þ2f ðr ;u ;t Þd u plasmameankineticenergy ð4Þwhere m is the particle (ion,electron,or neutral)mass.This procedure of integrating over velocity space is referred to as taking velocity moments,with each one yielding a physically signi ficant quantity.Knowledge of the electron energy (velocity)distribution function (EEDF)permits us to determine important parameters.The EEDF can be measured using a Langmuir probe,as was demonstrated by Druyvesteyn [55]:g e ðV Þ=2m e A pr 2eV m12d 2I edV ð5Þwhere A pr is the probe area,I e is the electron current,m is the electronmass,and V =V pl −V b is the potential difference between the plasma potential and the probe potential.With the change of variables ε=eV ,the electron density n e is determined as:n e =∫∞0g e ðεÞd εð6ÞPlasma parameters,such as the electron density,are easily obtained if the mathematical description of the EEDF is Maxwellian.The Maxwellian distribution is characterized by its single temperature and is obtained when plasma electrons undergo enough collisions and are in equilibrium with other plasma components and with the electron ensemble itself.At a low pressure,the EEDF is generally non-Maxwellian,and the electron temperature is thought of as aneffectiveFig.8.Target voltage and current waveforms during the long-pulse operation.In the first 500µs a weakly ionized plasma is generated which is followed by a highly ionized steady-state plasma (reprinted from [54]after permission,Society of Vacuum Coaters ©2007).Fig.9.Plasma density is used in order to classify plasmas.The HPPMS plasma spans over a large density range depending on the pulse on/off time con figuration used for a process and presents therefore a tool for better choosing the plasma dynamics needed for the deposition process.The abbreviation ECR stands for Electron Cyclotron Resonance (taken from [36]).1665K.Sarakinos et al./Surface &Coatings Technology 204(2010)1661–1684electron temperature,T eff∼23〈ε〉,representing the mean electron energy determined from the EEDF according to[55]:〈ε〉=1n e ∫∞εg eðεÞdεð7Þ3.3.The HPPMS plasma propertiesOne of the earliest works related to the study of the properties of the HPPMS plasma was carried out by Gudmundsson et al.[35,59]. Using a Langmuir probe[62]in an Ar–Ta plasma,they measured the temporal behavior of the EEDF by recording the time-dependent probe current curves.It was shown that the EEDF evolved from a Druyvesteyn-like distribution with a broad energy distribution(high average energy)during the pulse to a double Maxwellian distribution (i.e.a distribution that is composed of two-distinct energy-distribu-tions)toward the end of the pulse,andfinally a Maxwellian-like distribution hundreds ofµs after the pulse had been switched off.This is shown in Fig.10,where the temporal evolution of the EEDF is also seen to be affected by the working pressure[35].Similar results were obtained by Pajdarova et al.[63],although the double Maxwellian distribution was observed from the beginning of the pulse,which could be explained by the nature of the target material(Cu in this case)and the HPPMS parameters used in the experiments.Further-more,it was found that the effective electron temperature peaked a fewµs after the pulse start,and at the same time,independent of measurement position[35].This is indicative of the existence of high energy electrons accelerated by the target voltage,and thus escaping the confinement region in the vicinity of the cathode[35].InaFig.10.The EEDF(electron energy distribution function)for an HPPMS plasma with a100µs on-time and a50Hz frequency at three chamber pressures(a)0.25,(b)1.33,and(c) 2.66Pa.The distribution function changes during the pulse from a Druvesteyn distribution to a double-Maxwellian distribution(reprinted from[35]after permission,Elsevier©2002).1666K.Sarakinos et al./Surface&Coatings Technology204(2010)1661–1684different study by Seo et al.[64],Langmuir probes were utilized to determine the properties of a HPPMS plasma at a higher pulsing frequency of 10kHz and a duty cycle of 10%.By using such a high frequency,the electron density reached a value of 1.5×1017m −3,which could be seen as a relatively low density HPPMS plasma.The temporal evolution of the energy distribution in this plasma showed ef ficient electron heating,which took place within the first few µs from the pulse start.This work revealed that the plasma dynamics presented in the studies by Gudmundsson et al.[35,59]are to a large extent general features of the low duty cycle pulsed plasmas regardless of the frequency.The early studies on the HPPMS plasma characteristics also showed the potentially high ionization fraction of the sputtered material that could be achieved by using this technique [16,25,33,60,65,66].Spectroscopic analyses,such as optical emission spectroscopy [67–69],mass spectroscopy [69],and absorption spectroscopy [68,69]were,therefore,employed in order to better quantify and understand the average and time-dependent evolution of the ion population in the HPPMS plasma.The optical emission studies [33,65,70–72],were performed both for the HPPMS and the dcMS discharges and showed the much higher metal ion emission intensity in HPPMS (Fig.11).However,in order to better quantify these observations,absorption spectroscopy [70,71,73,74]and mass spectroscopy [75,76]studies were performed,con firming the much higher ionization of the sputtered material and of the sputtering gas achieved in HPPMS.One well studied material in this regard is Ti.Mass spectroscopy measurements of the peak ion compositions in an Ar –Ti discharge for the pulse on-time of 100µs and a frequency of 50Hz [75]showed that the ionized part of the plasma contained 50%of Ti 1+,24%of Ti 2+,23%of Ar 1+,and 3%of Ar 2+ions.When longer pulse on-times of several hundreds of µs were used even Ti 3+and Ti 4+could also be detected [77].It is deduced that for the formation of multiply charged ions certain conditions should be ful filled [77];(i)the discharge should contain a high enough number of metal ions,(ii)the pulse on-time should be long enough (and the capacitance of the used power supply should be large enough to store enough energy for the whole pulse),(iii)the self-sputtering yield (i.e.the sputtering yield of the target material from ionized target species)should be low,and (iv)the ionization energy of each ionization step should not be too high.These two examples show clearly that the HPPMS plasma properties depend not only on the plasma density and energy distribution but also,to a large degree,on the pulse on/off time con figuration.Since the introduction of the HPPMS technique,most of the discharge studies have been performed for pulses with pulses on-time longer than 50µs.Exceptions to this can be found in the works by Konstantinidis et al.[70,73],Ganciu et al.[44],and Vasina et al.[48],where shorter pulses ranging between 5and 30µs have been used,an example of which is shown in ing time-resolved optical emission spectroscopy in a Ti –Ar discharge,an increase in the line intensity ratio of the ion-to-neutral Ti and Ar species with increasing the pulse duration was observed [70].This means that the ionization degree increases with increasing pulse length,indicating the necessity for the sputtered atoms to reside a suf ficient time in the target vicinity for the vapor to become ionized.The increase of the AremissionFig.11.Optical emission spectroscopy from a typical HPPMS plasma.The emission from the Ti and Ar species increases greatly in HPPMS indicating the high ionization of the metal and gas species (data taken from [72]).Fig.10(continued ).1667K.Sarakinos et al./Surface &Coatings Technology 204(2010)1661–1684。

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H.264/AVC》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html21.《Study of Rating Scales for Subjective Quality Assessment of High-Definition Video》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html22.《Planning Factors for Digital Local Broadcasting in the 26 MHz Band》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html23.《Peak-to-Average Power Ratio Reduction of OFDM Signals Using PTS Scheme With Low Computational Complexity》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html24.《Feedback Cancellation for T-DMB Repeaters Based on Frequency-Domain Channel Estimation》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html25.《Efficient Multi-Reference Frame Selection Algorithm for Hierarchical B Pictures in Multiview Video Coding》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html26.《Performance Comparisons and Improvements of Channel Coding Techniques for Digital Satellite Broadcasting to Mobile Users》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html27.《Burst-Aware Dynamic Rate Control for H.264/AVC Video Streaming》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html28.《Helicopter-Based Digital Electronic News Gathering (H-DENG) System: Case Study and System Solution》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html29.《Transmit Diversity for TDS-OFDM Broadcasting System Over Doubly Selective Fading Channels》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html30.《Interference Cancellation Techniques for Digital On-Channel Repeaters in T-DMB System》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html31.《Field Measurements of EM Radiation From In-House Power Line Telecommunications (PLT) Devices》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html32.《A Novel Scheme of Joint Channel and Phase Noise Compensation for Chinese DTMB System》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html33.《Path Loss Prediction for Mobile Digital TV Propagation Under Viaduct》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html34.《Efficient Motion Vector Interpolation for Error Concealment of H.264/AVC》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html35.《3D-TV Content Creation: Automatic 2D-to-3D Video Conversion》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html36.《A Novel Rate Control Technique for Multiview Video Plus Depth Based 3D Video Coding》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html37.《The Effect of Crosstalk on the Perceived Depth From Disparity and Monocular Occlusions》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html38.《Semi-Automatic 2D-to-3D Conversion Using Disparity Propagation》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html39.《Display-Independent 3D-TV Production and Delivery Using the Layered Depth Video Format》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html40.《3DTV Roll-Out Scenarios: A DVB-T2 Approach》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html41.《PAPR Reduction Using Low Complexity PTS to Construct of OFDM Signals Without Side Information》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html42.《Quality-Oriented Multiple-Source Multimedia Delivery Over Heterogeneous Wireless Networks》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html43.《Efficient PAPR Reduction in OFDM Systems Based on a Companding Technique With Trapezium Distribution》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html44.《Objective Video Quality Assessment Methods: A Classification, Review, and Performance Comparison》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html45.《Pixel Interlacing Based Video Transmission for Low-Complexity Intra-Frame Error Concealment》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html46.《Fountain Codes With PAPR Constraint for Multicast Communications》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html47.《RF Watermark Backward Compatibility Tests for the ATSC Terrestrial DTV Receivers》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html48.《61st Annual IEEE Broadcast Symposium — Save the Date》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html49.《Evaluation of Asymmetric Stereo Video Coding and Rate Scaling for Adaptive 3D Video Streaming》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html50.《Stereoscopic Perceptual Video Coding Based on Just-Noticeable-Distortion Profile》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html51.《A Depth Information Based Fast Mode Decision Algorithm for Color Plus Depth-Map 3D Videos》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html52.《3D-TV Production From Conventional Cameras for Sports Broadcast》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html53.《A Digital Blind Watermarking for Depth-Image-Based Rendering 3D Images》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html54.《Object-Based 2D-to-3D Video Conversion for Effective Stereoscopic Content Generation in 3D-TV Applications》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html55.《3D-TV Content Storage and Transmission》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html56.《New Depth Coding Techniques With Utilization of Corresponding Video》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html57.《3DTV Broadcasting and Distribution 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Systems》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html64.《Perceptual Issues in Stereoscopic Signal Processing》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html65.《Performance Evaluation of Multimedia Content Distribution Over Multi-Homed Wireless Networks》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html66.《The Relationship Among Video Quality, Screen Resolution, and Bit Rate》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html67.《Corrections to “Efficient Motion Vector Interpolation f or Error Concealment of H.264/AVC”》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html68.《PAPR Reduction of OFDM Signals by PTS With Grouping and Recursive Phase Weighting Methods》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html69.《Improve the Performance of LDPC Coded QAM by Selective Bit Mapping in Terrestrial Broadcasting System》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html70.《The Importance of Visual Attention in Improving the 3D-TV Viewing Experience: Overview and New Perspectives》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html71.《Co-Channel Analog Television Interference in the TDS-OFDM-Based DTTB System: Consequences and Solutions》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html72.《Prediction and Transmission Optimization of Video Guaranteeing a Bounded Zapping-Delay in DVB-H》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html73.《IBC2011 Experience the Future》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html74.《61st Annual IEEE Broadcast Symposium — Save the 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Future》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html80.《Evaluation of Stereoscopic Images: Beyond 2D Quality》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html81.《An Evaluation of Parameterized Gradient Based Routing With QoE Monitoring for Multiple IPTV Providers》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html82.《Three-Dimensional Displays: A Review and Applications Analysis》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html83.《Guest Editorial Special Issue on 3D-TV Horizon: Contents, Systems, and Visual Perception》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html84.《LIVE: An Integrated Production and Feedback System for Intelligent and Interactive TV 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Broadcasting》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html117.《Subspace-Based Semi-Blind Channel Estimation in Uplink OFDMA Systems》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html118.《Performance of the Consumer ATSC-DTV Receivers in the Presence of Single or Double Interference on Adjacent/Taboo Channels》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html119.《A Cooperative Cellular and Broadcast Conditional Access System for Pay-TV Systems》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html120.《A Narrow-Angle Directional Microphone With Suppressed Rear Sensitivity》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html121.《Peak-to-Average Power Ratio Reduction in OFDM Systems Using All-Pass 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Algorithm to Reduce PAPRof an OFDM Signal Using Partial Transmit Sequences Technique》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html128.《Improved Decoding Algorithm of Bit-Interleaved Coded Modulation for LDPC Code》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html129.《Precoding for PAPR Reduction of OFDM Signals With Minimum Error Probability》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html130.《Network Design and Field Application of ATSC Distributed Translators》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html131.《On the Channel and Signal Cross Correlation of Downlink and Uplink Mobile UHF DTV Channels With Antenna Diversity》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html132.《Performance Evaluation of TV Over Broadband Wireless Access Networks》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html133.《IBC2010 Experience the State-of-the-Art》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html134.《Peak-to-Average Power Ratio Reduction of OFDM Signals With Nonlinear Companding Scheme》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html135.《Motion-Compensated Frame Rate Up-Conversion—Part I: Fast Multi-Frame Motion Estimation》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html136.《Comments on Equation (4) in “Single Frequency Networks in DTV”》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html137.《Motion-Compensated Frame Rate Up-Conversion—Part II: New Algorithms for Frame Interpolation》原文链接:https:///academic-journal-foreign_broadcasting-ieee-transactions_thesis/020*********.html138.《A Novel Equalization Scheme 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极谱值英文专业表达Polarographic Values: A Technical Overview.Polarography, often referred to as voltammetry, is an electrochemical analytical technique used to determine the concentration of various substances in a solution. Itrelies on the measurement of the current-voltagerelationship as a working electrode is scanned through a range of potentials in the presence of the analyte. The resulting polarogram, which is a plot of current against potential, provides information about the electrochemical behavior of the analyte and can be used to quantify its concentration.Polarographic values, or more specifically, the peak current and peak potential values obtained from polarograms, are crucial parameters in the analysis of substances using this technique. These values are directly related to the electrochemical properties of the analyte and can be usedto identify and quantify different compounds in a sample.Peak Current in Polarography.Peak current, denoted as Ip, is the maximum current value observed in a polarogram when the working electrode passes through the potential at which the analyte undergoes an electrochemical reaction. The magnitude of the peak current is dependent on several factors, including the concentration of the analyte, the nature of the electrochemical reaction, and the rate of electron transfer at the electrode surface.The peak current is proportional to the concentration of the analyte, assuming that other conditions such as temperature, electrode surface area, and solution composition remain constant. This relationship can be expressed as:Ip = nFAvC.where:Ip is the peak current.n is the number of electrons transferred in the electrochemical reaction.F is Faraday's constant (96,485 C/mol)。

等离激元共振峰英文全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：Plasmon Resonance PeakIntroductionPlasmon resonance is a collective oscillation of free electrons in a material that occurs when the frequency of incident light matches the natural frequency of the electrons in the material. This phenomenon is often observed in metallic nanoparticles, where the conduction electrons can be excited by incident electromagnetic radiation. One of the most prominent features of plasmon resonance is the appearance of a distinct peak in the absorption or scattering spectra of the material, known as the plasmon resonance peak or plasmon resonance band.第二篇示例：Plasmon resonance refers to the collective oscillation of free electrons in a metal when it is subjected to electromagnetic radiation. This phenomenon, also known as surface plasmon resonance (SPR), has been extensively studied and applied invarious fields such as sensing, imaging, and light manipulation. One of the key features of plasmon resonance is the emergence of a characteristic peak in the absorption or scattering spectrum, known as the plasmon resonance peak or plasmon resonance band. In this article, we will focus on a specific type of plasmon resonance peak – the localized surface plasmon resonance peak, which is commonly referred to as the plasmon resonance peak.第三篇示例：Plasmonic resonance peak, also known as localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) peak, is a phenomenon in which free electrons in a metal nanoparticle oscillate collectively in response to incident light. This oscillation creates a strong electromagnetic field enhancement around the nanoparticle, leading to enhanced light-matter interactions. The spectral position of the plasmonic resonance peak, known as the plasmon resonance wavelength, depends on the size, shape, composition, and surrounding environment of the nanoparticle.第四篇示例：One specific type of surface plasmon resonance that has attracted attention is the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) peak. LSPR peaks manifest as sharp extinction peaks inthe absorption or scattering spectra of metal nanoparticles due to the resonance between incident light and the localized surface plasmons on the nanoparticle surface. These peaks are highly sensitive to the size, shape, and composition of the nanoparticle, making them an excellent candidate for various applications such as chemical sensing, biological detection, and single molecule analysis.。

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文章编号：１００２－８６９２（２００６）０１－００４１－０３ＯＦＤＭ系统ＰＡＰＲ减小技术综述＊韩艳春，杨士中（重庆大学通信工程学院，四川重庆４０００４４）【摘要】描述了一些减小ＰＡＰＲ的主要方法：限幅类技术、编码类技术、概率类技术［包括部分传输序列（ＰＴＳ）、选择映射（ＳＬＭ）、交织、ＴＲ（ＴｏｎｅＲｅｓｅｒｖａｔｉｏｎ），ＴＩ（ＴｏｎｅＩｎｊｅｃｔｉｏｎ）和ＡＣＥ（ＡｃｔｉｖｅＣｏｎｓｔｅｌｌａｔｉｏｎＥｘｔｅｎｓｉｏｎ）］等。

【关键词】正交频分复用；峰均功率比；互补累积分布函数；选择映射方法；传输序列方法【中图分类号】ＴＮ９１１．３；ＴＮ９４１．１【文献标识码】ＡＡＮＯＶＥＲＶＩＥＷＯＦＰＡＰＲＲＥＤＵＣＴＩＯＮＴＥＣＨＮＩＱＵＥＳＦＯＲＯＦＤＭＨＡＮＹａｎ－ｃｈｕｎ，ＹＡＮＧＳｈｉ－ｚｈｏｎｇ（ＣｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎＥｎｇｉｎｅｅｒｉｎｇＳｃｈｏｏｌ，ＣｈｏｎｇｑｉｎｇＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ，Ｃｈｏｎｇｑｉｎｇ４０００４４，Ｃｈｉｎａ）【Ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ】ＴｈｉｓａｒｔｉｃｌｅｄｅｓｃｒｉｂｅｓｓｏｍｅｏｆｔｈｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔＰＡＰＲｒｅｄｕｃｔｉｏｎｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｓｆｏｒＯＦＤＭｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇａｍｐｌｉｔｕｄｅｃｌｉｐｐｉｎｇｔｅｃｈ－ｎｉｑｕｅ，ｃｏｄｉｎｇｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅａｎｄｐｒｏｂａｂｉｌｉｔｙｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ，ｓｕｃｈａｓｐａｒｔｉａｌｔｒａｎｓｍｉｔｓｅｑｕｅｎｃｅ，ｓｅｌｅｃｔｅｄｍａｐｐｉｎｇ，ｉｎｔｅｒｌｅａｖｉｎｇ，ｔｏｎｅｒｅｓｅｒｖａ－ｔｉｏｎ，ｔｏｎｅｉｎｊｅｃｔｉｏｎ，ａｎｄａｃｔｉｖｅｃｏｎｓｔｅｌｌａｔｉｏｎｅｘｔｅｎｓｉｏｎ．【Ｋｅｙｗｏｒｄｓ】ＯＦＤＭ；ＰＡＰＲ；ＣＣＤＦ；ＳＬＭ；ＰＴＳ・综述・１引言ＯＦＤＭ的提出已经有近４０年的历史了，近年来，由于数字信号处理技术的飞速发展，ＯＦＤＭ作为一种可以有效对抗符号间干扰（ＩＳＩ）的高速传输技术被广泛关注。

Chapter 1: NMR Coupling ConstantsNMR can be used for more than simply comparing a product to a literature spectrum. There is a great deal of information that can be learned from analysis of the coupling constants for a compound.1.1Coupling Constants and the Karplus EquationWhen two protons couple to each other, they cause splitting of each other’s peaks. The spacing between the peaks is the same for both protons, and is referred to as the coupling constant or J constant. This number is always given in hertz (Hz), and is determined by the following formula:J Hz = ∆ ppm x instrument frequency∆ ppm is the difference in ppm of two peaks for a given proton. The instrument frequency is determined by the strength of the magnet, and will always be 300 MHz for all spectra collected on the organic teaching lab NMR.Figure 1-1 below shows the simulated NMR spectrum of 1,1-dichloroethane, collected in a 30 MHz instrument. This compound has coupling between A (the quartet at 6 ppm) and B (the doublet at 2 ppm).Figure 1-1: The NMR spectrum of 1,1-dichloroethane, collected in a 30 MHz instrument. For both A and B protons, the peaks are spaced by 0.2 ppm, equal to 6 Hz in this instrument.For both A and B, the distance between the peaks is equal. In this example, the spacing between the peaks is 0.2 ppm (for example, the peaks for A are at 6.2, 6.0, 5.8, and 5.6 ppm). This is equal to a J constant of (0.2 ppm • 30 MHz) = 6 Hz. Since the shifts are given in ppm or parts per million, you should divide by 106. But since the frequency is in megahertz instead of hertz, you should multiply by 106. These two factors cancel each other out, making calculations nice and simple.Figure 1-2 below shows the NMR spectrum of the same compound, but this time collected in a 60 MHz instrument.Chapter 1: NMR Coupling ConstantsFigure 1-2: The NMR spectrum of 1,1-dichloroethane, collected in a 60 MHz instrument. For both A and B protons, the peaks are spaced by 0.1 ppm, equal to 6 Hz in this instrument.This time, the peak spacing is 0.1 ppm. This is equal to a J constant of (0.1 ppm • 60 MHz) = 6 Hz, the same as before. This shows that the J constant for any two particular protons will be the same value in hertz, no matter which instrument is used to measure it.The coupling constant provides valuable information about the structure of a compound. Some typical coupling constants are shown here.Figure 1-3: The coupling constants for some typical pairs of protons.In molecules where the rotation of bonds is constrained (for instance, in double bonds or rings), the coupling constant can provide information about stereochemistry. The Karplus equation describes how the coupling constant between two protons is affected by the dihedral angle between them. The equation follows the general format of J = A + B (cos θ) + C (cos 2θ), with the exact values of A, B and C dependent on several different factors. In general, though, a plot of this equation has the shape shown in Figure 1-4. Coupling constants will usually, but not always, fall into the shaded band on this graph.Figure 1-4: The plot of dihedral angle vs. coupling constant described by the Karplus equation.Chapter 1: NMR Coupling ConstantsThe highest coupling constants will occur between protons that have a dihedral angle of either 0° or 180°, and the lowest coupling constants will occur at 90°. This is due to orbital overlap – when the orbitals are at 90°, there is very little overlap between them, so the hydrogens cannot affect each other’s spins very much (Figure 1-5).Figure 1-5: The best orbital overlap occurs at 180° or 0°, which is why the coupling constant is higher for those angles.1.2 Calculating Coupling Constants in MestreNovaTo calculate coupling constants in MestreNova, there are several options. The easiest one is to use the Multiplet Analysis tool. To do this, go to Analysis → Multiplet Analysis → Manual (or just hit the “J” key). Drag a box around each group of equivalent protons. A purple version of the integral bar will appear below each one, along with a purple box above each one describing its splitting pattern and location in ppm. As with normal integrals, you can right-click the integral bar, select “Edit Multiplet”, and set these integrals to whatever makes sense for that particular structure. For example, in Figure 1-6, each peak is from a single proton so each integral should be about 1.00.Figure 1-6: An example NMR spectrum with multiplet analysis.HH H H HHChapter 1: NMR Coupling ConstantsOnce all peaks are labeled, you can go to Analysis → Multiplet Analysis → Report Multiplets. A text box should appear containing information about the peaks in a highly compressed format. You can then copy and paste this text into your lab report as needed. The spectrum shown above has the following multiplets listed:1H NMR (300 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 5.14 (d, J = 11.7 Hz, 1H), 4.98 (d, J = 11.7 Hz, 1H), 4.75 (d, J = 3.2 Hz, 1H), 3.37 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 3.30 (dd, J = 8.5, 3.3 Hz, 1H).The first set of parentheses indicates that the sample was dissolved in Chloroform-d and placed in a 300 MHz instrument. After that, there is a list of numbers. Each number or range indicates the chemical shift of each of the peaks in the spectrum, in order of descending chemical shift. Each number also has a set of parentheses after it, giving information about that peak. These parentheses contain: • A letter or letters to indicate the splitting of a peak (s=singlet, d=doublet, t=triplet, q=quartet); it is also possible to see things like dd for a doublet of doublets or b for broad. If MestreNova can’t identify a uniform splitting pattern, it will name it a multiplet (m).•The coupling constants or J-values for that peak – for example, the peak at 3.30 ppm has J-values of 8.5 and 3.3 ppm.•The integral of the peak, rounded to the nearest whole number of H.Using this information, you can determine which peaks in Figure 1-6 are coupling to each other based on which ones have matching J-values.•Peaks A and B in Figure 1-6 both have J-values of 11.7 Hz, so these two protons are coupling to each other.•Peaks C and E both have J-values of 3.2 or 3.3 Hz (similar enough, within a margin of error), so these two protons are coupling to each other.•Peaks D and E both have J-values of 8.5 Hz, so these two protons are coupling to each other. If the multiplet analysis tool is failing to determine J-values for any reason, you can always calculate them manually. To do this, you will need to get more precise values for your peak locations. Right-click anywhere in the empty space of the spectrum and select Properties, then go to Peaks and increase the decimals to 4 (Figure 1-7).Chapter 1: NMR Coupling ConstantsFigure 1-7: Changing the decimals on peak labeling.Now if you do peak-picking to label the locations of the peaks, you should see them to 4 decimal places. This will allow you to plus these into the equation to find the J-values manually. For example, in Figure 1-8, the peaks around 4.7 ppm have a J-value of (4.7550 ppm – 4.7442 ppm) • 300 MHz = 3.24 Hz. Note that this in in agreement with MestreNova’s determination of 3.2 ppm for this J-value in Figure1-6.Figure 1-8: Peaks labeled with enough precision to allow you to calculate J-values manually.Chapter 1: NMR Coupling Constants1.3 Topicity and Second-Order CouplingDuring the NMR tutorial, you learned about the concept of chemical equivalence: protons in identical chemical environments have identical chemical shifts. However, just because two protons have the same connectivity to the molecule does not mean they are chemically equivalent. This is related to the concept of topicity : the stereochemical relationship between different groups in a molecule. To find the topicity relationship of two groups to each other, you should try replacing first one group, then the other group with a placeholder atom (in the examples in Figure 1-9, a dark circle is used as the placeholder). If the two molecules produced are identical, then the groups are homotopic; if the molecules are enantiomers, then the groups are enantiotopic; and if the molecules are diastereomers, then the groups are diastereotopic. Groups that are diastereotopic are chemically inequivalent, so they will have a different chemical shift from each other in NMR, and will show coupling as if they were neighboring protons instead of on the same carbon atom.Figure 1-9: Some examples of homotopic, enantiotopic, and diastereotopic groups.If two signals are coupled to each other and have very similar (but not identical) chemical shifts, another effect will appear: second-order coupling. This means that the peaks appear to “lean” toward each other – the peaks on the outside of the coupled pair are shorter, and the peaks on the inside are taller. (Figure 1-10).Figure 1-10: As the chemical shifts of H a and H b become more and more similar, the coupling between them becomes more second-order and the peaks lean more.Chapter 1: NMR Coupling Constants This is very common for two diastereotopic protons on the same carbon atom, but it appears in other situations where two protons are almost chemically identical as well. In Figure 1-8, note the two doublets at 4.98 and 5.14 ppm. These happen to be diastereotopic protons – they are attached to the same carbon, but are chemically equivalent.Looking for pairs of leaning peaks is useful, because it allows you to identify which protons are coupled to each other in a complicated spectrum. In Figure 1-11, there are two different pairs of leaning peaks: two 1H peaks with a J = 9 Hz, and two 2H peaks with J = 15 Hz. Recognizing this makes it possible to pick apart the different components of the peaks towards the left of the spectrum: these are two overlapping doublets, not a quartet.Figure 1-11: An NMR spectrum with two different pairs of leaning peaks.The multiplet tool in MestreNova might not work immediately for analyzing overlapping multiplets like this. Instead, you should follow the instructions at /resolving-overlapped-multiplets/ to deal with them.。

cbam 英语介绍《CBAM: A Comprehensive Introduction to Content-Based Audio Music Retrieval》Introduction:In today's digital age, the field of music retrieval is gaining increasing attention. With the abundance of music available on various platforms and the ease of accessing it, there is a growing need for effective and efficient ways to search, retrieve, and organize music. This is where Content-Based Audio Music (CBAM) retrieval comes into play. In this article, we will provide a comprehensive introduction to CBAM, shedding light on its importance, functionalities, and applications.What is CBAM?Content-Based Audio Music retrieval is a specialized field in computer science that deals with the extraction of meaningful information from audio signals. Unlike other music retrieval techniques that rely on metadata such as song titles or artist names, CBAM focuses on the audio content itself. It aims to analyze and describe the audio signals based on their intrinsic features like tempo, rhythm, melody, and timbre.How does CBAM work?CBAM systems consist of several stages and techniques to accurately retrieve music based on audio content. The key steps in a typical CBAM system include audio signal preprocessing, feature extraction, and similarity matching. Firstly, the audio signal is preprocessed to remove noise and enhance its quality. Then, relevant features are extracted, such as spectral shape features, chroma features, and rhythm patterns. These features help represent the audio content in a more meaningful way. Lastly, similarity matching algorithms are applied to compare the extracted features of the query audio with those in the music database and retrieve similar songs.Applications of CBAM:CBAM has a wide range of applications and is used in various domains. Some notable areas where CBAM is applied include:1. Music recommendation: CBAM-based systems can analyze users’ music preferences by extracting audio features from their listening history and recommend similar songs or artists.2. Music identification: CBAM can be used to identify unknown songs from audio snippets. By comparing the audio features of the snippet with those in the database, CBAM systems can accurately identify the song.3. Music genre classification: CBAM can classify songs into different genres by analyzing their audio content. This is useful in music classification tasks and creating personalized playlists.4. Music transcription: CBAM techniques can be employed to automatically transcribe music from audio signals to symbolic representations, such as sheet music or MIDI files.Conclusion:In conclusion, CBAM is a vital field in music retrieval that focuses on extracting meaningful information from audio signals. Its significance lies in its ability to search, retrieve, and organize music based on audio content, rather than metadata. CBAM has numerous applications, including music recommendation, identification, genre classification, and transcription. As technology and research continue to advance, CBAM is expected to play a pivotal role in enhancing music listening experiences and facilitating music-related tasks.。

Gaussian Broadening of MCNP Pulse Height Spectra W.A. Metwally 1, R.P. Gardner 1, and Avneet Sood 21Center for Engineering Applications of Radioisotopes, North Carolina State University,Raleigh, NC 27695-7909,gardner@2Los Alamos National Laboratory,X-5,Diagnostics Applications, Los Alamos,NM 87545,sooda@ A comparison of Monte Carlo calculated and laboratory measured gamma-ray spectra is complicated by the fact that physical radiation detectors have finite resolution.The measured spectra for a mono-energetic photon source will appear as a broadened peak at the source energy.The shape of this peak is approximately Gaussian with the center at the source energy and a width characteristic of the specific detector. A typical example of this is the spectrum resulting from the mono-energetic Cs-137 radioactive source that emits a gamma raywith an energy of 0.662 MeV. Such a spectrum is shown in figure (1) for a 3”x3” NaI detector [1]. For simulated spectra, the calculated peak will also appear at the source energy, but a single value will be calculated and placed in a tally bin without any broadening.This complication extends to the rest of the photon spectra with considerable statistical fluctuation exhibited in the rest of the spectrum.A solution to this is to modify the calculated spectra to account for the peak broadening.Figure 1: A typical Cs-137 spectrum [1]One of the most commonly used radiation transport codes is MCNP. In MCNP [2], the peak broadening is dealt with by changing the energy of the particle during the Monte Carlo simulation just before it is tallied by randomly sampling an energy to be deposited from a Gaussian distribution centered at the original particle energy. The user includes the width of theGaussian distribution as an input to the Monte Carlo code. This procedure produces a Gaussian distribution of energies for monoenergetic particles and is included as a special treatment for tallies in MCNP. The tallied energy is broadened by sampling from a Gaussian distribution. The desired Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) is specified as follows:FWHM = a + b (E + c E 2)(1/2) (1)where E is the gamma-ray energy in MeV, and a,b, and c are user-provided constants. The FWHM is related to the Gaussian standard deviation V by:FWHM = 2.35V(2)This approach,while accurate in the limit of a large number of histories, does not take full advantage of the natural smoothing effect of Gaussian broadening. The authors were aware that considerable improvement in the resulting broadened spectrum can be achieved if the broadening process is performed at the end of the simulation [3] as opposed to performing it history by history,which is the current procedure in MCNP. The detector resolution would be specified in terms of the standard deviation of a Gaussian distribution. The standard deviation is given by the power-law form:V = d E e(3)Where V is the standard deviation in MeV, E is the gamma-ray energy in MeV, and d and e are empirical constants. The broadened spectrum is obtained by spreading the detector response function model with a Gaussian distribution that has this form of the standard deviation.To compare these two approaches, a Cs-137 source was placed 10 cm away from the face of a bare 3”x3” NaI detector. Three cases were run using MCNP,two of which were with MCNP Gaussian broadening for 100 and 1 million histories. The third case was without theMCNP Gaussian broadening for 1million histories. The resulting spectrum from the third case was then broadened at the end of the simulation using a Gaussian distribution that has a standard deviation of the form in equation (3). The constants used in equations 2 and 3 were a=0.0, b=0.05086, c=0.30486, d=0.02529, and e=0.65934.The resulting three spectra are shown in the upper part of figure (2). When performing a least squares fitting between the MCNP 100 million histories and our 1million histories spectra, the reduced chi-square was 2.5. When performing the same fitting between the MCNP broadened spectra the reduced chi-square was 99.The lower part of figure (2) shows the normalized residuals. The horizontal lines in the middle and lower part of figure (2) correspond to the 3V limits, between which 97% and 29% of the pointsfall, respectively.Figure 2: Comparison of the MCNP and ourbroadened spectrum.To conclude, an approach has been presented to replace the commonly used MCNP pulse height spectral broadening approach [4].This approach can reduce the total number of histories of the simulation by up to two orders of magnitude. This has the effect of tremendously reducing computation time while still yielding essentially the same results as the broadened pulse height spectra using the MCNP approach.REFERENCES 1.Heath, R.L., 1964, ``Scintillation Spectrometry Gamma-Ray Spectrum Catalogue,'' IDO-16880-1.AEC Research and Development Report,Physics, T ID-4500.2.'MCNP - A General Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport Code, Version 5, Volume I:Overview and Theory,‘Vol. 1 LA-UR-03-1987 (2003).3.Gardner, Robin P. and Avneet Sood, “A Monte Carlo Simulation Approach for Generating Na IDetector Response Functions (DRF's) that Accounts for Nonlinearity and Variable Flat Continua",Nuclear Instruments and Methods B, 213 pp.87-99, 2004.4.Chen, Jianwei,Ayman I . Hawari,Zhongxiang Zhao, and Bingjing Su,“Gamma-ray Spectrometry Analysis ofPebble Bed Reactor Fuel Using Monte CarloSimulation”, Nuclear Instruments and Methods A, 505 pp. 393-396,2003.。

辐射强度与波长与温度的关系英文解释Radiation is a fundamental aspect of physics and plays a crucial role in various scientific phenomena. One of the key properties of radiation is its intensity, which is directly related to the wavelength and temperature of the radiating body.The intensity of radiation is a measure of the amount of energy emitted per unit area and time by a radiating body. It is usually denoted as I and is expressed in units of watts per square meter (W/m2). The intensity of radiation is directly proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of the radiating body, known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law. This means that as the temperature of the radiating body increases, the intensity of radiation emitted also increases significantly.Another important parameter that influences the intensity of radiation is the wavelength of the radiation. The relationship between the intensity of radiation and the wavelength is described by Wien's displacement law, which states that the peak wavelength of radiation emitted by a blackbody is inversely proportional to its temperature. In other words, as the temperature of the radiating body increases, the peak wavelength of radiation shifts to shorter wavelengths.The relationship between the intensity of radiation, wavelength, and temperature can be further explained by the Planck radiation law, which describes the spectral distribution of radiation emitted by a blackbody at a given temperature. According to this law, the intensity of radiation at a specific wavelength is determined by the temperature of the radiating body and the wavelength of the radiation.In practical terms, these relationships have important implications for various fields of science and technology. For example, in astronomy, the intensity of radiation emitted by stars at different wavelengths can provide valuable insight into their temperature and composition. In engineering, the knowledge of radiation intensity is critical for the design of thermal systems and the development of energy-efficient technologies.In conclusion, the intensity of radiation is closely linked to the wavelength and temperature of the radiating body. By understanding these relationships and laws governing radiation, scientists and engineers can better manipulate and harness radiation for various applications and advancements in science and technology.。

用多幅值CPM 减小OFDM 信号的PAPR西安电子科技大学 张航[摘 要] 正交频分复用(OFDM)是一种多载波调制(MCM)技术，其具有良好的抗多径衰落的能力和非常高的信道利用率。

但是OFDM 有一个固有缺点就是存在较高的峰平功率比（PAPR ），本文提出将多幅值的连续相位调制信号与部分响应序列相结合的方法来减少OFDM 信号的PAPR 。

[关键词] 正交频分复用 多幅值的连续相位调制信号 部分响应序列 峰平功率比引言正交频分复用(OFDM)是一种多载波调制(MCM)技术，其具有良好的抗多径衰落的能力和非常高的信道利用率。

这项技术通过把整个频带分成许多并行传输的窄子频带的方法把多径迟延效应降至最小。

这项技术已经在数字声音广播、数字陆地电视广播、无线局域网和高速蜂窝数据通讯等方面提出或采纳。

在无线通信应用方面，OFDM 有一个固有缺点就是存在较高的峰平功率比（PAPR ），尤其在载波个数很多时就更明显了。

随着在无线通信领域使用OFDM 的兴趣日益增加，克服这个问题也就变得十分重要了。

减小OFDM 信号的PAPR 的方法有许多种，例如限幅、选择性映射（SLM ）、部分响应序列（PTS ）[1，2] 、分组编码[3,4]等。

本文将提出一种新的方法来减小 OFDM 信号的PAPR ，即将多幅值的连续相位调制(multiamplitude CPM)信号与部分响应序列(PTS)相结合。

这种方法与以往许多减小PAPR 的方法最大的不同在于用此方法不会产生过多的附加信息发送给接收机。

因此，实现它的复杂度是非常小的，但是它却能减小PAPR 值4dB 以上。

数学模型一个典型的OFDM 信号可以表示如下：这里Xi (i=0,1,2,…N-1)是影射器的输出，fi 是第i 个子载波的频率，N 是正交子载波数。

相应的OFDM 信号的峰值功率与平均功率的比值（PAPR ）的定义式如下：[]22)()(max t x E t x PAPR =NTt e X N t x N i t f j i i ≤≤=∑−=0,1)(102π为了表示PAPR 的分布，我们使用互补累积分布函数（CCDF ），它的定义式如下：图1为一个典型的OFDM 发射机系统，在此系统中映射器的类型本文我们用的是连续相位调制（CPM ），也可以是PSK,DPSK 或QAM 。

OFDM系统中利用概率类技术抑制PAPR算法的Matlab实现和应用【摘要】本文介绍了基于降低OFDM系统中峰均功率比的两种概率类方法及其算法，并借助Matlab软件对其进行编程仿真与验证。

OFDM是一种多载波调制技术，其特有的调制特性决定了它有较高的峰均功率比。

高峰均功率比信号会对实际放大器提出很高的线性要求，因此它是限制OFDM 技术实用化的主要障碍。

本文总结了运用概率类技术降低OPDM峰均功率比的方法，包括：选择映射(SLM)，部分传输序列（PTS）。

SLM是一种无失真降低信号峰均功率比的有效方法，而PTS部分传输序列(PTS)方法通过选择合适的相位旋转因子序列以降低信号峰值出现的概率，从而降低OFDM 信号的峰均比值。

本文对这两种方法进行具体详细的分析整理，最后通过matlab软件编程实现实验结果。

通过仿真验证，当随机信号通过SLM或者PTS模块的时候能够有效的降低PAPR值。

【关键词】正交频分复用；选择映射；部分传输序列； Matlab;Matlab Research on probability technique for PAPR reductionin OFDM system【Abstract】This paper introduces two important PAPR reduction techniques and programwhich are based on reduction peak to average power ratio of OFDM system,and with the help of Matlab software programming and analysing two PAP reduction techniques.Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is a promising transmission scheme for broadband communications over a wireless channel. In OFDM data is transmitted simultaneously through multiplefrequency bands. Its specific modulating characteristic decide high PAPR appear。

峰值波长英文Peak wavelength, a fundamental concept in the field of optics, holds significant importance in various scientific and technological domains. It refers to the wavelength at which a specific optical signal, such as light emitted from a source or transmitted through a medium, reaches its maximum intensity. The comprehension of peak wavelength is pivotal in areas like spectroscopy, laser technology, telecommunications, and even environmental monitoring.In spectroscopy, peak wavelength is used to identify and analyze the chemical composition of matter. By observing the unique peak wavelengths emitted by atoms and molecules, scientists can gain insights into the presence and concentration of specific elements or compounds. This knowledge is crucial in fields like chemistry, physics, and even medicine, where it can aid in diagnosing diseases or understanding biological processes.In the realm of laser technology, peak wavelength is a critical parameter that determines the characteristics and applications of lasers. Different peak wavelengths correspond to different colors of light, which can be usedfor precision cutting, welding, marking, and otherindustrial processes. The precision and efficiency of these processes depend heavily on the accuracy with which thepeak wavelength can be controlled.Telecommunications also rely heavily on peak wavelength. In optical fiber communication systems, light signals carrying information are transmitted through glass fibersat specific peak wavelengths. These wavelengths must be carefully chosen to minimize signal attenuation and maximize transmission speed and bandwidth. By harnessingthe properties of peak wavelength, modern telecommunications systems are able to transmit vast amounts of data across vast distances with remarkable speed and reliability.Moreover, peak wavelength plays a vital role in environmental monitoring. Remote sensing techniques utilize specific peak wavelengths to detect and measure atmospheric pollutants, water quality, and other environmental parameters. By monitoring these wavelengths, scientists can assess the health of ecosystems and identify potential threats to human health and the planet's sustainability.In conclusion, peak wavelength is a fundamental aspectof light that has far-reaching applications across multiple disciplines. Its significance lies in its ability toprovide insights into the composition of matter, enable precise and efficient industrial processes, facilitatehigh-speed telecommunications, and safeguard the environment. As we continue to explore the wonders of light and its interaction with matter, the understanding and utilization of peak wavelength will remain a cornerstone of scientific and technological advancement.**峰值波长的精髓：多学科视角**峰值波长，作为光学领域的基本概念，在科学和技术的多个领域中都具有重要意义。