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外⽂参考⽂献翻译-中⽂基于4G LTE技术的⾼速铁路移动通信系统KS Solanki教授，Kratika ChouhanUjjain⼯程学院，印度Madhya Pradesh的Ujjain摘要：随着时间发展，⾼速铁路（HSR）要求可靠的，安全的列车运⾏和乘客通信。

为了实现这个⽬标，HSR的系统需要更⾼的带宽和更短的响应时间，⽽且HSR的旧技术需要进⾏发展，开发新技术，改进现有的架构和控制成本。

为了满⾜这⼀要求，HSR采⽤了GSM的演进GSM-R技术，但它并不能满⾜客户的需求。

因此采⽤了新技术LTE-R，它提供了更⾼的带宽，并且在⾼速下提供了更⾼的客户满意度。

本⽂介绍了LTE-R，给出GSM-R与LTE-R之间的⽐较结果，并描述了在⾼速下哪种铁路移动通信系统更好。

关键词：⾼速铁路，LTE，GSM，通信和信令系统⼀介绍⾼速铁路需要提⾼对移动通信系统的要求。

随着这种改进，其⽹络架构和硬件设备必须适应⾼达500公⾥/⼩时的列车速度。

HSR还需要快速切换功能。

因此，为了解决这些问题，HSR 需要⼀种名为LTE-R的新技术，基于LTE-R的HSR提供⾼数据传输速率，更⾼带宽和低延迟。

LTE-R能够处理⽇益增长的业务量，确保乘客安全并提供实时多媒体信息。

随着列车速度的不断提⾼，可靠的宽带通信系统对于⾼铁移动通信⾄关重要。

HSR的应⽤服务质量（QOS）测量，包括如数据速率，误码率（BER）和传输延迟。

为了实现HSR的运营需求，需要⼀个能够与 LTE保持⼀致的能⼒的新系统，提供新的业务，但仍能够与GSM-R长时间共存。

HSR系统选择合适的⽆线通信系统时，需要考虑性能，服务，属性，频段和⼯业⽀持等问题。

4G LTE系统与第三代（3G）系统相⽐，它具有简单的扁平架构，⾼数据速率和低延迟。

在LTE的性能和成熟度⽔平上，LTE- railway（LTE-R）将可能成为下⼀代HSR通信系统。

⼆ LTE-R系统描述考虑LTE-R的频率和频谱使⽤，对为⾼速铁路（HSR）通信提供更⾼效的数据传输⾮常重要。

Sensing Human Activity:GPS Tracking感应人类活动:GPS跟踪Stefan van der Spek1,*,Jeroen van Schaick1,Peter de Bois1,2and Remco de Haan1Abstract:The enhancement of GPS technology enables the use of GPS devices not only as navigation and orientation tools,but also as instruments used to capture travelled routes:assensors that measure activity on a city scale or the regional scale.TU Delft developed aprocess and database architecture for collecting data on pedestrian movement in threeEuropean city centres,Norwich,Rouen and Koblenz,and in another experiment forcollecting activity data of13families in Almere(The Netherlands)for one week.Thequestion posed in this paper is:what is the value of GPS as‘sensor technology’measuringactivities of people?The conclusion is that GPS offers a widely useable instrument tocollect invaluable spatial-temporal data on different scales and in different settings addingnew layers of knowledge to urban studies,but the use of GPS-technology and deploymentof GPS-devices still offers significant challenges for future research.摘要：增强GPS技术支持使用GPS设备不仅作为导航和定位工具,但也为仪器用来捕捉旅行路线:作为传感器,测量活动在一个城市或区域范围内规模。

英文文献pdf翻译成中文
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在现有的技术下非水溶性马铃薯淀粉废物转化成还原糖文摘：在这种探索性的工作中，研究了利用不同的非现有技术（超声和微波炉射线）将一个复杂的工业淀粉基解聚为还原糖。

之后，还原糖可以转化成为更高的高级醇等提供的化合物。

这个实验研究了三种不同的起始物料,他们分别为“马铃薯粉”、“湿土豆泥”、“干土豆泥”。

在酸性条件下，马铃薯面粉通过微波辐射，一个小时之内的转化率达到了61%。

在低频和高频超声波照射下，120分钟内它的转化率分别是70%和80%。

关键词：生物量基于淀粉的废物微波辐射超声辐照1 介绍在过去的二十年里，世界能源消耗已经猛增了30%。

2010年，石油消耗已经增长了大约4%。

几乎80%的化石燃料成为主要能源消耗，其中58%是由传输部门所消耗。

（尼格和辛格，2011）为了减少化石燃料的消耗，生物量可以考虑成代替能源的一种，因为它是一种丰富和新兴的能源，这种能源可能用作原料。

全球生物燃料的生产达到62亿升，在能源方面，这仅仅是全球运输燃料的1.8%。

几乎80％为乙醇燃料，其余为生物柴油（Scheffran2010，第一章2）。

然而，被选的生物量不应该和粮食有冲突，也不可能解决伦理问题。

废物转化为能源的过程可以成为再生能源，从而不依赖于化石燃料。

因此，我们想向您介绍我们的不可食用的废料转化成高附加值的化合物，然后进行发酵，以提供生物燃料的探索性工作。

我们的过程中所用的原料是一家名为Jepuan Peruna Oy的芬兰公司提供的淀粉基废物、马铃薯皮。

在2010年，这家公司平均每天产生20吨。

马铃薯废物转化为生物燃料的过程可分为两个主要阶段：淀粉基的废物转化（解聚）成还原糖，然后将其转化成高级醇，如丁醇或戊醇。

工作的重点是在催化转化的第一部分。

生物量的生产也必须是可持续的，这就强调了有必要设计一个渐进的、清洁的、可能的过程，逐步放弃化石能源，随后建设成一个更有利于环境友好型的社会。

在绿色化学的十二项原则（阿纳斯塔斯&华纳，1998）指引下，做到这一点是可能的。

倒置AAO工艺的生产性试验研究陈宏斌1，唐先春1，董斌1，高廷耀1，Martin Wagner21 中国上海同济大学污染控制和资源化研究实验室2 IWAR Institute, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64287 Germany摘要倒置缺氧/厌氧/好氧工艺（倒置AAO工艺）是上世纪90年代中期开发出来的用于脱氮除磷的污水处理工艺。

本文主要阐述了松江污水处理厂（中国）二期工程倒置AAO工艺处理城市污水的运行效果、运行参数以及影响因素。

近两年的运行结果表明：对CODCr 、BOD5、SS、NH3-N和TN具有较好的处理效率，对TN 和NH3-N的处理效率分别达到了0.022 kg TN·kgMLSS-1·d-1和 0.026 kg NH3-N·kgMLSS-1·d-1。

然而，对PO4-P和TP的去除率却并不高。

因此，我们提出了一个除磷效率更高的改进措施。

运行结果表明：倒置AAO工艺不仅适用于新建的污水处理厂的脱氮除磷，同样也适用于现有的脱氮除磷效率不高的污水处理厂改造和扩建。

关键词：硝化反硝化除磷倒置AAO工艺城市污水引言氮和磷是城市污水中导致受纳水体富营养化的主要因素。

生物硝化、反硝化和除磷工艺是经济的可行的控制排放水水质的方法。

生物脱氮除磷技术主要有：AAO工艺系列，氧化沟工艺和序批式活性污泥工艺（SBR法）。

不同菌种脱氮除磷的新陈代谢过程是需要在缺氧，厌氧和好氧条件下进行的。

在AAO工艺和氧化沟工艺中，可通过搅拌、曝气和污泥回流等方法实现上述条件。

SBR工艺是一个以时间顺序实现缺氧，厌氧，好氧的AAO工艺。

在中国，AAO工艺广泛应用于许多污水处理设施。

传统的AAO工艺有很多优点，同时也有两个缺点：1）需要两个回流系统，其总回流比不少于300％；2）从二沉池抽走的剩余污泥有部分没有完全经过厌氧，缺氧和好氧阶段，这可能会减少总磷（TP）的去除率。

合成新型硅改性聚酰亚胺Ewa Biaáecka-Florjanzyk, Andrzej Orzeszko农业大学，中国科学院化学研究所，ul.Nowoursynowska 159C ，02-787华沙，波兰电子邮件：orzeszkoa@delta.sggw.waw.pl收稿日期：2001年5月27日/修订版：2002年5月31日/接受日期：2002年6月10日总结从系列新聚（聚硅氧烷酰亚胺），N，N - dialkenylimides和1,1,3,3 - 四甲基通过polyhydrosilylation合成。

得到的聚合物从对苯二酚双[（N-allylphthalimide ）-4 -羧酸]表明液晶属性。

其液晶相范围在107- 197 °C。

介绍聚酰亚胺和聚醯亚胺被称为耐高温材料和良好的透明度（1,2）。

不幸的是，这些聚合物是非常难处理的，它们溶于多数有机溶剂。

聚酰亚胺目前的处理问题和相当大的努力仍在致力于改善这些性能。

一些方法已被用来克服这个难题，同时保持它们高的热稳定。

这些措施包括插入柔性基团如乙烯或甲基链（3,4）。

此外，使用单体或大的悬挂的基团杂在主链来提高高分子的溶解度和处理。

另一方面，含硅聚合物是众所周知的可溶性物质。

他们还具有热塑性，并表现出良好的附着力。

把柔性硅基连接刚性的酰亚胺单元显著提高聚酰亚胺的加工性能。

聚（硅氧烷酰亚胺），PSIS，通常是通过缩合合成的含硅单体（1,5-7），即二胺或二酐。

我们建议另一个可能性，典型的含硅聚合反应，polyhydrosilylation酰亚胺双端烯烃组。

硅氢加成反应，即增加一个硅烷烯，在有机硅化学中是一个重要的反应。

它可以进行热或在各种催化剂中使用，例如hexachloroplatinic酸，二氯（内双环戊二烯）铂金或铂金四甲基divinyldisiloxane（PTDD）（9-12）。

在本研究中，我们合成了一系列新的聚酰亚胺，下面给出的一般公式进行酰亚胺基团和1,1,3,3-tetramethyldisiloxane单元。

中英文文献翻译—中国的水污染XXX。

water treatment facilities are not keeping up with the demand。

resulting in increased levels of water n。

In 1994.China produced 40.82 n tons of wastewater。

with 24.08 n coming from industrial use and 4.3 n from township and village enterprises。

This was a 2.7 percent increase from 1993.nally。

chemical oxygen demand。

heavy metals。

arsenic chemicals。

cyanide。

and volatile phenols all saw an increase in levels。

while petroleum-related pollutants declined by 10.1 percent.Although 75 percent of industrial wastewater received some form of treatment。

which is a 3 percent increase from the us year。

only 40 percent of treated XXX。

It's clear that more needs to be done to address this XXX to keep up with the XXX.XXX。

XXX in 1994 of seven major river basins and 110XXX only 32% of river water met the nal standards for drinking water sources。

外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。

1In the past decade the business environment has changed dramatically. The world has become a small and very dynamic marketplace. Organizations today confront new markets, new competition and increasing customer expectations. This has put a tremendous demand on manufacturers to; 1) Lower total costs in the complete supply chain 2) Shorten throughput times 3) Reduce stock to a minimum 4) Enlarge product assortment 5) Improve product quality 6) Provide more reliable delivery dates and higher service to the customer 7) Efficiently coordinate global demand, supply and production. Thus today's organization have to constantly re-engineer their business practices and procedures to be more and more responsive to customers and competition. In the 1990's information technology and business process re-engineering, used in conjunction with each other, have emerged as important tools which give organizations the leading edge.ERP Systems EvolutionThe focus of manufacturing systems in the 1960's was on inventory control. Most of the software packages then (usually customized) were designed to handle inventory based on traditional inventory concepts. In the 1970's the focus shifted to MRP (Material Requirement Planning) systems which translatedthe Master Schedule built for the end items into time-phased net requirements for the sub-assemblies, components and raw materials planning and procurement,In the 1980's the concept of MRP-II (Manufacturing Resources Planning) evolved which was an extension of MRP to shop floor and distribution management activities. In the early 1990's, MRP-II was further extended to cover areas like Engineering, Finance, Human Resources, Projects Management etc i.e. the complete gamut of activities within any business enterprise. Hence, the term ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) was coined.In addition to system requirements, ERP addresses technology aspects like client/server distributedarchitecture, RDBMS, object oriented programming etc. ERP Systems-Bandwidth ERP solutions address broad areas within any business like Manufacturing, Distribution, Finance, Project Management, Service and Maintenance, Transportation etc. A seamless integration is essential to provide visibility and consistency across the enterprise.An ERP system should be sufficiently versatile to support different manufacturing environments like make-to-stock, assemble-to-order and engineer-to-order. The customer order decoupling point (CODP) should be flexible enough to allow the co-existence of these manufacturing environments within the same system. It is also very likely that the same product may migrate from one manufacturing environment to another during its produce life cycle.The system should be complete enough to support both Discrete as well as Process manufacturing scenario's. The efficiency of an enterprise depends on the quick flow of information across the complete supply chain i.e. from the customer to manufacturers to supplier. This places demands on the ERP system to have rich functionality across all areas like sales, accounts receivable, engineering, planning, inventory management, production, purchase, accounts payable, quality management, distribution planning and external transportation. EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) is an important tool in speeding up communications with trading partners.More and more companies are becoming global and focusing on down-sizing and decentralizing their business. ABB and Northern Telecom are examples of companies which have business spread around the globe. For these companies to manage their business efficiently, ERP systems need to have extensive multi-site management capabilities. The complete financial accounting and management accounting requirementsof the organization should be addressed. It is necessary to have centralized or de-centralized accounting functions with complete flexibility to consolidate corporate information.After-sales service should be streamlined and managed efficiently. A strong EIS (Enterprise Information System) with extensive drill down capabilities should be available for the top management to get a birds eye view of the health of their organization and help them to analyze performance in key areas.Evaluation CriteriaSome important points to be kept in mind while evaluating an ERP software include: 1) Functional fit with the Company's business processes 2) Degree of integration between the various components of the ERP system 3) Flexibility and scalability 4) Complexity; user friendliness 5) Quick implementation; shortened ROI period 6) Ability to support multi-site planning and control 7) Technology; client/server capabilities, database independence, security 8)Availability of regular upgrades 9) Amount of customization required 10) Local support infrastructure II) Availability of reference sites 12) Total costs,including cost of license, training, implementation, maintenance, customization and hardware requirements.ERP Systems-ImplementationThe success of an ERP solution depends on how quick the benefits can be reaped from it. This necessitates rapid implementations which lead to shortened ROI periods. Traditional approach to implementation has been to carry out a Business Process Re-engineering exercise and define a "TO BE"model before the ERP system implementation. This led to mismatches between the proposed model and the ERP functionality, the consequence of which was customizations, extended implementation time frames, higher costs and loss of user confidence.ERP Systems-The FutureThe Internet represents the next major technology enabler which allows rapid supply chain management between multiple operations and trading partners. Most ERP systems are enhancing their products to become "Internet Enabled" so that customers worldwide can have direct to the supplier's ERP system. ERP systems are building in the Workflow Management functionally which provides a mechanism to manage and controlthe flow of work by monitoring logistic aspects like workload, capacity, throughout times, work queue lengths and processing times.译文1在过去十年中，商业环境发生了巨大的变化。

在现有的技术下非水溶性马铃薯淀粉废物转化成还原糖文摘：在这种探索性的工作中，研究了利用不同的非现有技术（超声和微波炉射线）将一个复杂的工业淀粉基解聚为还原糖。

之后，还原糖可以转化成为更高的高级醇等提供的化合物。

这个实验研究了三种不同的起始物料,他们分别为“马铃薯粉”、“湿土豆泥”、“干土豆泥”。

在酸性条件下，马铃薯面粉通过微波辐射，一个小时之内的转化率达到了61%。

在低频和高频超声波照射下，120分钟内它的转化率分别是70%和80%。

关键词：生物量基于淀粉的废物微波辐射超声辐照1 介绍在过去的二十年里，世界能源消耗已经猛增了30%。

2010年，石油消耗已经增长了大约4%。

几乎80%的化石燃料成为主要能源消耗，其中58%是由传输部门所消耗。

（尼格和辛格，2011）为了减少化石燃料的消耗，生物量可以考虑成代替能源的一种，因为它是一种丰富和新兴的能源，这种能源可能用作原料。

全球生物燃料的生产达到62亿升，在能源方面，这仅仅是全球运输燃料的1.8%。

几乎80％为乙醇燃料，其余为生物柴油（Scheffran2010，第一章2）。

然而，被选的生物量不应该和粮食有冲突，也不可能解决伦理问题。

废物转化为能源的过程可以成为再生能源，从而不依赖于化石燃料。

因此，我们想向您介绍我们的不可食用的废料转化成高附加值的化合物，然后进行发酵，以提供生物燃料的探索性工作。

我们的过程中所用的原料是一家名为Jepuan Peruna Oy的芬兰公司提供的淀粉基废物、马铃薯皮。

在2010年，这家公司平均每天产生20吨。

马铃薯废物转化为生物燃料的过程可分为两个主要阶段：淀粉基的废物转化（解聚）成还原糖，然后将其转化成高级醇，如丁醇或戊醇。

工作的重点是在催化转化的第一部分。

生物量的生产也必须是可持续的，这就强调了有必要设计一个渐进的、清洁的、可能的过程，逐步放弃化石能源，随后建设成一个更有利于环境友好型的社会。

在绿色化学的十二项原则（阿纳斯塔斯&华纳，1998）指引下，做到这一点是可能的。

Database introduction and ACCESS2000The database is the latest technology of data management, and the important branch of computer science. The database , as its name suggests, is the warehouse to preserve the data. The warehouse to store apparatus in computer only, and data to deposit according to sure forms。

The so-called database is refers to the long-term storage the data acquisition which in the computer, organized, may share。

In the database data according to the certain data model organization, the description, and the storage, has a smaller redundance, the higher data independence and the easy extension, and may altogether shine for each kind of user。

The effective management database, frequently has needed some database management systems (DBMS) is the user provides to database operation each kind of order, the tool and the method, including database establishment and recording input, revision, retrieval, demonstration, deletion and statistics。

英文文献翻译成中文per a la garantia, plans de beneficis per poder posar empresa de totes les activitats empresarials de producció són orgànics al'organització cap amunt. Quart anual pla integral és el mitjà- i pla de desenvolupament a llarg termini d'encarnació i garantia principal, però també és la base per a la preparació de trimestral i l'objectiu de les decisions de gestió empresarials. Cinquè anual integrat de planificació i implementació per procedir de la realitat, reforçar la recerca ianàlisi exhaustiva, àmpliament mobilitzar les masses, segons l'esperit avançada, positiu, fiable, realista, conservador, adonar-se del potencial de producció existent, producció més productes comercialitzables, assequibles, les necessitats de l'estat i el mercat. Sisena anual pla integral... Vuit, pla de reparació d'equips: inclou dos DPS arribant: elaborat per l'equip és responsable. Nou, un plad'infraestructures: preparat per la construcció és responsable. Deu, laboral, pla de salari: elaborat pel Departament d'educació de les persones. Planificació financera, tercer: elabora el Departament de Finances és responsable. 12, subministrament de materials, pla de consum de eina: elabora el Departament de subministrament, l'eina és responsable. 13, personal, formació, planificaciód'introducció de talent: elaborat pel Departament d'educació de les persones. Vuitè pla els tipus d'indicadors i el Departament: els principals indicadorstècnics i econòmics pel Director a càrrec, sota el Director a càrrec,oficina funcional centralitzat preparació, planificació i programació total consolidat. 1, rendiment producte mitjançant la programació de servei és responsable de la preparació d'un pla. 2, elaborat perl'empresa Màrqueting responsable. 3, qualitat total divisió és responsable de la p reparació. ?, taxa de pas de examen de varietat. B, les parts principals de la taxa de mostreig principal. ?, mecanitzat de ferralla. 4, preparat pel Departament de Finances és responsable del cost. ?, productes comparables Costa declivi. ?, producció cost de les taxes. 5, consumits per l'oferta Departament és responsable de preparar. ? milions de iuans sortida valor i b eficiència, consumenergètic i acer. 6, productivitat que elabori el Departament de seguretat laboral és responsable. 7, el fons preparat pel Departament de Finances és responsable. ?, el nombre de capital fix ocupat. ?, capitals dies hàbils. ?, cent Yuan sortida valor pren cap amunt de liquiditat. 8, elaborat pel Departament de Finances s'encarrega de beneficis. Els beneficis ? es va conver tir en benefici del valor de producció c b d benefici marges tots els marges ?, vendes marge de benefici 9, valor total de la producció industrial del Departament de planificació és responsable de la preparació dels plans novena i objectius del programa: e n primer lloc, la fase de preparació: 1 reunió, Director, preparació de mobilització de disposició plans i objectius per a l'any i va proposarl'elaboració de研究的INTERACT德业? (2007 ) 1:143-154作者10.1007/s12008-007-0016-2模拟的数值控制工具机( NCMT )基于虚拟现实使我们以前的可视化上生产的部分执行不同的进程。

知云文献翻译使用教程知云文献翻译是一款在线文献翻译工具，它可以帮助用户快速准确地翻译各种学术文献和研究论文。

下面是知云文献翻译的使用教程，包含了一些常用的用法和中英文对照例句。

1. 打开知云文献翻译的网页：在浏览器中输入“知云文献翻译”，进入官方网站。

2. 选择翻译语种：在网页上方的语种选择框中，选择您要翻译的语种。

例如，如果您想将中文翻译成英文，选择“中文”为源语言，选择“英文”为目标语言。

3. 输入文本：在输入框中输入您要翻译的文本。

可以是整篇论文的摘要、段落或者句子。

4. 点击翻译按钮：点击页面上的“翻译”按钮，开始进行翻译。

5. 查看翻译结果：在下方的输出框中，您将看到翻译后的文本。

可以一次性翻译整篇论文，也可以逐句进行翻译。

以下是一些中英文对照例句，以帮助您更好地理解知云文献翻译的使用方法：中文原文：这项研究旨在探讨人工智能在医学领域的应用。

英文翻译：This study aims to explore the application ofartificial intelligence in the field of medicine.中文原文：实验结果表明，新药对癌症患者的治疗效果显著提高。

英文翻译：The experimental results indicate that the new drug significantly improves the treatment efficacy for cancer patients.中文原文：本研究采用随机对照试验设计，对两组受试者进行了比较。

英文翻译：This study employed a randomized controlled trial design to compare two groups of subjects.中文原文：研究结果表明，环境因素对人体健康有着重要的影响。

英文翻译：The research findings indicate that environmental factors have a significant impact on human health.中文原文：本文综述了当前研究的进展情况及未来的研究方向。

中文译文：建筑业的竞争及竞争策略美国的工程建筑公司几十年来一直控制着国际建筑市场，但近来世界上发生的事件改变了它的主导地位。

为了调查今后十年对工程建筑竞争产生影响的推动力及趋势，由建筑工业研究院的"2000年建筑特别工作组：发起一项称为“2000年建筑市场竞争分析”的研究项目。

该研究项目考察了一些影响竞争的因素，包括下列方面：企业能力塑造：采用纵向联合，横向发展的方法，提高企业的综合能力。

扩大市场领地，这种做法包括被海外的联合企业收购或被其合并，或是由美国公司收购外国公司。

筹措资金的选择方法：私有化作用，建筑权力转让项目，未来市场中工程筹资特征。

管理、组织及结构：未来的经营管理及组织方法、组织结构、组织技巧要有利于引导职员在世界竞争环境中发挥作用。

劳力特征：未来具有专业水平和技工水平的工程建筑工人的供求情况技术问题：技术将如何影响竞争，如何用来弥补劳力不足的缺陷。

研究目标及范围这一研究项目的目标是收集信息，使之为适应2000年及以后的工程建筑业在调整、制定策略方面的需要提供真知灼见，并制定出2000年工程建筑业的可能的发展计划。

这项研究回顾了工程建筑业的历史过程，审视了当前的发展趋势，以确定影响该工业未来的推动力，与该工业相关的有重塑企业能力，私有化及筹措资金方法的潜在作用以及经营管理、组织方法、公司结构方面的未来发展方向。

研究范围包括选定一些公司，采访这些公司有专业特长的人员。

这些人员的专业涉及面很广，包括商业建筑，重工业建筑，公共事业设施建设，基础建设．轻工业建筑，电力，生产程序以及航天科学。

工程建筑业竞争特性工程建筑业的竞争特征由于下列原因在变动：80年代发生的事件，以及计划在90年代实施的项目，正在引导建筑业摆脱相互对立的局面，转向相互合作。

应该以积极的眼光看待新的公司进入国际工程建筑市场，因为它增加了全球合作的机遇。

合作关系会使所有的伙伴受益，这是因为美国公司可以在合作伙伴的国家找到机遇，同样，外国公司也会打入美国市场。

Intelligent Power Supply英文With the rapid development of electronic technology, application field of electronic system is more and more extensive, electronic equipment, there are more and more people work with electronic equipment, life is increasingly close relationship. Any electronic equipment are inseparable from reliable power supply for power requirements, they more and more is also high. Electronic equipment miniaturized and low cost in the power of light and thin,small and efficient for development direction. The traditional transistors series adjustment manostat is continuous control linear manostat. This traditional manostat technology more mature, and there has been a large number of integrated linear manostat module, has the stable performance is good, output ripple voltage small, reliable operation, etc. But usually need are bulky and heavy industrial frequency transformer and bulk and weight are big filter.In the 1950s, NASA to miniaturization, light weight as the goal, for a rocket carrying the switch power development. In almost half a century of development process, switch power because of is small volume, light weight, high efficiency, wide range, voltage advantages in electric, control, computer, and many other areas of electronic equipment has been widely used. In the 1980s, a computer is made up of all of switch power supply, the first complete computer power generation. Throughout the 1990s, switching power supply in electronics,electrical equipment, into the rapid development. In addition, large scale integrated circuit technology, and the rapid development ofswitch power supply with a qualitative leap, raised high frequency power products of, miniaturization, modular tide.Power switch tube, PWM controller and high-frequency transformer is an indispensable part of the switch power supply. The traditional switch power supply is normally made by using high frequency power switch tube division and the pins, such as using PWM integrated controller UC3842 + MOSFET is domestic small power switch power supply, the design method of a more popularity.Since the 1970s, emerged in many function complete integrated control circuit, switch power supply circuit increasingly simplified, working frequency enhances unceasingly, improving efficiency, and for power miniaturization provides the broad prospect. Three end off-line pulse width modulation monolithic integrated circuit TOP (Three switch Line) will Terminal Off with power switch MOSFET PWM controller one package together, has become the mainstream of switch power lC development. Adopt TOP switch lC design switch power, can make the circuitsimplified,volume further narrowing, cost also is decreased obviousiy.Monolithic switching power supply has the monolithic integrated, the minimalist peripheral circuit, best performance index, no work frequency transformer can constitute a significant advantage switching power supply, etc. American Pl (with) company in Power in the mid 1990s first launched the new high frequency switching Power supply chip, known as the "top switch Power", with low cost, simple circuit, higher efficiency. The first generation of products launched in 1994 represented TOP100/200 series, the second generation product is the TOPSwitch - debuted in 1997 П .The above productsonce appeared showed strong vitality and he greatly simplifies the design of 150W following switching power supply and the development of new products for the new job, also, high efficiency and low cost switch power supply promotion and popularization created good condition, which can be widely used in instrumentation, notebook computers, mobile phones, TV, VCD and DVD, perturbation VCR, mobile phone battery chargers, power amplifier and other fields, and form various miniaturization, density, on price can compete with the linear manostat AC/DC power transformation module.Switching power supply to integrated direction of future development will be the main trend, power density will more and more big, to process requirements will increasingly high. In semiconductor devices and magnetic materials, no new breakthrough technology progress before major might find it hard to achieve, technology innovation will focus on how to improve the efficiency and focus on reducing weight. Therefore, craft level will be in the position of power supply manufacturing higher in. In addition, the application of digital control IC is the future direction of the development of a switch power. This trust in DSP for speed and anti-interference technology unceasing enhancement. As for advanced control method, now the individual feels haven't seen practicability of the method appears particularly strong, perhaps with the popularity of digital control, and there are some new control theory into switching power supply.(1) The technology: with high frequency switching frequencies increase, switch converter volume also decrease,power density has also been boosted, dynamic responseimproved. Small power DC - DC converter switch frequency will rise to MHz. But as the switch frequency unceasing enhancement, switch components and passive components loss increases, high-frequency parasitic parameters and high-frequency EMI and so on the new issues will also be caused．(2) Soft switching technologies: in order to improve the efficiency of non-linearity of various soft switch, commutation technical application and hygiene, representative of soft switch technology is passive and active soft switch technology, mainly including zero voltage switch/zero current switch (ZVS/ZCS) resonance, quasi resonant, zero voltage/zero current pulse width modulation technology (ZVS/ZCS - PWM) and zero voltage transition/zero current transition pulse width modulation (PWM) ZVT/ZCT - technical, etc. By means of soft switch technology can effectively reduce switch loss and switch stress, help converter transformation efficiency.(3) Power factor correction technology (IC simplifies PFC). At present mainly divided into IC simplifies PFC technology passive and active IC simplifies PFC technology using IC simplifies PFC technology two kinds big, IG simplifies PFC technology can improve AC - DC change device input power factor, reduce the harmonic pollution of power grid.(4) Modular technology. Modular technology can meet the needs of the distributed power system, enhance the system reliability.(5) Low output voltage technology. With the continuous development of semiconductor manufacturing technology, microprocessor and portable electronic devices work more and more low, this requires future DC - DG converter can providelow output voltage to adapt microprocessor and power supply requirement of portable electronic devicesPeople in switching power supply technical fields are edge developing related power electronics device, the side of frequency conversion technology, development of switch between mutual promotion push switch power supply with more than two year growth toward light, digital small, thin, low noise and high reliability, anti-interference direction. Switching power supply can be divided into the AC/DC and DC/DC two kinds big, also have AC/AC DC/AC as inverter DC/DC converter is now realize modular, and design technology and production process at home and abroad, are mature and standardization, and has approved by users, but the AC/DC modular, because of its own characteristics in the process of making modular, meet more complex technology and craft manufacture problems. The following two types of switch power supply respectively on the structure and properties of this.Switching power supply is the development direction of high frequency, high reliability, low consumption, low noise, anti-jamming and modular. Because light switch power, small, thin key techniques are changed, so high overseas each big switch power supply manufacturer are devoted to the development of new high intelligent synchronous rectifier, especially the improvement of secondary devices of the device, and power loss of Zn ferrite (Mn) material? By increasing scientific and technological innovation, to enhance in high frequency and larger magnetic flux density (Bs) can get high magnetic under the miniaturization of, and capacitor is a key technology. SMT technology application makes switching power supply has made considerable progress,both sides in the circuit board to ensure that decorate components of switch power supply light, small, thin. The high frequency switching power supply of the traditional PWM must innovate switch technology, to realize the ZCS ZVS, soft switch technology has become the mainstream of switch power supply technical, and greatly improve the efficiency of switch power. For high reliability index, America's switch power producers, reduce by lowering operating current measures such as junction temperature of the device, in order to reduce stress the reliability of products made greatly increased．Modularity is of the general development of switch power supply trend can be modular power component distributed power system, can be designed to N + 1 redundant system, and realize the capacity expansion parallel. According to switch power running large noise this one defect, if separate the pursuit of high frequency noise will increase its with the partial resonance, and transform circuit technology, high frequency can be realized in theory and can reduce the noise, but part of the practical application of resonant conversion technology still have a technical problem, so in this area still need to carry out a lot of work, in order to make the technology to practional utilization.Power electronic technology unceasing innovation, switch power supply industry has broad prospects for development. To speed up the development of switch power industry in China, we must walk speed of technological innovation road, combination with Chinese characteristics in the joint development path, for the high-speed development of national economy to make the contribution.中文智能开关电源随着电子技术的高速进展，电子系统的应用领域愈来愈普遍，电子设备的种类也愈来愈多，电子设备与人们的工作、生活的关系口益紧密。

机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)英文原文Mechanical Design and Manufacturing ProcessesMechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the systemand then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design.On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have "bugs" or unforeseen problems which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowedto flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available tous. These are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1) Does the design really serve a human need?(2) Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3) Is it economical to produce?(4) Can it be readily maintained?(5) Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle [3].It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fails in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.Designing starts with a need, real or imagined. Existing apparatus may need improvements in durability, efficiently, weight, speed, or cost. New apparatus may be needed to perform a function previously done by men, such as computation, assembly, or servicing. With the objective wholly or partly defined, the next step in design is the conception of mechanisms and their arrangements that will perform the needed functions.For this, freehand sketching is of great value, not only as a record of one's thoughts and as an aid in discussion with others, but particularly for communication with one's own mind, as a stimulant for creative ideas.When the general shape and a few dimensions of the several components become apparent, analysis can begin in earnest. The analysis will have as its objective satisfactory or superior performance, plus safety and durability with minimum weight, and a competitive east. Optimum proportions and dimensions will be sought for each critically loaded section, together with a balance between the strength of the several components. Materials and their treatment will be chosen. These important objectives can be attained only by analysis based upon the principles ofmechanics, such as those of statics for reaction forces and for the optimumutilization of friction; of dynamics for inertia, acceleration, and energy; of elasticity and strength of materials for stress。

Foreign material：Chemical Industry1.Origins of the Chemical IndustryAlthough the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin’s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939).Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the development and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.The chemical industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of different chemicals whichthe general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have the required properties which make them suitable for some particular application, e.g. a non-stick coating for pans or a weedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.2. Definition of the Chemical IndustryAt the turn of the century there would have been little difficulty in defining what constituted the chemical industry since only a very limited range of products was manufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric acid. At present, however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oil through (in some cases) many intermediates to products which may be used directly as consumer goods, or readily converted into them. The difficulty cones in deciding at which point in this sequence the particular operation ceases to be part of the chemical industry’s sphere of activities. To consider a specific example to illustrate this dilemma, emulsion paints may contain poly (vinyl chloride) / poly (vinyl acetate). Clearly, synthesis of vinyl chloride (or acetate) and its polymerization are chemical activities. However, if formulation and mixing of the paint, including the polymer, is carried out by a branch of the multinational chemical company which manufactured the ingredients, is this still part of the chemical industry of does it mow belong in the decorating industry?It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and close links in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition of the chemical industry. Instead each official body which collects and publishes statistics on manufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified as the chemical industry. It is important to bear this in mind when comparing statistical information which is derived from several sources.3. The Need for Chemical IndustryThe chemical industry is concerned with converting raw materials, such as crude oil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of other chemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our livesmore comfortable or, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintain our well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added to the produce and provided this added exceeds the raw material plus processing costs then a profit will be made on the operation. It is the aim of chemical industry to achieve this.It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question “do we need a chemical industry?” However trying to answer this question will provide(ⅰ) an indication of the range of the chemical industry’s activities, (ⅱ) its influence on our lives in everyday terms, and (ⅲ) how great is society’s need for a chemical industry. Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the industry’s co ntribution to meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink) and health are paramount. Other which we shall consider in their turn are clothing and (briefly) shelter, leisure and transport.(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production in at least three ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizers which are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops during modern intensive farming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, which markedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, by producing veterinary products which protect livestock from disease or cure their infections.(2)Health. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceutical sector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterial infections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g. ß–blockers to lower blood pressure.(3)Clothing. The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over the traditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarkable. Thus shirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides like Nylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron. They are also cheaper than natural materials.Parallel developments in the discovery of modern synthetic dyes and the technology to “bond” th em to the fiber has resulted in a tremendous increase in the variety of colors available to the fashion designer. Indeed they now span almost every color and hue of the visible spectrum. Indeed if a suitable shade is not available, structural modification of an existing dye to achieve this canreadily be carried out, provided there is a satisfactory market for the product.Other major advances in this sphere have been in color-fastness, i.e., resistance to the dye being washed out when the garment is cleaned.(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution of modern synthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditional building materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-free (i.e. they are resistant to weathering and do not need painting). Other polymers, e.g. urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducing heat losses and hence reducing energy usage.Plastics and polymers have made a considerable impact on leisure activities with applications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks, football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf balls and footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.Like wise the chemical industry’s contribution to transport over the years has led to major improvements. Thus development of improved additives like anti-oxidants and viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals to increase from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has also resulted in improved lubricating oils and greases, and better brake fluids. Yet again the contribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proportion of the total automobile derived from these materials—dashboard, steering wheel, seat padding and covering etc.—now exceeding 40%.So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemical industry’s contribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very different without the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a country’s development may be judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (R&D) in Chemical IndustriesOne of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world has been its great commitment to, and investment in research and development (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income, i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff salaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leading to many useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examplesinclude synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides. Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declined significantly in recent years, and in times of recession the research department is usually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the commitment to R&D remains at a very high level.The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory.Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.The major chemical companies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with companies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over companies which are already operating there.化学工业1.化学工业的起源尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。