A Correlation Studies of Indoor Environmental Quality(IEQ) Towards Produc tive Workplace

2023年高考英语外刊时文精读精练 (14)Climate change and coral reefs气候变化与珊瑚礁主题语境：人与自然主题语境内容：自然生态【外刊原文】（斜体单词为超纲词汇，认识即可；下划线单词为课标词汇，需熟记。

）Human beings have been altering habitats—sometimes deliberately andsometimes accidentall y—at least since the end of the last Ice Age. Now, though, that change is happening on a grand scale. Global warming is a growing factor. Fortunately, the human wisdom that is destroying nature can also be brought to bear on trying to save it.Some interventions to save ecosystems are hard to imagine andsucceed. Consider a project to reintroducesomething similar to a mammoth(猛犸象)to Siberiaby gene-editing Asian elephants. Their feeding habits could restore the grassland habitat that was around before mammoths died out, increasing the sunlight reflected into space and helping keep carbon compounds(碳化合物)trapped in the soil. But other projects have a bigger chance of making an impact quickly. As we report, one example involves coral reefs.These are the rainforests of the ocean. They exist on vast scales: half a trillion corals line the Pacific from Indonesia to French Polynesia, roughly the same as the number of trees that fill the Amazon. They are equally important harbor of biodiversity. Rainforests cover18% of the land’s s urface and offer a home to more than half its vertebrate(脊椎动物的)species. Reefs occupy0.1% of the oceans and host a quarter of marine(海洋的)species.And corals are useful to people, too. Without the protection which reefs afford from crashing waves, low-lying islands such as the Maldives would have flooded long ago, and a billion people would lose food or income. One team of economists has estimated that coral’s global ecosystem services are worth up to $10trn a year. reefs are, however, under threat from rising sea temperatures. Heat causes the algae（海藻） with which corals co-exist, and on which they depend for food and colour, to generate toxins（毒素）that lead to those algae’s expulsion（排出）. This is known as “bleaching（白化）”, and can cause a coral’s death.As temperatures continue to rise, research groups around the world are coming up with plansof action. Their ideas include identifying naturally heat-resistant（耐热的）corals and moving themaround the world; crossbreeding（杂交）such corals to create strains that are yet-more heat-resistant; employing genetic editing to add heat resistance artificially; transplantingheat-resistant symbiotic（共生的）algae; and even repairing with the bacteria and other micro-organismswith which corals co-exist—to see if that will help.The assisted evolution of corals does not meet with universal enthusiasm. Without carbon reduction and decline in coral-killing pollution, even resistant corals will not survive the century. Some doubt whetherhumans will get its act together in time to make much difference. Few of these techniques are ready for action in the wild. Some, such as gene editing, are so controversial that it is doubtful they will be approved any time soon. scale is also an issue.But there are grounds for optimism. Carbon targets are being set and ocean pollution is being dealt with. Countries that share responsibilities for reefs are starting to act together. Scientific methods can also be found. Natural currents can be used to facilitate mass breeding. Sites of the greatest ecological and economical importance can be identified to maximise benefits.This mix of natural activity and human intervention could serve as a blueprint （蓝图）for other ecosystems. Those who think that all habitats should be kept original may not approve. But when entire ecosystems are facing destruction, the cost of doing nothing is too great to bear. For coral reefs, at least, if any are to survive at all, it will be those that humans have re-engineered to handle the future.【课标词汇精讲】1.alter （通常指轻微地）改动，修改；改变，（使）变化We've had to alter some of our plans.我们不得不对一些计划作出改动。

文章编号:1009-2269(2010)02-0048-04建筑环境对人体健康的影响3侯　捷,王筱芳,陶炳芳(兰州工业高等专科学校建筑工程系,甘肃兰州　730050)摘要:建筑环境包括建筑外环境、建筑室内热湿环境、建筑室内空气环境、建筑声环境和建筑光环境.简述建筑环境对人体健康的影响,并提出改善人居环境质量的措施:室内热湿环境可以通过被动法和主动法来改善;室内空气环境控制措施包括利用建筑设计实现自然通风、采用置换通风系统、选用绿色建筑材料.关　键　词:建筑环境;设备;健康中图分类号:R122文献标志码:A0　引言 随着经济水平的迅速发展,人民生活、居住水平的日益提高,人们对建筑环境的健康性、舒适性和满足高工作效率的需求日益增强.同时,建筑业的迅速发展给建筑环境提出了更高的要求,建筑环境既要满足生活和工作对健康、舒适和高效的需求,又要降低建筑能耗和减小环境污染,实现绿色建筑的建设目标.1　建筑环境 建筑环境以室内环境为主,但是环绕建筑物的外环境,通过建筑围护结构,影响着室内环境,所以建筑环境由建筑外环境、建筑室内热湿环境、室内空气品质(IAQ)、建筑声环境和建筑光环境等若干个部分共同组成[1].2　建筑环境与人体健康2.1　人体对热湿环境的反应2.1.1　人体热感觉热感觉不仅仅是由冷热刺激的存在造成的,还与刺激的延续时间及人体原有的热状态有关,即当皮肤局部已经适应某一温度后,改变皮肤温度,温度的变化率和变化量在一定范围内是不会引起皮肤任何热感觉变化的.除皮肤温度外,人体的核心温度对热感觉也有影响.热感觉最初取决于皮肤温度,而后取决于核心温度.目前描述热感的等级标度有英国的Thomas Bedford于1936年提出的贝氏标度和1966年美国供热制冷空调工程师协会(American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air2conditioning Engi2 neers,简称ASHRA E)使用的七级热感觉标度(ASHRA E Thermal Sensation Scale).2.1.2　人体热舒适人体热舒适不仅与温度有关,还受到空气流速、空气湿度、垂直温差、吹风感、平均辐射照度等的影响,即热舒适与热感觉有分离的现象存在,在评价人体热反应时往往设置热感觉投票方式(TSV)和热舒适投票方式(TCV),见表1.此外,ASHRA E Standard55虽然定义了热舒适范围是让80%的居住者满意的热环境范围,但是对于居住者满意却没有明确的定义,因此有研究者采用直接询问法、热感觉调查法和热期望调3收稿日期:2009212231作者简介:侯　捷(19722),女,陕西杨陵人,讲师,硕士.查法来确定人体热舒适范围[2],这三个方法分别代表人们对热环境的被动接受、中性判断与主动期望.三种热评估法结果与ASHRA E Standard55比较见表2.表1　热舒适投票TCV与热感觉投票TSVTCV分度指标热舒适情况TSV分度指标热感觉情况4不可忍受+3热3很不舒适+2暖2不舒适+1稍暖1稍不舒适0正常0舒适-1稍凉-2凉-3冷表2　三种热评估法结果与ASHRAE Standard55比较方法最佳温度/℃舒适范围/℃ASHRA E25.023.5～26.5直接询问25.822.6～28.8热感觉法25.823.0～28.6热期望法25.324.4～26.5 另有研究表明[3],当环境温度不低于28℃,相对湿度不低于70%时,空气相对湿度对热感觉和热舒适都有明显的影响;在此环境条件下,人体感到满意的风速在1.0～1.2m/s之间.2.2　人与室内空气品质2.2.1　空气污染物的种类及对人类健康的危害室内主要污染物从甲醛、NO x等过渡到挥发性有机物(VOC s);并逐步变化为近年来突出的微生物、颗粒物和挥发性有机物(SVOC)[4].1)颗粒物.矿物性气溶胶颗粒物进入人体呼吸道后,会对局部组织有堵塞作用,使支气管和肺泡的换气功能丧失,使肺部组织纤维化,形成矽肺病.生物性气溶胶颗粒物是重要的室内过敏源和疾病传染途径.颗粒物能吸附一些有害气体(如SO2、N x O 等),造成人体呼吸道的刺激和腐蚀,诱发鼻炎、咽喉炎、气管炎、哮喘、肺炎等.2)微生物.在维护管理不善的冷却水系统中容易滋生,并通过通风系统传播一种叫军团菌的病菌,该病菌会引起人体发热、咳嗽及肺部炎症.近年来,尘螨的影响比以往显得突出,尤其是在装修豪华、室内织物多、通风不良的建筑内,易引发过敏性鼻炎、过敏性湿疹和过敏性哮喘.3)氡.由于氡可以衰变为一系列固体辐射物,一旦氡及其子体被吸入人体后,便会沉积在气管等部位,并会在肺中不断发射粒子,形成内照射.4)甲醛.甲醛会损害人的嗅觉、眼睛,使呼吸道产生刺激症状,还能使人体免疫功能异常、肝肺损伤、神经衰弱.2.2.2　与室内空气环境相关的主要病症1)病态建筑综合症.病态建筑综合症(SBS)与人在建筑中的停留有关.当人们待在室内时,会有中枢神经系统(头痛、疲倦、注意力不集中)刺激及黏膜干燥,皮肤过敏等.在离开室内环境后,症状减弱.2)建筑并发症.建筑并发症(Building Related Illness,简称BRI)最普遍的症状是超敏性疾病,包括肺炎、湿疹、哮喘、过敏性鼻炎和感冒.建筑并发症最著名的例子就是军团病事件.3)综合化学过敏症(或称为化学超敏症).综合化学过敏症是一种慢性的综合系统紊乱,通常包括中枢神经系统及至少一个其他的相关系统.例如,行为变化、疲劳、沮丧、精神紊乱、骨骼、呼吸道刺激、泌尿生殖器、黏膜刺激等.2.3　建筑声环境对人体的影响建筑声环境对人体的影响主要体现在三个方面:对睡眠的影响、对交谈、通讯、思考及判断的影响以及对心理的影响.较长时间的噪音环境,可引起心血管系统和中枢神经系统的疫病,发生心率不齐、血压升高、消化不良等症状.极强的噪音,还会影响胎儿发育、妨碍儿童智力发展,甚至直接造成人和动物的死亡[5].2.4　建筑光环境与人体感觉建筑光环境包括四个要素:照度水平;亮度比;色温与显色性;眩光.从心理上说,长期生活在强光照耀环境中,光可以改变人体内生物钟,能使人头晕目眩、发生失眠、食欲下降、心悸、身体乏力等症状,严重者甚至癌变.从心理上说,光污染会・94・第2期 侯　捷等:建筑环境对人体健康的影响 使人心情郁闷、情绪烦躁、甚至诱发神经质和神经衰弱[6].3　建筑环境的改善方法和措施3.1　热湿环境控制方法可以通过被动法和主动法来改善室内温湿度环境.3.1.1　被动法被动法包括自然通风、围护结构隔热技术、被动式蒸发冷却技术、建造利用太阳能的太阳房.自然通风是最简单同时又是最有效的改善室内温、湿度的方法;围护结构隔热技术可在墙体主体结构上增加一层或几层复合的绝热保温材料来改善整个墙体的热工性能.根据复合材料与主体结构位置的不同,又分为内保温技术、外保温技术及夹心保温技术,图1所示为夹心保温技术.图1　钢制龙骨复合墙体3.1.2　主动法包括机械通风、采暖空调措施、加湿除湿措施机械通风需要设置局部通风设备和通风系统,在夏天改善室内温湿环境,在冬天送入热风改善室内热湿环境;在各种采暖系统中低温辐射地板采暖作为新型的采暖方式其应用越来越广泛,与传统的采暖方式相比,具有以下几个优势:首先,房间温度分布均匀.由于是整个地板均匀散热,因此房间里的温差极小,而且室内温度是由下而上逐渐降低,地面温度高于人的呼吸系统温度,给人以脚暖头凉的舒适感觉.第二,有利于营造健康的室内环境.采用散热片取暖,一般出水温度在70℃以上,但温度达到80℃时就会产生灰尘团,使暖气上方的墙面布满灰尘.而地板采暖可以消除灰尘团和浑浊空气的对流,给人一个清新、温暖、健康的环境.第三,高效节能.由于地暖的辐射面大,相对要求的供水温度低,只需40～50℃.可以克服传统采暖片一部分热量从窗户散失掉,影响采暖效果的缺点.第四,节省空间.由于采暖管全部铺设在地板下,节省了放置采暖片的空间,方便室内装饰及家具的摆放.图2所示为地暖系统.图2　地暖系统3.2　室内空气环境的控制策略从20世纪90年代中期开始,我国卫生部发布了20项公共场所卫生标准,由国家质量监督检验检疫总局、卫生部和国家环境保护总局于20022112 19共同颁布了新的国家标准《室内空气质量标准》(G B/T1888322002),该标准从保护人体健康出发,首次全面规定了室内空气的物理性、化学性、生物性、放射性四类共19个污染物指标的限量值.而建筑物从规划设计阶段、施工阶段到验收与运行管理阶段的整个实现过程应始终贯彻这些室内污染控制和评价标准.建筑室内空气环境控制措施主要包括利用建筑设计实现自然通风、采用置换通风系统、选用绿色建筑材料.3.2.1　置换通风系统置换通风相对于混合通风具有高效、合理的特点,主要体现在两个方面:一是置换通风系统很好地利用了气体热轻冷重的自然特性和污染物自身的浮升特性,通过自然对流达到空气调节的目的;二是置换通风系统其空气分层的特点,能将余热和污染物锁定于人的头顶之上,使得人的停留区保持了良好的空气品质.3.2.2　绿色建筑材料的选用近年来,众多的材料科学工作者在净化环境、防止污染、替代有害物质、减少废弃物、材料的资・5・ 兰州工业高等专科学校学报 第17卷源化、利用自然能等方面做了大量的研究工作,其中最为突出的是纳米光催化材料、活性碳纤维新型材料[7].3.3　环境噪声控制途径噪声控制的措施可以在噪声(振动)源、传播途径和接受者三个层次上实施.几种常用的噪声控制措施,包括吸声、消声、隔声、隔振和减振技术.3.4　室内光环境控制策略眩光可以通过选择表面亮度低的光源或灯具加以控制;灯具的布置还可以解决工作面照度均匀性的问题;选择高、低反光系数的材料可以达到各个表面对亮度对比的要求;对于因为室内存在高大家具设备或家具较多而形成的阴影,可以通过增加灯具的数量和照射方向,或者增加室内漫射光的比例来冲淡.4　结语 健康家园是健康生活的保证.我国现行的住宅设计规范对住宅的适用、安全、卫生、经济四个方面制定出了明确的标准,其中涉及到卫生的内容占了1/4.建筑工作者只有坚持“可持续发展”的建筑理念、理性的设计思维方式和科学的建设程序,才能建造出舒适、健康、高效的绿色建筑.参考文献:[1]　杨晚生.建筑环境学[M ].武汉:华中科技大学出版社,2009.[2]　郑明仁,黄瑞隆.热湿地区空调型住家环境的热舒适要求[J ].同济大学学报(自然科学版),2008,36(6):8172821.[3]　田元媛.热湿环境下人体热反应的实验研究[J ].暖通空调,2003,33(4):27230.[4]　潘小川.室内空气质量对人体健康的影响[J ].中国科学基金,2005(4):2052208.[5]　傅才华.建筑环境噪声控制[J ].建筑与设计,2007(7):58260.[6]　黄立萍.建筑环境中光污染的思考[J ].湘潭师范学院学报(自然科学版),2007,29(2):90291.[7]　王雨群.生态环境与健康材料对室内空气质量改善的研究[J ].江苏建筑,2007(6):52255.[8]　何旻昊.城市光污染现状与防治对策案例研究[J ].环境与可持续发展,2008(4):41244.[9]　颜成书.工程项目全寿命周期绿色管理研究[D ].重庆大学,2007.[10]　王　振.城市光污染防治对策研究[D ].同济大学,2007.[11]　王荣顺.住宅建筑的内外环境设计[A ].第六届中国科学家论坛论文汇编[C],2007.The Influence of Building Environment on H ealth HOU Jie ,WAN G Xiao 2fang ,TAO Bing 2fang(Department of Civil Engineering ,Lanzhou Polytechnic College ,Lanzhou 730050,China )Abstract :Building environment includes external environment ,indoor heat and moist ure environment ,indoor air environment ,acoustic and light environment.The effect s of building environment on human healt h is int roduced ,and measures for improving t he quality of living enviro nment are p ut forward.In 2door t hermal environment can be improved by passive and active met hods.Indoor air environmental co n 2t rol measures include t he use of architect ural design to achieve nat ural ventilation ,displacement ventila 2tion systems ,and green building materials.K ey w ords :building environment ;installation ;healt h・15・第2期 侯　捷等:建筑环境对人体健康的影响 。

托福阅读TPO20(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:FossilPreservationTPO是我们常用的托福模考工具，对我们的备考很有价值，下面小编给大家带来托福阅读TPO20(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Fossil Preservation。

托福阅读原文【1】When one considers the many ways by which organisms are completely destroyed after death, it is remarkable that fossils are as common as they are. Attack by scavengers and bacteria, chemical decay, and destruction by erosion and other geologic agencies make the odds against preservation very high. However, the chances of escaping complete destruction are vastly improved if the organism happens to have a mineralized skeleton and dies in a place where it can be quickly buried by sediment. Both of these conditions are often found on the ocean floors, where shelled invertebrates (organisms without spines) flourish and are covered by the continuous rain of sedimentary particles. Although most fossils are found in marine sedimentary rocks, they also are found in terrestrial deposits left by streams and lakes. On occasion, animals and plants have been preserved after becoming immersed in tar or quicksand, trapped in ice or lava flows, or engulfed by rapid falls of volcanic ash.【2】The term "fossil" often implies petrifaction, literally a transformation into stone. After the death of an organism, the soft tissue is ordinarily consumed by scavengers and bacteria. The empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time. Indeed, unaltered shells of marine invertebrates are known from deposits over 100million years old. In many marine creatures, however, the skeleton is composed of a mineral variety of calcium carbonate called aragonite. Although aragonite has the same composition as the more familiar mineral known as calcite, it has a different crystal form, is relatively unstable, and in time changes to the more stable calcite.【3】Many other processes may alter the shell of a clam or snail and enhance its chances for preservation. Water containing dissolved silica, calcium carbonate, or iron may circulate through the enclosing sediment and be deposited in cavities such as marrow cavities and canals in bone once occupied by blood vessels and nerves. In such cases, the original composition of the bone or shell remains, but the fossil is made harder and more durable. This addition of a chemically precipitated substance into pore spaces is termed "permineralization."【4】Petrifaction may also involve a simultaneous exchange of the original substance of a dead plant or animal with mineral matter of a different composition. This process is termed " replacement" because solutions have dissolved the original material and replaced it with an equal volume of the new substance. Replacement can be a marvelously precise process, so that details of shell ornamentation, tree rings in wood, and delicate structures in bone are accurately preserved.【5】Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin films of carbon. Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatile constituents. The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette.【6】Although it is certainly true that the possession of hardparts enhances the prospect of preservation, organisms having soft tissues and organs are also occasionally preserved. Insects and even small invertebrates have been found preserved in the hardened resins of conifers and certain other trees. X-ray examination of thin slabs of rock sometimes reveals the ghostly outlines of tentacles, digestive tracts, and visual organs of a variety of marine creatures. Soft parts, including skin, hair, and viscera of ice age mammoths, have been preserved in frozen soil or in the oozing tar of oil seeps.【7】The probability that actual remains of soft tissue will be preserved is improved if the organism dies in an environment of rapid deposition and oxygen deprivation. Under such conditions, the destructive effects of bacteria are diminished. The Middle Eocene Messel Shale (from about 48 million years ago) of Germany accumulated in such an environment. The shale was deposited in an oxygen-deficient lake where lethal gases sometimes bubbled up and killed animals. Their remains accumulated on the floor of the lake and were then covered by clay and silt. Among the superbly preserved Messel fossils are insects with iridescent exoskeletons (hard outer coverings), frogs with skin and blood vessels intact, and even entire small mammals with preserved fur and soft tissue.托福阅读试题1.The word "agencies" in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning tobinations.B.problems.C.forces.D.changes.2.In paragraph 1, what is the author's purpose in providingexamples of how organisms are destroyed?A.To emphasize how surprising it is that so many fossils exist.B.To introduce a new geologic theory of fossil preservation.C.To explain why the fossil record until now has remained incomplete.D.To compare how fossils form on land and in water.3.The word "terrestrial" in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning tond.B.protected.C.alternative.D.similar.4.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage (paragraph 2)? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.When snail or clam shells are left behind, they must be empty in order to remain durable and resist dissolution.B.Although snail and clam shells are durable and resist dissolving, over time they slowly begin to change.C.Although the soft parts of snails or clams dissolve quickly, their hard shells resist dissolution for a long time.D.Empty snail or clam shells that are strong enough not to dissolve may stay in their original state for a long time.5.Why does the author mention "aragonite" in the passage (paragraph 2)?A.To emphasize that some fossils remain unaltered for millions of years.B.To contrast fossil formation in organisms with soft tissue and in organisms with hard shells.C.To explain that some marine organisms must undergo chemical changes in order to fossilize.D.To explain why fossil shells are more likely to survive than are fossil skeletons.6.The word "enhance" in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning toA.control.B.limit.bine.D.increase.7.Which of the following best explains the process of permineralization mentioned in paragraph 3?A.Water containing calcium carbonate circulates through a shell and deposits sediment.B.Liquid containing chemicals hardens an already existing fossil structure.C.Water passes through sediment surrounding a fossil and removes its chemical content.D.A chemical substance enters a fossil and changes its shape.8.The word "precise" in the passage (paragraph 4) is closest in meaning toplex.B.quick.C.exact.D.reliable.9.Paragraph 5 suggests which of the following about the carbonization process?A.It is completed soon after an organism dies.B.It does not occur in hard-shell organisms.C.It sometimes allows soft-tissued organisms to bepreserved with all their parts.D.It is a more precise process of preservation than is replacement.10.The word "prospect" in the passage (paragraph 6) is closest in meaning topletion.B.variety.C.possibility.D.speed.11.According to paragraph 7, how do environments containing oxygen affect fossil preservation?A.They increase the probability that soft-tissued organisms will become fossils.B.They lead to more bacteria production.C.They slow the rate at which clay and silt are deposited.D.They reduce the chance that animal remains will be preserved.12.According to paragraph 7， all of the following assist in fossil preservation EXCEPTA.the presence of calcite in an organism's skeleton.B.the presence of large open areas along an ocean floor.C.the deposition of a fossil in sticky substances such as sap or tar.D.the rapid burial of an organism under layers of silt.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in the passage. But the evidence of past organic life is not limited to petrifaction. ■【A】Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thinfilms of carbon. ■【B】Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their vola tile constituents. ■【C】The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette.■【D】14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The remains of ancient life are amazingly well preserved in the form of fossils.A.Environmental characteristics like those present on ocean floors increase the likelihood that plant and animal fossils will occur.B.Fossils are more likely to be preserved in shale deposits than in deposits of clay and silt.C.The shells of organisms can be preserved by processes of chemical precipitation or mineral exchange.D.Freezing enables the soft parts of organisms to survive longer than the hard parts.paratively few fossils are found in the terrestrial deposits of streams and lakes.F.Thin films of carbon may remain as an indication of soft tissue or actual tissue may be preserved if exposure to bacteria is limited.托福阅读答案1.agency代理，中介，作用，所以答案是force，选C。

Climate of VenusEarth has abundant water in its oceans but very little carbon dioxide in its relatively thin atmosphere. By contrast, Venus is very dry and its thick atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide. The original atmospheres of both Venus and Earth were derived at least in part from gases spewed forth, or outgassed, by volcanoes. The gases that emanate from present-day volcanoes on Earth, such as Mount Saint Helens, are predominantly water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. These gases should therefore have been important parts of the original atmospheres of both Venus and Earth. Much of the water on both planets is also thought to have come from impacts from comets, icy bodies formed in the outer solar system.In fact, water probably once dominated the Venusian atmosphere. Venus and Earth are similar in size and mass, so Venusian volcanoes may well have outgassed as much water vapor as on Earth, and both planets would have had about the same number of comets strike their surfaces. Studies of how stars evolve suggest that the early Sun was only about 70 percent as luminous as it is now, so the temperature in Venus’ early atmosphere must have been quite a bit lower. Thus water vapor would have been able to liquefy and form oceans on Venus. But if water vapor and carbon dioxide were once so common in the atmospheres of both Earth and Venus, what became of Earth’s carbon dioxide? And what happened to the water on Venus?The answer to the first question is that carbon dioxide is still found in abundance on Earth, but now, instead of being in the form of atmospheric carbon dioxide, it is either dissolved in the oceans or chemically bound into carbonate rocks, such as the limestone and marble that formed in the oceans. If Earth became as hot as Venus, much of its carbon dioxide would be boiled out of the oceans and baked out of the crust. Our planet would soon develop a thick, oppressive carbon dioxide atmosphere much like that of Venus.To answer the question about Venus’ lack of water, we must return to the early history of the planet. Just as on present-day Earth, the oceans of Venus limited the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide by dissolving it in the oceans and binding it up in carbonate rocks. But being closer to the Sun than Earth is, enough of the liquid water on Venus would have vaporized to create a thick cover of water vapor clouds. Since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this humid atmosphere—perhaps denser than Earth’s present-day atmosphere, but far less dense than the atmosphere that envelops Venus today—would have efficiently trapped heat from the Sun. At first, this would have had little effect on the oceans of Venus. Although the temperature would have climbed above 100° C, the boiling point of water at sea level on Earth, the added atmospheric pressure from water vapor would have kept the water in Venus’ oceans in the liquid state.This hot and humid state of affairs may have persisted for several hundred million years. But as the Sun’s energy output slowly increased over time, the tempera ture at the surface would eventually have risen above 374°C. Above this temperature, no matter what the atmospheric pressure. Venus’ oceans would have begun to evaporate, and the added water vapor in the atmosphere would have increased the greenhouse effect. This would have made the temperature even higher and caused the oceans to evaporate faster, producing more water vapor. That, in turn, would have further intensified the greenhouse effect and made the temperature climb higher still.Once Venus’ oceans d isappeared, so did the mechanism for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. With no oceans to dissolve it, outgassed carbon dioxide began to accumulate in the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect even more Temperatures eventually became highenough to" bake out” any carbon dioxide that was trapped in carbonate rocks. This liberated carbon dioxide formed the thick atmosphere of present-day Venus. Over time, the rising temperatures would have leveled off, solar ultraviolet radiation having broken down atmospheric water vapor molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. With all the water vapor gone, the greenhouse effect would no longer have accelerated.Paragraph 1Earth has abundant water in its oceans but very little carbon dioxide in its relatively thin atmosphere. By contrast, Venus is very dry and its thick atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide. The original atmospheres of both Venus and Earth were derived at least in part from gases spewed forth, or outgassed, by volcanoes. The gases that emanate from present-day volcanoes on Earth, such as Mount Saint Helens, are predominantly water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. These gases should therefore have been important parts of the original atmospheres of both Venus and Earth. Much of the water on both planets is also thought to have come from impacts from comets, icy bodies formed in the outer solar system.1. According to paragraph 1, in what major respect are Venus and Earth different from each other?A. Whether carbon dioxide v/as present in their original atmospheresB.How thin their original atmospheres wereC. What their present-day atmospheres mainly consist ofD. How long ago they first developed an atmosphere2. Why does the author mention "present-day volcanoes on Earth"?A. To provide an example of an important difference between present-day Venus and present-day EarthB. To help explain why Earth's atmosphere still contains traces of sulfur dioxide but Venus' does notC. To indicate one source of information about the likely composition of the original atmospheres of Venus and EarthD. To account for the fact that Earth’s water supply no longer comes primarily from impacting cometsParagraph 2In fact, water probably once dominated the Venusian atmosphere. Venus and Earth are similar in size and mass, so Venusian volcanoes may well have outgassed as much water vapor as on Earth, and both planets would have had about the same number of comets strike their surfaces. Studies of how stars evolve suggest that the early Sun was only about 70 percent as luminous as it is now, so the temperature in Venus’ early atmosphere must have been quite a bit lower. Thus water vapor would have been able to liquefy and form oceans on Venus. But if water vapor and carbon dioxide were once so common in the atmospheres of both Earth and Venus, what became of Earth’s carbon dioxide? And what happened to the water on Venus?3. According to paragraph 2, what is one reason for thinking that at one time, there were significant amounts of water on Venus?A. B ecause of Venus’ size and mass, its volcanoes probably produced much more water vapor thanvolcanoes on Earth did.B. The low temperature of Venus' early atmosphere can be explained only by the presence of water.C. The presence of carbon dioxide in a planet's atmosphere is an indicator of water on that planet.D. Venus probably was struck by roughly as many comets as Earth was.4. The word “luminous” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. denseB. brightC. largeD. activeParagraph 3The answer to the first question is that carbon dioxide is still found in abundance on Earth, but now, instead of being in the form of atmospheric carbon dioxide, it is either dissolved in the oceans or chemically bound into carbonate rocks, such as the limestone and marble that formed in the oceans. If Earth became as hot as Venus, much of its carbon dioxide would be boiled out of the oceans and baked out of the crust. Our planet would soon develop a thick, oppressive carbon dioxide atmosphere much like that of Venus.5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. The first question to be answered is how Earth’s atmospheric carbon dioxide either got dissolved in the oceans or got chemically bound into carbonate rocks.B. The fact that Earth’s abundant carbon dioxide is more often found in carbonate rock than dissolved in the oceans is the answer to the first question.C.Earth still has abundant carbon dioxide, but instead of being in the atmosphere it is now dissolved in the oceans or chemically bound into ocean rock s.D. The formation of limestone and marble used up the carbon dioxide that was dissolved in Ear th’s oceans so that only carbon dioxide in atmospheric form remained.Paragraph 4To answer the question about Venus’ lack of water, we must return to the early history of the planet. Just as on present-day Earth, the oceans of Venus limited the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide by dissolving it in the oceans and binding it up in carbonate rocks. But being closer to the Sun than Earth is, enough of the liquid water on Venus would have vaporized to create a thick cover of water vapor clouds. Since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this humid atmosphere—perhaps denser than Earth’s present-day atmosphere, but far less dense than the atmosphere that envelops Venus today—would have efficiently trapped heat from the Sun. At first, this would have had little effect on the oceans of Venus. Although the temperature would have climbed above 100° C, the boiling point of water at sea level on Earth, the added atmospheric pressure from water vapor would have kept the water in Venus’ oceans in the liquid state.6. According to paragraph 4, what is one factor that kept the amount of carbon dioxide in theatmosphere of early Venus relatively low?A.The presence of water vapor cloudsB.The presence of oceansC.Rapidly increasing temperatures at ground levelD. Low atmospheric pressuresParagraph 6Once Venus’ oceans disappeared, so did the mechanism for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. With no oceans to dissolve it, outgassed carbon dioxide began to accumulate in the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect even more Temperatures eventually became high enough to" bake out” any carbon dioxide that was trapped in carbonate rocks. This liberated carbon dioxide formed the thick atmosphere of present-day Venus. Over time, the rising temperatures would have leveled off, solar ultraviolet radiation having broken down atmospheric water vapor molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. With all the water vapor gone, the greenhouse effect would no longer have accelerated.7. The phrase “mechanism for” in the passage is c losest in meaning toA. means ofB. importance ofC. need forD. benefits ofParagraph 5This hot and humid state of affairs may have persisted for several hundred million years. But as the Sun’s energy output slowly increased over time, the temperature a t the surface would eventually have risen above 374°C. Above this temperature, no matter what the atmospheric pressure. Venus’ oceans would have begun to evaporate, and the added water vapor in the atmosphere would have increased the greenhouse effect. This would have made the temperature even higher and caused the oceans to evaporate faster, producing more water vapor. That, in turn, would have further intensified the greenhouse effect and made the temperature climb higher still.8. The word “persisted” i n the passage is closest in meaning toA. improvedB. continuedC. weakenedD. evolved9. According to paragraph 5, what happens when temperatures rise above 374°C?A. Atmospheric pressure begins to decrease.B. Water vapor disappears from the atmosphere.C. Water evaporates regardless of atmospheric pressure.D. More energy is required to evaporate a given volume of water.Paragraph 6Once Venus’ oceans disappeared, so did the mechanism for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. With no oceans to dissolve it, outgassed carbon dioxide began to accumulate in the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect even more Temperatures eventually became high enough to" bake out” any carbon dioxide that was trapped in carbonate rocks. This liberated carb on dioxide formed the thick atmosphere of present-day Venus. Over time, the rising temperatures would have leveled off, solar ultraviolet radiation having broken down atmospheric water vapor molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. With all the water vapor gone, the greenhouse effect would no longer have accelerated.10. According to paragraph 6, extremely high temperatures increased the amount of carbon dioxide in Venus’ atmosphere byA. increasing the rate which carbon dioxide was outgassedB. baking out carbon dioxide from carbonate rocksC. creating additional water vaporD. replacing the previous mechanisms for removing carbon dioxide with less effective ones11. The passage supports the idea that the basic reason that Venus and Earth are now so different from each other is thatA.early Venus had more frequent volcanic outgassing than early Earth didB. early Venus had far less liquid water than early Earth didC. volcanic activity stopped relatively early on Venus but continued on EarthD.Venus is closer to the Sun than Earth isParagraph 512. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.This cycle of rising temperatures following an increase in greenhouse gases is known as therunaway greenhouse effect.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.This hot and humid state of affairs may have persisted for several hundred million years. But as the Sun’s energy output slowly increased over time, the temperature at the surface would eventually have risen above 374°C.[■] Above this temperature, no matter what the atmospheric pressure. Venus’ oceans would have begun to evaporate, and the added water vapor in the atmosphere would have increased the greenhouse effect.[■] This would have made the temperature even higher and caused the oceans to evaporate faster, producing more water vapor. [■] That, in turn, would have further intensified the greenhouse effect and made the temperature climb higher still.[■]13. Directions: Select from the seven phrases below the 2 phrases that correctly characterize earlyVenus and the 3 phrases that correctly characterize present-day Venus. Drag each phrase you select into the appropriate column of the table. Two of the phrases will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it.To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT.Early VenusPresent-day VenusAnswer ChoicesA.High percentage of water vapor in the atmosphereB.Carbon dioxide present only in atmospheric formC.An atmosphere quite similar to that of early EarthD.Very dense but relatively cool atmospherepletely covered with waterplete absence of surface waterG. Essentially stable temperaturesAmphibian ThermoregulationIn contrast to mammals and birds, amphibians are unable to produce thermal energy through their metabolic activity, which would allow them to regulate their body temperature independent of the surrounding or ambient temperature. However, the idea that amphibians have no control whatsoever over their body temperature has been proven false because their body temperature does not always correspond to the surrounding temperature. While amphibians are poor thermoregulators, they do exercise control over their body temperature to a limited degree.Physiological adaptations can assist amphibians in colonizing habitats where extreme conditions prevail. The tolerance range in body temperature represents the range of temperatures within which a species can survive. One species of North American newt is still active when temperatures drop to -2°C while one South American frog feels comfortable even when temperatures rise to 41°C—the highest body temperature measured in a free-ranging amphibian. Recently it has been shown that some North American frog and toad species can survive up to five days with a body temperature of -6°C with approximately one-third of their body fluids frozen. The other tissues are protected because they contain the frost-protective agents glycerin or glucose Additionally, in many species the tolerance boundaries are flexible and can change as a result of acclimatization (long-term exposure to particular conditions).Frog species that remain exposed to the sun despite high diurnal (daytime) temperatures exhibit some fascinating modifications in the skin structure that function as morphological adaptations. Most amphibian skin is fully water permeable and is therefore not a barrier against evaporation or solar radiation. The African savanna frog Hyperolius viridiflavus stores guanine crystals in its skin, which enable it to better reflect solar radiation, thus providing protection against overheating. The tree frog Phyllomedusa sauvagei responds to evaporative losses with gland secretions that provide a greasy film over its entire body that helps prevent desiccation (dehydration).However, behavior is by far the most important factor in thermoregulation. The principal elements in behavioral thermoregulation are basking (heliothermy), heat exchange with substrates such as rock or earth (thigmothermy), and diurnal and annual avoidance behaviors, which include moving to shelter during the day for cooling and hibernating or estivating (reducing activity during cold or hot weather, respectively) Heliothermy is especially common among frogs and toads: it allows them to increase their body temperature by more than 10°C. The Andean toad Bufo spinulosus exposes itself immediately after sunrise on moist ground and attains its preferred body temperature by this means, long before either ground or air is correspondingly warmed. A positive side effect of this approach is that it accelerates the digestion of the prey consumed overnight, thus also accelerating growth. Thigmothermy is a behavior present in most amphibians, although pressing against the ground serves a dual purpose: heat absorption by conductivity and water absorption through the skin. The effect of thigmothermy is especially evident in the Andean toad during rainfall: its body temperature corresponds to the temperature of the warm earth and not to the much cooler air temperature.Avoidance behavior occurs whenever physiological and morphological adaptations are insufficient to maintain body temperature within the vital range. Nocturnal activity in amphibians with low tolerance for high ambient temperatures is a typical thermoregulatory behavior of avoidance. Seasonal avoidance behavior is extremely important in many amphibians. Specieswhose habitat lies in the temperate latitudes are confronted by lethal low temperatures in winter, while species dwelling in semi- and regions are exposed to long dry, hot periods in summer.In amphibians hibernation occurs in mud or deep holes away from frost. North of the Pyrenees Mountains, the natterjack toad offers a good example of hibernation, passing the winter dug deep into sandy ground. Conversely, natterjacks in southern Spain remain active during the mild winters common to the region and are instead forced into inactivity during the dry, hot summer season. Summer estivation also occurs by burrowing into the ground or hiding in cool, deep rock crevasses to avoid desiccation and lethal ambient temperature. Amphibians are therefore hardly at mercy of ambient temperature, since by means of the mechanisms described above they are more than )exercise some control over their body temperature.paragraph 1In contrast to mammals and birds, amphibians are unable to produce thermal energy through their metabolic activity, which would allow them to regulate their body temperature independent of the surrounding or ambient temperature. However, the idea that amphibians have no control whatsoever over their body temperature has been proven false because their body temperature does not always correspond to the surrounding temperature While amphibians are poor thermoregulators, they do exercise control over their body temperature to a limited degree.1.According to paragraph 1, what indicates that amphibians have some control over their body temperature?A. Amphibians can regulate their metabolic rates to generate energy.B. Amphibians use the same means of thermoregulation as mammals and birds do.C. The body temperature of amphibians sometimes differs from the temperature of their surroundings.D. The body temperature of amphibians is independent of their metabolic activity.paragraph 2Physiological adaptations can assist amphibians in colonizing habitats where extreme conditions prevail. The tolerance range in body temperature represents the range of temperatures within which a species can survive. One species of North American newt is still active when temperatures drop to -2°C while one South American frog feels comfortable even when temperatures rise to 41°C—the highest body temperature measured in a free-ranging amphibian Recently it has been shown that some North American frog and toad species can survive up to five days with a body temperature of -6°C with approximately one-third of their body fluids frozen. The other tissues are protected because they contain the frost-protective agents glycerin or glucose Additionally, in many species the tolerance boundaries are flexible and can change as a result of acclimatization (long-term exposure to particular conditions)2.Why does the author mention a “South American frog” species in the passage?A. To make the point that an amphibian’s temperature tolerance depends on a number of factorsB. To indicate how precise the range of body temperatures is for certain amphibiansC. To contrast its ability to adapt to that of the North American newtD. To help illustrate the range of environmental conditions to which amphibians have adapted3. According to paragraph 2, what allows some North American frog and toad species to survive in ambient temperatures well below freezing?A. Their internal body temperatures never fall below -6°C.B. They do not remain at temperatures below freezing for very long periods of time.C. Their tolerance boundaries are flexibleD. Some of their body tissues contain substances that prevent freezing.paragraph 3Frog species that remain exposed to the sun despite high diurnal (daytime) temperatures exhibit some fascinating modifications in the skin structure that function as morphological adaptations. Most amphibian skin is fully water permeable and is therefore not a barrier against evaporation or solar radiation. The African savanna frog Hyperolius viridiflavus stores guanine crystals in its skin, which enable it to better reflect solar radiation, thus providing protection against overheating The tree frog Phyllomedusa sauvagei responds to evaporative losses with gland secretions that provide a greasy film over its entire body that helps prevent desiccation (dehydration).4. “Phyllomedusa sauvager ” is mentioned as an example of a frog with an adaptation thatA. protects its glandular systemB. helps reduce its secretionsC. increases the amount of solar radiation that its skin can reflectD. modifies its skin structure to protect against the drying effects of the sunparagraph 4However, behavior is by far the most important factor in thermoregulation. The principal elements in behavioral thermoregulation are basking (heliothermy), heat exchange with substrates such as rock or earth (thigmothermy), and diurnal and annual avoidance behaviors, which include moving to shelter during the day for cooling and hibernating or estivating (reducing activity during cold or hot weather, respectively) Heliothermy is especially common among frogs and toads: it allows them to increase their body temperature by more than 10°C. The Andean toad Bufo spinulosus exposes itself immediately after sunrise on moist ground and attains its preferred body temperature by this means, long before either ground or air is correspondingly warmed. A positive side effect of this approach is that it accelerates the digestion of the prey consumed overnight, thus also accelerating growth Thigmothermy is a behavior present in most amphibians, although pressing against the ground serves a dual purpose heat absorption by conductivity and water absorption through the skin The effect of thigmothermy is especially evident in the Andean toad during rainfall its body temperature corresponds to the temperature of the warm earth and not to the much cooler air temperature.5. Paragraph 4 mentions each of the following as an example of behavioral thermoregulation EXCEPTA. pressing against the groundB. speeding up of the metabolismC. reducing activity during the summerD. adjusting exposure to the sun6. The “Andean toad Bufo spinulosus”illustrates which of the following behavioral modifications?A. Heliothermy and thigmothermyB. Diurnal avoidance behaviorC. Absorbing heat from the airD. Moving to shelter during the summer7. The word “attains” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. raisesB. lowersC. reachesD. regulates8.The phrase “this approach” in the passage refers toA gradually increasing body temperature by 10°CB. basking as soon as the sun comes upC. waiting for the ground and air to warmD. keeping body temperature above the temperature of the airparagraph 5Avoidance behavior occurs whenever physiological and morphological adaptations are insufficient to maintain body temperature within the vital range Nocturnal activity in amphibians with low tolerance for high ambient temperatures is a typical thermoregulatory behavior of avoidance. Seasonal avoidance behavior is extremely important in many amphibians. Species whose habitat lies in the temperate latitudes are confronted by lethal low temperatures in winter, while species dwelling in semi- and regions are exposed to long dry, hot periods in summer.9. According to paragraph 5, why is avoidance behavior important for some amphibians?A. Amphibians’ habitats are areas where temperatures vary from day to day.B. Amphibians have less tolerance for high ambient temperatures than for low ambient temperatures.C. Amphibians lack adequate physiological adaptations for dealing with ambient temperatures.D. Amphibians cannot protect themselves from the extreme summer heat by being active only at night.10.The word “dwelling” in the passage is closest in meaning toA.arrivingB.originatingC.evolvingD. livingparagraph 6In amphibians hibernation occurs in mud or deep holes away from frost North of the Pyrenees Mountains, the natterjack toad offers a good example of hibernation, passing the winter dug deep into sandy ground. Conversely, natterjacks in southern Spain remain active during the mild winters common to the region and are instead forced into inactivity during the dry, hot summer season. Summer estivation also occurs by burrowing into the ground or hiding in cool, deep rock crevasses to avoid desiccation and lethal ambient temperature. Amphibians are therefore hardly at mercy of ambient temperature, since by means of the mechanisms described above they are more than exercise some control over their body temperature.11. In paragraph 6, which of the following can be inferred from the discussion of the natterjack?A. Amphibians have greater tolerance for heat than for cold.B. Desiccation is not a threat to amphibiansC. Both hibernation and estivation may serve as avoidance behaviors depending on the climateD. Some species of amphibians are active only in the spring and in the fall12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. Thus, although amphibians use the various mechanisms described above, they have hardly any control of their body temperatureB. Thus, by the mechanisms described above, amphibians are quite capable of controlling their body temperature to survive extreme ambient temperatures.C. Thus, unless they can use the mechanisms described above, amphibians are at the mercy of ambient temperatures.D. Thus, the mechanisms described above give amphibians control over much more than just their body temperature13. Look at the fou r squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.On the other hand, amphibians in very hot climates use secretions from the mucus glands to decrease their temperature through evaporative cooling on the skin.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.Physiological adaptations can assist amphibians in colonizing habitats where extreme conditions prevail. The tolerance range in body temperature represents the range of temperatures within which a species can survive. One species of North American newt is still active when temperatures drop to -2°C while one South American frog feels comfortable even when temperatures measured to 41°C—the highest body temperature measured in a free-ranging amphibian. [■] Recently it has been shown that some North American frog and toad species can survive up to five days with a body temperature of -6°C with approximately one-third of their body fluids frozen. [■] The other tissues are protected because they contain the frost-protective agents glycerin or glucose. [■] Additionally, in many species the tolerance boundaries are flexible。

第29卷　第1期华侨大学学报(自然科学版)Vo l.29　No.1 2008年1月Jo ur nal of Huaqiao U niver sity(Na tur al Science)Jan.2008　　文章编号:　1000-5013(2008)01-0091-03土楼民居的室内热环境测试袁炯炯,冉茂宇(华侨大学建筑学院,福建泉州362021)摘要:　选择具有代表性的福建南靖客家土楼的南向房间作为实验对象,以室外环境和当地砖混民居为对比对象,进行冬、夏两季的热环境实地测试.采用比较的方法,分析3个实验对象的室内热环境优劣,并评价其具体的生态效益.结果表明,在相同地域环境气候影响下,土楼民居室内物理环境优于其室外环境和普通砖混房的室内物理环境.关键词:　土楼民居;室内;热环境;热舒适性中图分类号:　T U111.3文献标识码:　A土楼民居从采用传统风水理论的村落布局,到沿用汉民族传统的“内向型”、“合院式”的建筑单体布局,独特的建筑格局、建造方式和材料给其带来了诸多朴素的生态特性[1].室内热环境是建筑室内物理环境最重要的组成部分,直接影响人体的身心健康,与建筑能耗息息相关.关于土楼的室内热环境,一直有“冬暖夏凉”说法,考察土楼室内热环境的舒适性可分析土楼室内热环境的特性及其成因[2].以往对土楼民居多偏向于建筑人文和测绘的研究,缺乏将建筑的观点与生态研究结论进行科学系统的结合.本文从冬、夏两季的科学实验入手,考察土楼室内热环境的优劣,并评价其具体的生态效益.1　实验方法实验的测试对象为福建省南靖市客家土楼“顺裕楼”的第3层卧室(南向房间),所用的主要建材为夯土和木材,受测面积16m2,夯土外墙厚1.6m,粘土砖内墙厚0.2m,杉木门厚2.1m,外墙为木制玻璃窗,内墙窗为木隔栅式[3].对比对象1为某栋建筑的屋顶平台(室外环境).对比对象2为某南北朝向砖混结构的普通民居的第2层卧室(室内环境),所用的主要建材为粘土砖、玻璃和木材,内墙厚0.12 m,外墙厚0.18m,内、外窗均是铝合金窗,衫木门厚2.1m,与测试对象相距大约500m.选择该测试对象有如下3个原因[4].(1)可将楼内小气候的影响降到最低.楼内围合的大空间使院内小气候与楼外气候相差无几,可以在最不利条件环境来验证结果.(2)该土楼得到较为完善的保护,可以较好地反映室内环境的热工指标.(3)第3层的楼层位置不受地表温度和日照的直接影响,其室内热环境最具有代表性.此外,在水平高度上便于与现代砖楼比较,减少室外转移因素的影响,而第3层多为居住者的卧室,活动时间长,也是居住者对室内热环境质量要求较高的地方,测得环境指标才有实际意义.1月和7月分别是每年的最寒冷和最炎热的季节,在最不利的气候条件下来突出或锐化现状,以强调实验结论.因此,选择2004年1月3～4日为冬季测试对象和对比对象1的实验时间,选择2004年1月2～3日为冬季对比对象1和对比对象2的实验时间;选择2004年7月3～4日为夏季测试对象和对比对象1的实验时间,选择2004年7月6～7日为冬季对比对象1和对比对象2的实验时间.为了实验数据的科学性,一次完整测试时间为24h.由于测试条件的限制(只有一台温湿度测试仪),只能分天测试实验对象的物理环境,无法保证在同一实验段内进行测试.但是,冬季测试时间段内的气候较稳定,加强了数据的科学性和可比性;夏季山区气候多变给测试结论带来不定因素,但测试数据在科学范　收稿日期:　2007-04-09　作者简介:　袁炯炯(1979-),女,助教,硕士,主要从事地域生态建筑的研究.E-mail:yjjapple@hotmail.co m.　基金项目:　福建省自然科学基金资助项目(D0640010)围内仍具有科学性和可比性.2　测试结果与分析2.1　实验对象的温湿度对比分别对不同时间段的温度(θ)和湿度(R )进行测试,如图1所示.从图1(a )可以看出,在冬季时,对比对象1的空气温度比测试对象及对比对象2的数值变化幅度大许多,前者空气温度的最高值和最低值均高于和低于后两者的最高值及最低值;而对比对象2的空气温度与测试对象的数值相比较,前者的变化幅度更大,最高点的温度(19.5℃)大过后者(16.4℃),相差3.1℃,最低点的温度(10.3℃)小于(a )冬季(b )夏季图1　测试对象的温湿度对比Fig .1　T he compariso n o f the temper ature and humidity re sultsbetw ee n the ear th building and the brick residence后者(14℃),相差3.7℃.此外,湿度的测试数据表明,对比对象1空气湿度则相对较为稳定,但数值偏高,高于人体正常舒适的空气湿度.对比对象2的空气湿度的变化幅度也较测试对象的大,最高点的湿度(78%)大过后者(67%),相差11%;最低点的湿度(50%)小于后者(56%),相差6%.夏季实验原理与冬季测试是相同的.但是,由于夏季气候变化剧烈,根据后来气象站提供的气象资料,对比这些气象资料和实验中所测的室外环境的气象数据,不能直接将实验对象的测试数据直接对比.故夏季测试的对比方法与冬季测试的并不相同.在夏季测试中,通过对比同一时段下的土楼民居和室外环境及普通砖混民居和室外环境,根据温度的平均值和温度波衰减对比实验对象室内热环境的优劣.由图1(b )可知,实验对象在实验时间段内的每天平均温度大致相同.对比最高点、最低点温度和平均温度可知,土楼民居的温度波衰减比普通砖混民居的小.这表明夏季山区气候变化幅度较之冬季更为剧烈,导致人体对室内物理环境的稳定性要求更高.2.2　实验对象的PMV 对比在相同的自然环境下,室内热环境的舒适性只有相对的优劣,没有绝对的好坏.根据室内空气湿度、空气温度、气流流速及环境辐射温度4个热工指标得出并对比综合评价指标PMV (预测热感指数)值,92华侨大学学报(自然科学版) 2008年图2　冬季实验对象的PM V 对比图Fig .2　T he compariso n o f the PM V result s be tw een the ear th building and the brick residence in the winte r可以比较实验对象的室内热环境舒适性的优劣.冬季的PM V 图如图2所示.从图2可以发现,在一天中的某些时段(例如11:00～17:00左右),普通砖混民居的室内热环境的舒适度会高于测试对象的,但是在整个测试时间内,土楼民居的室内热环境的PMV 值变化幅度比普通砖混民居的小.说明,在冬季,土楼建筑的室内热环境相对应的人体热舒适性能更加稳定,更符合人体热舒适性的要求,其室内物理环境优于室外环境和处于同一外环境下的普通砖混房.夏季实验结论的比较方法与此相同,略.3　结束语通过上述实验的具体测试与分析,可以发现,对比室外物理环境和普通砖混房的室内物理环境,土楼民居建筑的室内物理环境更加稳定.在冬季气候条件最不利的时间段中,土楼民居的室内热环境的热舒适性能均明显优于普通民居的室内热环境的热舒适性能.关于形容土楼民居室内热环境的“冬暖夏凉”的民俗谚语,并非只是毫无根据的民间流言,而是具有实际科学经验的生活总结.土楼民居是适应地域生态气候的典型范例.研究土楼民居室内热环境的热舒适性及其特性,对于分析和研究在现代建筑中,如何利用建筑造型和建筑材料形成优良的室内热环境,具有深远的生态效益[5].参考文献:[1]　林其标,林　燕,赵维稚.住宅人居环境设计[M ].广州:华南理工大学出版社,2000.[2]　雷柯夫A B .建筑热物理理论基础[M ].任兴季,等译.北京:科学出版社,1965.[3]　黄汉民.福建土楼[M ].北京:三联书店,2003.[4]　柳孝图.建筑物理[M ].北京:中国建筑工业出版社,1990.[5]　袁炯炯.石桥村客家土楼传统设计理念的生态适应性研究[D ].[学位论文].泉州:华侨大学,2003.The Investigation of Indoor Thermal Environment ofthe Earth BuildingYU A N Jiong -jio ng ,RA N M ao -y u(College of Architecture ,Huaqiao University ,Quan zhou 362021,China )A bstract :　In this paper ,firstly ,a circula r ear th building and a brick residence nearby ,ar e chosen as the inv estiga tion building s .Secondly ,the micro ther m sy stem is used to mo nitor a nd reco rd the indoo r the rmal enviro nment in w inter and summer ,and then the predicted mean v ote (PM V )rela tionship are calculated to v aluate the indo or ther mal co mfor t in the two building s .I t show s that the av erag e values of the PM V in the circular earth building are almost same a s tha t in the brick residence and the outdoo r ,but the amplitude of the se valuable parameter s in the earth building a re rather small than tha t in the brick residence and the outdo or .T his sugg ests that the indoo r the rmal comfo rt in the ea rth building is superio r to the brick residence and the outdoo r .I t is very sig nificant to re sear ch the eco lo gy of the Earth Building .Keywords :　the ear th building ;the indoo r thermal enviro nment ;ther mal comfo rt(责任编辑:黄仲一)93第1期 袁炯炯,等:土楼民居的室内热环境测试。

2023年学术学位英语翻译句子练习合集1. This experiment aims to investigate the effects of climate change on plant growth.本实验旨在研究气候变化对植物生长的影响。

2. The results of the study suggest that there is a positive correlation between exercise and mental health.研究结果表明运动与心理健康之间存在正相关关系。

3. The research findings are consistent with previous studies in the field.研究结果与该领域的先前研究一致。

4. The study hypothesizes that increased pollution levels will lead to a decline in air quality.该研究假设污染水平的增加将导致空气质量下降。

5. The data analysis revealed a significant difference in test scores between the experimental group and the control group.数据分析显示实验组和对照组的测试成绩存在显著差异。

6. The researchers collected data through surveys and interviews with participants.研究人员通过调查和访谈参与者收集数据。

7. The study provides valuable insights into the factors influencing consumer behavior.该研究对影响消费者行为的因素提供了有价值的见解。

高三英语询问生态单选题50题1. During the scientific research on the wetland ecosystem, we found that ______ play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem.A. plants and animalsB. only plantsC. only animalsD. neither plants nor animals答案：A。

解析：在湿地生态系统中，植物和动物都对维持生态系统的平衡起着至关重要的作用。

选项B只提到植物，忽略了动物的作用；选项C只提到动物，忽略了植物的作用；选项D表示植物和动物都不起作用，这与事实相悖。

从语法角度看，这是一个简单的主谓宾结构，考查对主语内容的正确理解。

2. In the field study of the desert ecosystem, which of the following is an abiotic factor?A. CactusB. ScorpionC. SandD. Lizard答案：C。

解析：在沙漠生态系统中，沙子属于非生物因素。

选项A仙人掌是植物，选项B蝎子和选项D蜥蜴都是动物，它们都是生物因素。

从语法上看，这是一个特殊疑问句，考查对特殊疑问词which引导的句子的理解以及对生态系统中非生物因素概念的掌握。

3. A group of ecologists are researching a forest ecosystem. They noticed that ______ are the primary producers.A. fungiB. treesC. birdsD. insects答案：B。

解析：在森林生态系统中，树木是主要的生产者，它们通过光合作用制造有机物。

选项A真菌是分解者；选项C鸟类和选项D昆虫大多是消费者。

Atmospheric Environment36(2002)265–277Residential indoor PM10and PM2.5in Hong Kong and theelemental compositionChristopher Y.Chao*,Kelvin K.WongDepartment of Mechanical En g ineerin g,The Hon g Kon g Uni v ersity of Science and Technolo g y,Clear Water Bay,Sai Kun g,Hon g Kon gReceived23February2001;accepted30July2001AbstractIndoor air particulate samples were collected in34homes and their adjacent outdoor environments in Hong Kong during the fall and winter seasons.It was found that the mean indoor PM2.5and PM10concentrations were45.0and 63.3m g mÀ3,respectively.The corresponding mean outdoor levels were47.0and69.5m g mÀ3,respectively.The indoor particulate levels were found to be about2–4times higher than those in the homes in western countries where most are located in suburb areas with a much better ambient air quality.Pearson paired t-tests were conducted on the data and it was found that poor correlation was seen in the indoor and the outdoor particulate concentrations.This was probably due to the fact that windows were closed more often in the fall and winter seasons keeping the ventilation rate low,plus the factor that window type air conditioners were used commonly in Hong Kong,which again,constituted to a low air change rate.Both the indoor and the outdoor elemental compositions of the particulate samples collected in these34 homes were identified by proton-induced X-ray emission analysis.Seventeen elements were identified.The mean inorganic elemental compositions in the indoor PM2.5and PM10samples were6.4and10.2m g mÀ3,respectively while those in the outdoor samples were7.9and14.1m g mÀ3,respectively.Enrichment factor analysis was performed and it was noted that those species existing infine mode were highly enriched(bromine,lead,nickel,potassium,sulfur, vanadium and zinc)while those species existing in the coarse mode had their enrichment factors close to1(aluminum, calcium,iron,magnesium,silicon,sodium and titanium).r2002Elsevier Science Ltd.All rights reserved. Keywords:PM10;PM2.5;Indoor air quality;Elemental species;Homes1.IntroductionStudies of indoor particulate level in homes have beenconducted by many researchers in different countries.Areview article by Wallace(1996)summarized many keyfindings of indoor aerosol studies in homes.Neas et al.(1994)found that,in1273US homes,the annual meanPM2.5concentration with smoking was48.5m g mÀ3while that without smoking was17.3m g mÀ3.Morerecently,Haller et al.(1999)in the US reported thatindoor PM2.5and PM10concentrations were10.8and23.8m g mÀ3.Jones et al.(2000)in Birmingham foundthat indoor PM2.5and PM10concentrations were7.9and16.5m g mÀ3,respectively.They also reported theoutdoor PM2.5and PM10concentrations as9.1and13.4m g mÀ3.In other European countries,Phillips et al.(1999)reported that in Switzerland the24-h averages ofPM10for smoking homes and non-smoking homes were60and31m g mÀ3,respectively.A similar study inPortugal(Phillips et al.,1998)found that the PM10concentrations for smoking homes and non-smokinghomes were40and38m g mÀ3,respectively.In Asia,Li(1994)concluded from his study in60homes in Taipei that the mean indoor and outdoorPM10concentrations were82.8and107.5m g mÀ3,respectively.Hirosihi et al.(1994)found that the meanindoor PM2.5concentrations in Tokyo in winterand summer were69.9and34.6m g mÀ3.In astudy *Corresponding author.Tel.:+852-2358-7210;fax:+852-2358-1543.E-mail address:meyhchao@ust.hk(C.Y.Chao).1352-2310/02/$-see front matter r2002Elsevier Science Ltd.All rights reserved.PII:S1352-2310(01)00411-3conducted by Tung et al.(1999)in Hong Kong,it was found that the mean indoor and outdoor PM10 concentrations in50homes were78.8and73.3m g mÀ3, respectively.In general,higher indoor particulate con-centrations were found in Asian countries.This phe-nomenon is perhaps due to the transport of polluted air from outdoor to indoor environment.This is particu-larly true for those buildings that are located close to heavy traffic.Different living habits among people in Asian and Western countries can be another factor that leads to higher indoor particulate levels in homes.In Asian homes,the cooking style usually constitutes to emission of oily fumes from kitchens to living rooms. Common practice of incense burning in some religious families in Asia results in emission offine-mode particulate matter from incense combustion process (Chao et al.,1998;To et al.,2000).Even though inorganic components only constitute a small portion by mass of the particulates,however,the existence of some heavy metals such as lead,arsenic, selenium and mercury may exhibit detrimental health impact to human body even in trace amount.The origins of the inorganic components can be either natural or anthropogenic.It is commonly believed that aluminum in aerosols is a tracer of crustal material, while lead comes mainly from leaded gasoline and smelters,and vanadium is from the combustion of heavy fuel oil(Zheng et al.,2000).Quantification of elemental species content in aerosol samples has also been conducted by many researchers in their indoor particu-late studies.Koutrakis and Spengler(1987)found that the average indoor PM10and the average outdoor PM10 elemental concentrations were1592and2091ng mÀ3, respectively.From their study,it was found that the dominating elemental species in indoor and outdoor environments was sulfur.Adgate et al.(1998)found that the average PM10elemental species mass fraction collected from64indoor environments was24.3%. The dominating elemental species in the indoor envir-onment was silicon.Yakovleva et al.(1999)found that the average indoor PM2.5and the average outdoor PM2.5elemental concentrations were3149.2and 3363.3ng mÀ3,respectively.They also found that the average indoor PM10and the average outdoor PM10 elemental concentrations were13570.4and 16680.3ng mÀ3,respectively.In their study,the dom-inating elemental species indoors was found to be sulfur and the dominating elemental species in ambient air was silicon.In Asia,Li(1994)reported that the average indoor and outdoor PM10elemental concentrations in Taipei were14947.9and24878.1ng mÀ3,respectively. Hirosihi et al.(1994)found that the average indoor PM2.5elemental concentrations in Tokyo were 3598ng mÀ3in summer and4849ng mÀ3in winter. Similar study on elemental species analysis of indoor aerosol samples has not been reported in Hong Kong despite the fact that outdoor aerosol species analysis has been reported recently by Lee et al.(1999).Hone Kong is a sub-tropical city and has warm weather and high relative humidity(RH).The city is so crowded that the majority of the population lives in high-rise apartment type buildings.Most of the homes have afloor area ranging from30to100m2.Only a small portion of the population can afford a home having afloor area>100m2.Family size usually varies from two occupants tofive occupants.Hong Kong is divided into three parts,i.e.,the Kowloon side,the New Territories and the Hong Kong Island with a total area of about1098km2.Most homes are installed with window type or split type air conditioners.During summer,most of the homes have their windows closed and the air conditioners in operation;while in winter, the air conditioners are usually turned offand the windows are partially opened.As the outdoor particu-late level is much higher than those in many other countries,impact from outdoor particulate level to the indoor particulate level is expected to be strong.Our study aimed to quantify the mass concentrations of the residential indoor airborne particulate matters in terms of PM2.5and PM10.The indoor levels were compared to the outdoor levels in34homes in order to understand how the ambient air quality influences the indoor levels.Samples collected from these34homes were also used for subsequent inorganic species analyses. Enrichment factor analysis was conducted using the results obtained in the inorganic species study in order to investigate the relationship of the indoor particulate level to the concerned sources by utilizing the difference between the ratios of the elemental concentrations of some tracer elements.This is thefirst comprehensive report on quantifying PM2.5and PM10at the same time in home environment in Hong Kong.2.Experimental method2.1.Selection of homesThe total area of Hong Kong is about1098km2and it is a small city as compared to other countries such as the US,China and the UK.The Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department(HKEPD)has established an air quality monitoring(AQM)network and divided Hong Kong into11districts.This network has been used since 1996.The outdoor air quality in each of the11districts is monitored by an outdoor AQM station.The AQM works of these stations cover the densely populated residential areas,commercial areas in the urban districts and the new towns.The site selection in this study followed this AQM network and the locations of the building premises were close to the outdoor AQM stations in these11districts(HKEPD,2000).C.Y.Chao,K.K.Won g/Atmospheric Environment36(2002)265–277 266Measurements of the PM2.5and PM10concentrations were conducted in34homes from October of1999to March of2000,which included the fall and the winter seasons in Hong Kong.Eleven homes were in the Kowloon side and seven homes were in the Hong Kong Island.Sixteen homes were in the New Territories where the outdoor air quality was generally better compared to the urban area in the past.However,in recent years due to urbanization in the countryside,outdoor air quality in the New Territories are not as good as it was before and in some areas where the traffic is heavy,the ambient air quality has been found to be extremely poor.In these 34residences,the number of occupants ranged from1to 7.Ten homes had smokers and13homes had other combustion-related activities such as incense burning for religion purpose.Most of the families reported cooking activities during the sampling period with cooking hours ranging from0.5to4.5h.Town gas was used in most of the cooking in the homes.The netfloor areas of these homes ranged from25.4to138.4m2with a mean of 47.9m2.The building ages varied from1to50yr with a mean of16.5yr.Some homes were located on the groundfloor while some were on a high elevation in high-rise buildings.The highest one was located on the 37thfloor of an apartment building.Some residences were private housing units while some were government-subsidized homes for relatively low-income family group.Wallpapers,emulsion painted wall and plastered wallfinishing were popularly used as interior decoration in these homes.Tilefloors and woodenfloors were also popular while carpet was not that popular in Hong Kong except in some high-income families.2.2.Instrumentation and measurementOne pair of Airmetrics mini-vol portable samplers with a PM2.5cyclone and a PM10cyclone was used to collect the indoor particulate samples.Another set of instruments was used for outdoor particulate collection either at the balcony or on the roof-top of a nearby school.Both indoor and outdoor samplings were conducted simultaneously.During thefield experiments, the inlet of the indoor sampler was located at about 1.1m above ground level in the living room to simulate location of the breathing zone of the occupant.For outdoor sampling,the sampler was located at the balcony of the home or when a balcony was not available,on the roof of some schools in the same district of the residential buildings.The sampler inlet was located at1.5m above the roof top level during the outdoor sampling if the sample was collected from an adjacent school.Air was drawn through Gelman Sciences Teflon membranefilters(47mm diameter and2mm pore size) at aflow rate of5l minÀ1for96h.A long sampling time was selected since the samples collected in these homes were used for subsequent inorganic species analysis.If the sampling time was not long enough,inorganic species analysis would be impossible for quantification purpose.Our trial tests indicated that96h gave the best performance and if the time was too long,bounce-offeffect of the particle from thefilter would occur.Each filter was weighed three times by a high precision mass balance(Mettler Toledo AT261)before and after the sampling.The average values were used.The readability of the balance was0.01mg.The mass concentrations of both the PM2.5and PM10were found by subtracting the initial mass of the blankfilter by thefinal mass of the sampledfilter and dividing the difference by the total volume of air passing through thefilter.After weighing the sampledfilter for PM2.5and PM10 quantification,elemental compositions in the PM2.5and PM10samples were analyzed by proton-induced X-ray emission(PIXE)method without prior extraction.The PIXE analysis was performed by element analysis corporation in Tallahassee,USA(EAC),which provides non-destructive and simultaneous analysis for the ele-ments from sodium through uranium of the aerosol samples.PIXE technique is a method for elemental analysis,which relies on the analysis of the energy spectra of characteristic X-rays emitted from a sample bom-barded with aflux of high energy protons(about1–3MeV).Due to its low background noise,a high sensitivity for trace element analysis can be achieved. However,only those elements with atomic number of11 or above can be detected by PIXE.There were totally36 elements selected for detection in our study.The detection limits of these36elements are summarized in Table1. The17elements that showed positive results in our study were aluminum,bromine,calcium,chlorine,copper,iron, lead,magnesium,manganese,nickel,potassium,silicon, sodium,sulfur,titanium,vanadium and zinc. Enrichment factor analysis provides a preliminary picture of whether the indoor particulate matters come from the crust or from other industrial processes or indoor activities.This method was widely used in outdoor particulate studies(Rojas et al.,1990;Fang et al.,1999).In recent years,use of this method has been extended to indoor particulate source analysis.For example,Li(1994)found that in60residential buildings in Taiwan,the crust was the dominant source for K,Ca, Ti,Mn,and Fe in PM10air samples.Based on the average elemental concentrations,enrichment factors (EFs)of the average elemental concentrations of the indoor and outdoor PM2.5and PM10samples relative to the elements of the Earth’s crust(Mason,1966)were used for identifying the major particulate contributors. The EFs were calculated from Eq.(1):EF i¼ði=jÞair=ði=jÞcrust;ð1Þwhere EF i is the enrichment factor of species i;j is a reference element for the crustal material,ði=jÞair is theC.Y.Chao,K.K.Won g/Atmospheric Environment36(2002)265–277267ratio of species i to species j in the aerosol sample,and ði =j Þcrust is the ratio of species i to species j in the crust.Gao et al.(1992)suggested that aluminum (Al),Iron (Fe),Scandium (Sc)and Barium (Ba)were commonly considered as the reference elements of crustal material.In our study,Al was used as a reference element because it is relatively stable and it is not affected by contamination.In the analysis,an enrichment factor EF i near one indicates that the crust is likely the predominant source for element i :In the other case,high EF i indicates that species i probably does not come from the crust.The species i probably comes from industrialexhaust,vehicle exhaust,indoor combustion related sources,other industrial or human activities,etc.During the sampling period,indoor parameters such as temperature and RHwere measured and stored by Stowaway RHand temperature data loggers.The logging time interval was set at one minute.The precision of the temperature and the RHmeasurements were 0.51C and 5%,respectively.During the experi-mental period,the average indoor temperature and RH were 21.51C and 69%,respectively.The average outdoor temperature and average RHwere 21.61C and 69.9%,respectively.Air change rate was measured in each home in order to facilitate the analysis works and the statistical correlation.Air change rate was measured by tracer gas decay method using sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6)as the tracer gas.SF 6was used due to the fact that it does not exist in the background air.In each home,measure-ments were taken at the beginning of the experiment,in the middle of the sampling period and at the end of the experiment.The average was used in our analysis.A singe sampling point was chosen in the middle of the living room at a height of 1.5m above the floor.The tracer gas was dosed into the home up to a level of around 10ppm.The tracer gas was then allowed to decay and the decay rate was used to calculate the air change rate.An Innova 1302multi gas analyzer with sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6)filter was used to measure the SF 6level during the decay process.3.Results and discussion3.1.PM 2.5and PM 10concentrationsBoth the indoor and the outdoor particulate concen-trations measured in the 34homes are summarized in Fig.1.During the sampling period which was the fall and winter seasons in Hong Kong,the indoor PM 2.5and PM 10concentrations ranged from 14.3to 86.2m g m À3and from 22.2to 104.6m g m À3,respectively.The corre-sponding outdoor PM 2.5and PM 10concentrations ranged from 40.1to 56.4m g m À3and from 57.5to 76.7m g m À3.The mean indoor PM 2.5and PM 10concen-trations were found to be 45.0and 63.3m g m À3,respectively.The mean outdoor PM 2.5and PM 10concentrations were found to be 47.0and 69.5m g m À3,respectively.In comparison with the findings from homes that were located in suburb areas in other western countries,indoor and outdoor particulate concentrations in Hong Kong were significantly higher than the levels in these countries.The indoor PM 2.5and PM 10levels in the homes in Hong Kong were about 2–4times higher than the levels in the homes in Europe and North America.High indoor particulate levels in the homes in Hong Kong can be caused by both indoor and outdoor factors.Table 1Detection limits of the inorganic species by the proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE)analysis a Inorganic species Symbol Atomic number Detectionlimit (ng cm À2)Aluminum Al 1354Antimony Sb 511250Arsenic As 3318Barium Ba 5675Bromine Br 3541Cadmium Cd 48670Calcium Ca 2027Chlorine Cl 1741Chromium Cr 2413Cobalt Co 278Copper Cu 299Gallium Ga 3112Gadolinium Gd 6434Germanium Ge 3214Iron Fe 269LeadPb 8259Magnesium Mg 1262Manganese Mn 2510MercuryHg 8048Molybdenum Mo 42190Nickel Ni 288Potassium K 1933Samarium Sm 6240Scandium Sc 2126Selenium Se 3421Silicon Si 1447Sodium Na 1194Strontium Sr 3877Sulfur S 1643TinSn 50906Titanium Ti 2222Tungsten W 7440Vanadium V 2318Yttrium Y 3995ZincZn 3012ZirconiumZr40117aBoldface means that these elements were identified in this study.C.Y.Chao,K.K.Won g /Atmospheric Environment 36(2002)265–277268Most of the homes in Hong Kong are close to heavy traffic and other city activities that generate high loading of particulate which can get into the residences.The infiltration is also dependent on the weather condition,tightness of the building and operation pattern of the air conditioners that in turns influence the air change between the indoor air and the ambient air.The high outdoor particulate concentrations in Hong Kong could be attributed to two factors.The first factor was that the north-east monsoon in winter brought the pollutants via long distance transport to Hong Kong from other Asian countries (Qin et al.,1997;Fang et al.,1999).Another factor was that Hong Kong was crowded with heavy traffic almost everywhere.Construction sites were commonly found in Hong Kong and traffic jam was common.Fung and Wong (1995)reported that the major outdoor particulate sources were construction work,automobile/incineration,wind-blown dust,coal-fired power plant and oil combustion m et al.(1999)found that the median of street-level PM 2.5and PM 10concentrations were >80and 100m g m À3,respec-tively.Our outdoor levels were approximately lower than the results from these measurements by 50%for PM 2.5and 40%for PM 10as our outdoor sampling points were located at higher elevations than their sampling points.The data collected in our study could more closely represent the conditions in the intermediate outdoor environments adjacent to the indoor apart-ments where the air change was carried out.Another factor was the indoor generation component and whether devices such as indoor air cleaner was used in the home,which can act as sink for particulate removal,together with operation of the air conditioners that carry some of the particulate matter to the filters.The cooking activities in many families in Hong Kong release significant amount of oily fumes from kitchens to living rooms (To et al.,2000).Besides,incense burning in houses for religious functions is quite common in Hong Kong among some religious families.Moreover,the occupant density in many homes in Hong Kong can be several times higher than that in Western countries.Human activities can also act as an important source for particulate generation.Smoking habit is quite common in Hong Kong.In our study,10homes had smoking activity.The average indoor PM 2.5and PM 10concentrations were 50.6and 71.5m g m À3,respectively for smoking homes.The average indoor PM 2.5and PM 10concentrations were 42.7and 60.0m g m À3,respectively for non-smoking homes.It was found that the average PM 2.5concentra-tion of smoking homes was 18%higher than the average PM 2.5concentration of non-smoking homes.The average PM 10concentration of smoking homes was 19%higher than the average PM 10concentration of non-smoking homes.These results were consistent with the findings by Phillips et al.(1998)in a personal exposure study in Hong Kong.Phillips et al.(1997a,b,1998,1999)also reported in a series of personal exposure studies conducted in Europe that the average PM 10exposure for smoker was in a range of 46–94%higher than the average PM 10concentration exposure for non-smoker by using personal monitors.This ratio was higher than the ratio found in our study.However,it has to be noted that the outdoor particulate concentration in Hong Kong was a lot higher than those in the European countries as discussed in the previous paragraphs.Another possible reason was that the sampling method used in this study was different from the studies conducted by Phillips et al.(1998)since they used personal monitors in their experiments and fixed site monitoring was conducted in our work.3.2.Relationship between indoor and outdoor particulate concentrationsThe relationship between the indoor and the outdoor paired samples for both the PM 2.5and PM 10concentra-tions in the 34homes were tested using Pearson paired t -test.The relationship between the indoor and the outdoor particulate concentrations was indicated by the corresponding R 2value.The p -values for the hypothesis tests of the correlation were used to judge whether the confidence level was strong or weak.In our study,the R 2values of the indoor PM 2.5to the outdoor PM 2.5were o 0.07(p ¼0:14)and the R 2values of indoor PM 10to outdoor PM 10were o 0.04(p ¼0:31).These results showed that there was a poor relationship between the indoor and the outdoor particulate concentrations.Fig.2shows the scattergram between the indoor and outdoor PM 10.Fig.3shows the scattergram between the indoor and outdoor PM 2.5.Poor correlations were seen in both Figures.Good correlation is expected to be found in the indoor environment where frequent exchange of air occurs between the indoor and the outdoor environments.In Hong Kong,window typeairFig.1.Box plot of the indoor and the outdoor particulate mass concentrations in 34domestic environments.C.Y.Chao,K.K.Won g /Atmospheric Environment 36(2002)265–277269conditioners are used in most of the homes and these units are operating very often even during the Fall season if the occupants are at home.The ventilation rate when the air conditioner is on is usually lower than that of the homes with windows opened(natural ventilation).Thefiltration units installed with the air conditioners can also get rid of some of the particulate if the air conditioners are operating.The complex living pattern in the indoor environment makes the indoor and outdoor correlation poor in the homes in ourstudy.Moreover,during the winter season,windows were closed in many homes leading to poor air exchange between indoor environment and the outdoor environ-ment.In other countries,the overall correlation between indoor and outdoor paired particulate concentrations was stronger.For examples,Li in Taipei(1994)reported a R2value of0.51(p o0:01).In Taipei,open windows are very common in domestic environment because of warm temperature throughout most of the time in the year.This behavior can bring the outdoor particulate into the indoor environment more effectively and a more direct correlation can be established between the indoor and the outdoor particulate levels.To further facilitate our understanding on how the ventilation rate influences the ratio of the indoor and the outdoor particulate levels in these34homes,the homes were divided into two groups based on the measured ventilation rates from the tracer gas study.From the tracer gas measurement,the range of the average air change rate in each home was between1.8and8.7hÀ1. The average air change rate was4.6hÀ1with a standard derivation of2.0hÀ1.The high values of ACHwere due to small volumes of most of the homes in Hong Kong. The air change rate was used as an indicator to assess the extent of bringing outdoor particles into the indoor environment.It was noted from our survey that the air change rates of the homes that had the windows opened more frequently were>3.5hÀ1and the air change rates of the homes that always had the windows closed were lower than3.5hÀ1.Based on this boundary line,two groups of data were identified in order to analyze the I/O ratio in different indoor environments.Thefirst group was the homes with the air change rate o3.5hÀ1.This group corresponded to those with the windows frequently closed or with the air conditioners on more often during the sampling period.Another group corresponded to the homes with the air change rates>3.5hÀ1.Windows in these homes were opened more frequently and high wind speed was observed during the sampling period.The ratios of the indoor and outdoor particulate concentra-tion(I/O)in these two groups of homes are shown in Table2.In the homes with higher air change rates,the average I/O ratio of PM2.5and PM10were0.92and0.88, respectively.In the homes with lower air change rates,the average I/O ratio of PM2.5and PM10were1.09and1.04, respectively.High I/O ratio was contributed by two factors.One was indoor particulate generation induced by smoking,cooking and the various human activities. Another factor was probably that low air change rate assisted in keeping the indoor particulate matter accu-mulating in the indoor environment.Our result sort of indicates that under the low air change rate condition,the indoor environment tends to accumulate indoor particu-late at a higher level compared to the case when there is a stronger air exchange.It was found that the average I/O ratio of PM2.5was higher than the average I/O ratio of PM10in both situations.The reason was probably that morefine particle was generated from indoor combustion activ-ities such as cooking,smoking and incense burning (Chao et al.,1998).3.3.Effect of ele v ationIn order to investigate the impact of site elevation on indoor particulate concentrations,the34homes in this study were classified into eight groups.The indoor PM2.5and PM10concentrations in these groups are showed in Table3.However,no significant difference in the particulate concentrations at different elevations wasTable2The average I/O ratio of both PM2.5and PM10in high ACHand low ACHenvironmentsNumber of samples(PM2.5)in/(PM2.5)out(PM10)in/(PM10)out High ACH(ACH>3.5hÀ1)180.920.88Low ACH(ACH o3.5hÀ1)12 1.09 1.04Table3The average indoor particulate concentrations at differentfloor levelsElevation(Floor level)Number of apartment included PM2.5concentration(m g mÀ3)PM10concentration(m g mÀ3) G–4450.465.95–91040.757.610–14547.466.115–19643.864.420–24452.873.725–29243.658.130–34241.662.935–40157.583.3C.Y.Chao,K.K.Won g/Atmospheric Environment36(2002)265–277271。

英文回答：The anatomical adaptations of the beaver render it highly suitable for thriving in an environment rich in water resources. A pivotal aspect of the beaver's physiology is its hydrophobic fur, characterized by its density and the presence of natural oils. This unique fur structure acts as a barrier, effectively repelling water and preventing its permeation into the underlying skin layers. Consequently, the beaver is able to maintain a state of dryness and warmth even during extended periods of submersion. Such an adaptation confers upon the beaver the ability to withstand the challenges associated with prolonged aquatic habitation, notably mitigating the risk of hypothermia. Thus, the beaver exhibits remarkable adaptability to the exigencies of an aquatic habitat, owing in large part to its distinctive fur structure.海狸的解剖适应使其非常适合在水资源丰富的环境中蓬勃发展。

阅读综合辅导[动物学类]题⽬序号题型归类第1题中⼼主旨题型第2题归纳推导题型第3题审题定位题型第4题主题句理解题型第5题句间关系题型 Investigators of monkey’s social behavior have always been struck by monkeys’ aggressive potential and the consequent need for social control of their aggressive behavior. Studies directed at describing aggressive behavior and the situations that elicit it, as well as the social mechanisms that control it, were therefore among the first investigations of monkeys’ social behavior. Investigators initially believed that monkeys would compete for any resource in the environment: hungry monkeys would fight over food, thirsty monkeys would fight over water, and, in general, at time more than one monkey in a group sought the same incentive simultaneously, a dispute would result and would be resolved through some form of aggression. However, the motivating force of competition for incentives began to be doubted when experiments like Southwick’s on the reduction of space or the withholding of food failed to produce more than temporary increases in intragroup aggression. Indeed, food deprivation not only failed to increase aggression but in some cases actually resulted in decreased frequencies of aggression. Studies of animals in the wild under conditions of extreme food deprivation likewise revealed that starving monkeys devoted almost all available energy to foraging, with little energy remaining for aggressive interaction. Furthermore, accumulating evidence from later studies of a variety of primate groups, for example, the study conducted by Bernstein, indicates that one of the most potent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the introduction of an intruder into an organized group. Such introductions result in far more serious aggression than that produced in any other types of experiments contrived to produce competition. These studies of intruders suggest that adult members of the same species introduced to one another for the first time show considerable hostility because, in the absence of a social order, one must be established to control interanimal relationships. When a single new animal is introduced into an existing social organization, the newcomer meets even more serious aggression. Whereas in the first case aggression establishes a social order, in the second case resident animals mob the intruder, thereby initially excluding the new animal from the existing social unit. The simultaneous introduction of several animals lessens the effect, if only because the group divides its attention among the multiple targets. If, however, the several animals introduced a group constitute their own social unit, each group may fight the opposing group as a unit; but, again, no individual is subjected to mass attack, and the very cohesion of the groups precludes prolonged individual combat. The submission of the defeated group, rather than unleashing unchecked aggression on the part of the victorious group, reduces both the intensity and frequency of further attack. Monkey groups therefore seem to be organized primarily to maintain their established social order rather than to engage in hostilities per se. 1.The author of the text is primarily concerned with [A] advancing a new methodology for changing a monkey’s social behavior. [B] comparing the methods of several research studies on aggression among monkeys. [C] explaining the reasons for researcher’s interest in monkey’s social behavior. [D] discussing the development of investigators’ theories about aggression among monkeys. 2.Which of the following best summarizes the findings reported in the text about the effects of food deprivation on monkeys’ behavior? [A] Food deprivation has no effect on aggression among monkeys. [B] Food deprivation increases aggression among monkeys because one of the most potent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the competition for incentives. [C] Food deprivation may increase long-term aggression among monkeys in a laboratory setting, but it produces only temporary increase among monkeys in the wild. [D] Food deprivation may temporarily increase aggression among monkeys, but it also leads to a decrease in conflict. 3.The text suggests that investigators of monkeys’ social behavior have been especially interested in aggressive behavior among monkeys because [A] aggression is the most common social behavior among monkeys. [B] successful competition for incentives determines the social order in a monkey group. [C] situation that elicit aggressive behavior can be studied in a laboratory. [D] most monkeys are potentially aggressive, yet they live in social units that could not function without control of their aggressive impulses. 4.The text supplies information to answer which of the following questions? [A] How does the reduction of space affect intragroup aggression among monkeys in an experimental setting? [B] Do family units within a monkey social group compete with other family units for food? [C] What are the mechanisms by which the social order of an established group of monkeys controls aggression within that group? [D] How do monkeys engaged in aggression with other monkeys signal submission? 5.Which of the following best describes the organization of the second paragraph? [A] A hypothesis is explained and counter evidence is described. [B] A theory is advanced and specific evidence supporting it is cited. [C] Field observations are described and a conclusion about their significance is drawn. [D] Two theories are explained and evidence supporting each of them is detailed. [答案与考点解析] 1.【答案】D 【考点解析】本题是⼀道中⼼主旨题。