安徽工程大学--土木工程英语文献原文及中文翻译

土木工程英文文献及翻译-英语论文土木工程英文文献及翻译in Nanjing, ChinaZhou Jin, Wu Yezheng *, Yan GangDepartment of Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiao Tong University,Xi’an , PR ChinaReceived 4 April 2005; accepted 2 October 2005Available online 1 December 2005AbstractThe bin method, as one of the well known and simple steady state methods used to predict heating and cooling energyconsumption of buildings, requires reliable and detailed bin data. Since the long term hourly temperature records are notavailable in China, there is a lack of bin weather data for study and use. In order to keep the bin method practical in China,a stochastic model using only the daily maximum and minimum temperatures to generate bin weather data was establishedand tested by applying one year of measured hourly ambient temperature data in Nanjing, China. By comparison with themeasured values, the bin weather data generated by the model shows adequate accuracy. This stochastic model can be usedto estimate the bin weather data in areas, especially in China, where the long term hourly temperature records are missingor not available.Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Energy analysis; Stochastic method; Bin data; China1. IntroductionIn the sense of minimizing the life cycle cost of a building, energy analysis plays an important role in devel-oping an optimum and cost effective design of a heating or an air conditioning system for a building. Severalmodels are available for estimating energy use in buildings. These models range from simple steady state mod-els to comprehensive dynamic simulation procedures.Today, several computer programs, in which the influence of many parameters that are mainly functionsof time are taken into consideration, are available for simulating both buildings and systems and performinghour by hour energy calculations using hourly weather data. DOE-2, BLAST and TRNSYS are such* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 29 8266 8738; fax: +86 29 8266 8725.E-mail address: yzwu@ (W. Yezheng).0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/NomenclatureZ. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–1850number of daysfrequency of normalized hourly ambient temperatureMAPE mean absolute percentage error (%)number of subintervals into which the interval [0, 1] was equally dividednumber of normalized temperatures that fall in subintervalprobability densityhourly ambient temperature (°C)normalized hourly ambient temperature (dimensionless)weighting factorSubscriptscalculated valuemeasured valuemax daily maximummin daily minimumprograms that have gained widespread acceptance as reliable estimation tools. Unfortunately, along withthe increased sophistication of these models, they have also become very complex and tedious touse [1].The steady state methods, which are also called single measure methods, require less data and provideadequate results for simple systems and applications. These methods are appropriate if the utilization ofthe building can be considered constant. Among these methods are the degree day and bin data methods.The degree-day methods are the best known and the simplest methods among the steady state models.Traditionally, the degree-day method is based on the assumption that on a long term average, the solarand internal gains will offset the heat loss when the mean daily outdoor temperature is 18.3 °C and thatthe energy consumption will be proportional to the difference between 18.3 °C and the mean daily tempera-ture. The degree-day method can estimate energy consumption very accurately if the building use and theefficiency of the HVAC equipment are sufficiently constant. However, for many applications, at least oneof the above parameters varies with time. For instance, the efficiency of a heat pump system and HVAC equip-ment may be affected directly or indirectly by outdoor temperature. In such cases, the bin method can yieldgood results for the annual energy consumption if different temperature intervals and time periods areevaluated separately. In the bin method, the energy consumption is calculated for several values of the outdoortemperature and multiplied by the number of hours in the temperature interval (bin) centered around thattemperature. Bin data is defined as the number of hours that the ambient temperature was in each of a setof equally sized intervals of ambient temperature.In the United States, the necessary bin weather data are available in the literature [2,3]. Some researchers[4–8] have developed bin weather data for other regions of the world. However, there is a lack of informationin the ASHRAE handbooks concerning the bin weather data required to perform energy calculations in build-ings in China. The practice of analysis of weather data for the design of HVAC systems and energy consump-tion predictions in China is quite new. For a long time, only the daily value of meteorological elements, such asdaily maximum, minimum and average temperature, was recorded and available in most meteorologicalobservations in China, but what was needed to obtain the bin weather data, such as temperature bin data,were the long term hourly values of air temperature. The study of bin weather data is very limited in China.Only a few attempts [9,10] in which bin weather data for several cities was given have been found in China.Obviously, this cannot meet the need for actual use and research. So, there is an urgent need for developing binweather data in China. The objective of this paper, therefore, is to study the hourly measured air temperaturedistribution and then to establish a model to generate bin weather data for the long term daily temperaturedata.2. Data usedZ. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–1850In this paper, to study the hourly ambient temperature variation and to establish and evaluate the model, aone year long hourly ambient temperature record for Nanjing in 2002 was used in the study. These data aretaken from the Climatological Center of Lukou Airport in Nanjing, which is located in the southeast of China(latitude 32.0°N, longitude 118.8°E, altitude 9 m).In addition, in order to create the bin weather data for Nanjing, typical weather year data was needed.Based on the long term meteorological data from 1961 to 1989 obtained from the China MeteorologicalAdministration, the typical weather year data for most cities in China has been studied in our former research[11] by means of the TMY (Typical Meteorological Year) method. The typical weather year for Nanjing isshown in Table 1. As only daily values of the meteorological elements were recorded and available in China,the data contained in the typical weather year data was also only daily values. In this study, the daily maxi-mum and minimum ambient temperature in the typical weather year data for Nanjing was used.3. Stochastic model to generate bin dataTraditionally, the generation of bin weather data needs long term hourly ambient temperature records.However, in the generation, the time information, namely the exact time that such a temperature occurredin a day, was omitted, and only the numerical value of the temperature was used. So, the value of each hourlyambient temperature can be treated as the independent random variable, and its distribution within the dailytemperature range can be analyzed by means of probability theory.3.1. Probability distribution of normalized hourly ambient temperatureSince the daily maximum and minimum temperatures and temperature range varied day by day, the con-cept of normalized hourly ambient temperature should be introduced to transform the hourly temperatures ineach day into a uniform scale. The new variable, normalized hourly ambient temperature is defined by^ ¼ttmintmaxtminwhere ^ may be termed the normalized hourly ambient temperature, tmaxand tminare the daily maximum andminimum temperatures, respectively, t is the hourly ambient temperature. Obviously, the normalized hourly ambient temperature ^ is a random variable that lies in the interval [0, 1].To analyze its distribution, the interval [0, 1] can be divided equally into several subintervals, and by means ofthe histogram method [12]iin each subinterval can be calculated by1137土木工程英文文献及翻译Based on the one year long hourly ambient temperature data in Nanjing, China, the probability density piwas calculated for the whole day and the 08:00–20:00 period, where the interval [0, 1] was equally divided into50 subintervals, namely n equals 50. The results are shown in Fig. 1.According to the discrete probability density data in Fig. 1, the probability density function of ^ can beobtained by a fitting method. In this study, the quadratic polynomialswere used to fit the probability density data, where a, b and c are coefficients. According to the property of theprobability density function, the following equation should be satisfiedAs shown in Fig. 1, the probability density curve obtained according to the probability density data pointsis also shown. The probability densit y functions that are fitted are described byp ¼ 2:7893^23:1228^ þ 1:6316 for the whole day periodp ¼ 2:2173^20:1827^ þ 0:3522 for the 08 : 00–20 : 00 period3.2. The generation of hourly ambient temperatureAs stated in the beginning of this paper, the objective of this study is to generate the hourly ambient tem-perature needed for bin weather data generation in the case that only the daily maximum and minimum tem-peratures are known. To do this, we can use the obtained probability density function to generate thenormalized hourly ambient temperature and then transform it to hourly temperature. This belongs to theproblem of how to simulate a random variable with a prescribed probability density function and can be doneon a computer by the method described in the literature [13]. For a given probability density function f ð^Þ, ifits distribution function F ð^Þ can be obtained and if u is a random variable with uniform distribution on [0, 1],thenF, we need only setAs stated above, the probability density function of the normalized ambient temperature was fitted using aone year long hourly temperature data. Based on the probability density function obtained, the random nor-malized hourly temperature can be generated. When the daily maximum and minimum temperature areknown, the normalized hourly temperature can be transformed to an actual temperature by the followingequationWhen the hourly temperature for a particular period of the day has been generated using the above method,the bin data can also be obtained. Because the normalized temperature generated using the model in this studyis a random variable, the bin data obtained from each generation shows somedifference, but it has much sim-ilarity. To obtain a stable result of bin data, the generation of the bin data can be performed enough times,and the bin data can be obtained by averaging the result of each generation. In this paper, 50 generations wereaveraged to generate the bin weather data.Z. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–18503.4. Methods of model evaluationThe performance of the model was evaluated in terms of the following statistical error test:土木工程英文文献及翻译一种产生bin气象数据的随机方法——中国南京周晋摘要：bin方法是一种众所周知且简捷的稳态的计算方法，可以用来预计建筑的冷热能耗。

本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Designing Against Fire Of Building 文献、资料来源：国道数据库文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2008.3.25院（部）：土木工程学院专业：土木工程班级：土木辅修091姓名：xxxx外文文献:Designing Against Fire Of BulidingxxxABSTRACT:This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electrical systems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are considered in the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed.1 INTRODUCTIONOther papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the case of fire. Rather, it is building regulations such as the Building Code of Australia (BCA) that directly specify most of the requirements for fire safety of buildings with reference being made to Standards such as AS3600 or AS4100 for methods for determining the fire resistance of structural elements.The purpose of this paper is to consider the design of buildings for fire safety from an engineering perspective (as is currently done for other loads such as wind or earthquakes), whilst at the same time,putting such approaches in the context of the current regulatory requirements.At the outset,it needs to be noted that designing a building for fire safety is far morethan simply considering the building structure and whether it has sufficient structural adequacy.This is because fires can have a direct influence on occupants via smoke and heat and can grow in size and severity unlike other effects imposed on the building. Notwithstanding these comments, the focus of this paper will be largely on design issues associated with the building structure.Two situations associated with a building are used for the purpose of discussion. The multi-storey office building shown in Figure 1 is supported by a transfer structure that spans over a set of railway tracks. It is assumed that a wide range of rail traffic utilises these tracks including freight and diesel locomotives. The first situation to be considered from a fire safety perspective is the transfer structure.This is termed Situation 1 and the key questions are: what level of fire resistance is required for this transfer structure and how can this be determined? This situation has been chosen since it clearly falls outside the normal regulatory scope of most build- ing regulations. An engineering solution, rather than a prescriptive one is required. The second fire situation (termed Situation 2) corresponds to a fire within the office levels of the building and is covered by building regulations. This situation is chosen because it will enable a discussion of engineering approaches and how these interface with the building regulations–since both engineering and prescriptive solutions are possible.2 UNIQUENESS OF FIRE2.1 IntroductionWind and earthquakes can be considered to b e “natural” phenomena over which designers have no control except perhaps to choose the location of buildings more carefully on the basis of historical records and to design building to resist sufficiently high loads or accelerations for the particular location. Dead and live loads in buildings are the result of gravity. All of these loads are variable and it is possible (although generally unlikely) that the loads may exceed the resistance of the critical structural members resulting in structural failure.The nature and influence of fires in buildings are quite different to those associated with other“loads” to which a building may be subjected to. The essential differences are described in the following sections.2.2 Origin of FireIn most situations (ignoring bush fires), fire originates from human activities within the building or the malfunction of equipment placed within the building to provide a serviceable environment. It follows therefore that it is possible to influence the rate of fire starts by influencing human behaviour, limiting and monitoring human behaviour and improving thedesign of equipment and its maintenance. This is not the case for the usual loads applied to a building.2.3 Ability to InfluenceSince wind and earthquake are directly functions of nature, it is not possible to influence such events to any extent. One has to anticipate them and design accordingly. It may be possible to influence the level of live load in a building by conducting audits and placing restrictions on contents. However, in the case of a fire start, there are many factors that can be brought to bear to influence the ultimate size of the fire and its effect within the building. It is known that occupants within a building will often detect a fire and deal with it before it reaches a sig- nificant size. It is estimated that less than one fire in five (Favre, 1996) results in a call to the fire brigade and for fires reported to the fire brigade, the majority will be limited to the room of fire origin. In oc- cupied spaces, olfactory cues (smell) provide powerful evidence of the presence of even a small fire. The addition of a functional smoke detection system will further improve the likelihood of detection and of action being taken by the occupants.Fire fighting equipment, such as extinguishers and hose reels, is generally provided within buildings for the use of occupants and many organisations provide training for staff in respect of the use of such equipment.The growth of a fire can also be limited by automatic extinguishing systems such as sprinklers, which can be designed to have high levels of effectiveness.Fires can also be limited by the fire brigade depending on the size and location of the fire at the time of arrival. 2.4 Effects of FireThe structural elements in the vicinity of the fire will experience the effects of heat. The temperatures within the structural elements will increase with time of exposure to the fire, the rate of temperature rise being dictated by the thermal resistance of the structural element and the severity of the fire. The increase in temperatures within a member will result in both thermal expansion and,eventually,a reduction in the structural resistance of the member. Differential thermal expansion will lead to bowing of a member. Significant axial expansion will be accommodated in steel members by either overall or local buckling or yielding of local- ised regions. These effects will be detrimental for columns but for beams forming part of a floor system may assist in the development of other load resisting mechanisms (see Section 4.3.5).With the exception of the development of forces due to restraint of thermal expansion, fire does not impose loads on the structure but rather reduces stiffness and strength. Such effects are not instantaneous but are a function of time and this is different to the effects of loads such as earthquake and wind that are more or less instantaneous.Heating effects associated with a fire will not be significant or the rate of loss of capacity will be slowed if:(a) the fire is extinguished (e.g. an effective sprinkler system)(b) the fire is of insufficient severity – insufficient fuel, and/or(c)the structural elements have sufficient thermal mass and/or insulation to slow the rise in internal temperatureFire protection measures such as providing sufficient axis distance and dimensions for concrete elements, and sufficient insulation thickness for steel elements are examples of (c). These are illustrated in Figure 2.The two situations described in the introduction are now considered.3 FIRE WITHIN BUILDINGS3.1 Fire Safety ConsiderationsThe implications of fire within the occupied parts of the office building (Figure 1) (Situation 2) are now considered. Fire statistics for office buildings show that about one fatality is expected in an office building for every 1000 fires reported to the fire brigade. This is an order of magnitude less than the fatality rate associated with apartment buildings. More than two thirds of fires occur during occupied hours and this is due to the greater human activity and the greater use of services within the building. It is twice as likely that a fire that commences out of normal working hours will extend beyond the enclosure of fire origin.A relatively small fire can generate large quantities of smoke within the floor of fire origin. If the floor is of open-plan construction with few partitions, the presence of a fire during normal occupied hours is almost certain to be detected through the observation of smoke on the floor. The presence of full height partitions across the floor will slow the spread of smoke and possibly also the speed at which the occupants detect the fire. Any measures aimed at improving housekeeping, fire awareness and fire response will be beneficial in reducing thelikelihood of major fires during occupied hours.For multi-storey buildings, smoke detection systems and alarms are often provided to give “automatic” detection and warning to the occupants. An alarm signal is also transmitted to the fire brigade.Should the fire not be able to be controlled by the occupants on the fire floor, they will need to leave the floor of fire origin via the stairs. Stair enclosures may be designed to be fire-resistant but this may not be sufficient to keep the smoke out of the stairs. Many buildings incorporate stair pressurisation systems whereby positive airflow is introduced into the stairs upon detection of smoke within the building. However, this increases the forces required to open the stair doors and makes it increasingly difficult to access the stairs. It is quite likely that excessive door opening forces will exist(Fazio et al,2006)From a fire perspective, it is common to consider that a building consists of enclosures formed by the presence of walls and floors.An enclosure that has sufficiently fire-resistant boundaries (i.e. walls and floors) is considered to constitute a fire compartment and to be capable of limiting the spread of fire to an adjacent compartment. However, the ability of such boundaries to restrict the spread of fire can be severely limited by the need to provide natural lighting (windows)and access openings between the adjacent compartments (doors and stairs). Fire spread via the external openings (windows) is a distinct possibility given a fully developed fire. Limit- ing the window sizes and geometry can reduce but not eliminate the possibility of vertical fire spread.By far the most effective measure in limiting fire spread, other than the presence of occupants, is an effective sprinkler system that delivers water to a growing fire rapidly reducing the heat being generated and virtually extinguishing it.3.2 Estimating Fire SeverityIn the absence of measures to extinguish developing fires, or should such systems fail; severe fires can develop within buildings.In fire en gineering literature, the term “fire load” refers to the quantity of combustibles within an enclosure and not the loads (forces) applied to the structure during a fire. Similarly, fire load density refers to the quantity of fuel per unit area. It is normally expressed in terms of MJ/m2 or kg/m2 of wood equivalent. Surveys of combustibles for various occupancies (i.e offices, retail, hospitals, warehouses, etc)have been undertaken and a good summary of the available data is given in FCRC (1999). As would be expected, the fire load density is highly variable. Publications such as the International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005) give fire load data in terms of the mean and 80th percentile.The latter level of fire load density is sometimes taken asthe characteristic fire load density and is sometimes taken as being distributed according to a Gumbel distribution (Schleich et al, 1999).The rate at which heat is released within an enclosure is termed the heat release rate (HRR) and normally expressed in megawatts (MW). The application of sufficient heat to a combustible material results in the generation of gases some of which are combustible. This process is called pyrolisation.Upon coming into contact with sufficient oxygen these gases ignite generating heat. The rate of burning(and therefore of heat generation) is therefore dependent on the flow of air to the gases generated by the pyrolising fuel.This flow is influenced by the shape of the enclosure (aspect ratio), and the position and size of any potential openings. It is found from experiments with single openings in approximately cubic enclosures that the rate of burning is directly proportional to A h where A is the area of the opening and h is the opening height. It is known that for deep enclosures with single openings that burning will occur initially closest to the opening moving back into the enclosure once the fuel closest to the opening is consumed (Thomas et al, 2005). Significant temperature variations throughout such enclosures can be expected.The use of the word ‘opening’ in relation to real building enclosures refers to any openings present around the walls including doors that are left open and any windows containing non fire-resistant glass.It is presumed that such glass breaks in the event of development of a significant fire. If the windows could be prevented from breaking and other sources of air to the enclosure limited, then the fire would be prevented from becoming a severe fire.Various methods have been developed for determining the potential severity of a fire within an enclosure.These are described in SFPE (2004). The predictions of these methods are variable and are mostly based on estimating a representative heat release rate (HRR) and the proportion of total fuel ςlikely to be consumed during the primary burning stage (Figure 4). Further studies of enclosure fires are required to assist with the development of improved models, as the behaviour is very complex.3.3 Role of the Building StructureIf the design objectives are to provide an adequate level of safety for the occupants and protection of adjacent properties from damage, then the structural adequacy of the building in fire need only be sufficient to allow the occupants to exit the building and for the building to ultimately deform in a way that does not lead to damage or fire spread to a building located on an adjacent site.These objectives are those associated with most building regulations includingthe Building Code of Australia (BCA). There could be other objectives including protection of the building against significant damage. In considering these various objectives, the following should be taken into account when considering the fire resistance of the building structure.3.3.1 Non-Structural ConsequencesSince fire can produce smoke and flame, it is important to ask whether these outcomes will threaten life safety within other parts of the building before the building is compromised by a loss of structural adequacy? Is search and rescue by the fire brigade not feasible given the likely extent of smoke? Will the loss of use of the building due to a severe fire result in major property and income loss? If the answer to these questions is in the affirmative, then it may be necessary to minimise the occurrence of a significant fire rather than simply assuming that the building structure needs to be designed for high levels of fire resistance. A low-rise shopping centre with levels interconnected by large voids is an example of such a situation.3.3.2 Other Fire Safety SystemsThe presence of other systems (e.g. sprinklers) within the building to minimise the occurrence of a serious fire can greatly reduce the need for the structural elements to have high levels of fire resistance. In this regard, the uncertainties of all fire-safety systems need to be considered. Irrespective of whether the fire safety system is the sprinkler system, stair pressurisation, compartmentation or the system giving the structure a fire-resistance level (e.g. concrete cover), there is an uncertainty of performance. Uncertainty data is available for sprinkler systems(because it is relatively easy to collect) but is not readily available for the other fire safety systems. This sometimes results in the designers and building regulators considering that only sprinkler systems are subject to uncertainty. In reality, it would appear that sprinklers systems have a high level of performance and can be designed to have very high levels of reliability.3.3.3 Height of BuildingIt takes longer for a tall building to be evacuated than a short building and therefore the structure of a tall building may need to have a higher level of fire resistance. The implications of collapse of tall buildings on adjacent properties are also greater than for buildings of only several storeys.3.3.4 Limited Extent of BurningIf the likely extent of burning is small in comparison with the plan area of the building, then the fire cannot have a significant impact on the overall stability of the building structure. Examples of situations where this is the case are open-deck carparks and very large area building such as shopping complexes where the fire-effected part is likely to be small in relation to area of the building floor plan.3.3.5 Behaviour of Floor ElementsThe effect of real fires on composite and concrete floors continues to be a subject of much research.Experimental testing at Cardington demonstrated that when parts of a composite floor are subject to heating, large displacement behaviour can develop that greatly assists the load carrying capacity of the floor beyond that which would predicted by considering only the behaviour of the beams and slabs in isolation.These situations have been analysed by both yield line methods that take into account the effects of membrane forces (Bailey, 2004) and finite element techniques. In essence, the methods illustrate that it is not necessary to insulate all structural steel elements in a composite floor to achieve high levels of fire resistance.This work also demonstrated that exposure of a composite floor having unprotected steel beams, to a localised fire, will not result in failure of the floor.A similar real fire test on a multistory reinforced concrete building demonstrated that the real structural behaviour in fire was significantly different to that expected using small displacement theory as for normal tempera- ture design (Bailey, 2002) with the performance being superior than that predicted by considering isolated member behaviour.3.4 Prescriptive Approach to DesignThe building regulations of most countries provide prescriptive requirements for the design of buildings for fire.These requirements are generally not subject to interpretation and compliance with them makes for simpler design approval–although not necessarily the most cost-effective designs.These provisions are often termed deemed-to-satisfy (DTS) provisions. All aspects of designing buildings for fire safety are covered–the provision of emergency exits, spacings between buildings, occupant fire fighting measures, detection and alarms, measures for automatic fire suppression, air and smoke handling requirements and last, but not least, requirements for compartmentation and fire resistance levels for structural members. However, there is little evidence that the requirements have been developed from a systematic evaluation of fire safety. Rather it would appear that many of the requirements have been added one to another to deal with another fire incident or to incorporate a new form of technology. There does not appear to have been any real attempt to determine which provision have the most significant influence on fire safety and whether some of the former provisions could be modified.The FRL requirements specified in the DTS provisions are traditionally considered to result in member resistances that will only rarely experience failure in the event of a fire.This is why it is acceptable to use the above arbitrary point in time load combination for assessing members in fire. There have been attempts to evaluate the various deemed-to-satisfy provisions (particularly the fire- resistance requirements)from a fire-engineering perspective taking intoaccount the possible variations in enclosure geometry, opening sizes and fire load (see FCRC, 1999).One of the outcomes of this evaluation was the recognition that deemed-to- satisfy provisions necessarily cover the broad range of buildings and thus must, on average, be quite onerous because of the magnitude of the above variations.It should be noted that the DTS provisions assume that compartmentation works and that fire is limited to a single compartment. This means that fire is normally only considered to exist at one level. Thus floors are assumed to be heated from below and columns only over one storey height.3.5 Performance-Based DesignAn approach that offers substantial benefits for individual buildings is the move towards performance-based regulations. This is permitted by regulations such as the BCA which state that a designer must demonstrate that the particular building will achieve the relevant performance requirements. The prescriptive provisions (i.e. the DTS provisions) are presumed to achieve these requirements. It is necessary to show that any building that does not conform to the DTS provisions will achieve the performance requirements.But what are the performance requirements? Most often the specified performance is simply a set of performance statements (such as with the Building Code of Australia)with no quantitative level given. Therefore, although these statements remind the designer of the key elements of design, they do not, in themselves, provide any measure against which to determine whether the design is adequately safe.Possible acceptance criteria are now considered.3.5.1 Acceptance CriteriaSome guidance as to the basis for acceptable designs is given in regulations such as the BCA. These and other possible bases are now considered in principle.(i)compare the levels of safety (with respect to achieving each of the design objectives) of the proposed alternative solution with those asso- ciated with a corresponding DTS solution for the building.This comparison may be done on either a qualitative or qualitative risk basis or perhaps a combination. In this case, the basis for comparison is an acceptable DTS solution. Such an approach requires a “holistic” approach to safety whereby all aspects relevant to safety, including the structure, are considered. This is, by far, the most common basis for acceptance.(ii)undertake a probabilistic risk assessment and show that the risk associated with the proposed design is less than that associated with common societal activities such as using pub lic transport. Undertaking a full probabilistic risk assessment can be very difficult for all but the simplest situations.Assuming that such an assessment is undertaken it will be necessary for the stakeholders to accept the nominated level of acceptable risk. Again, this requires a “holistic”approach to fire safety.(iii) a design is presented where it is demonstrated that all reasonable measures have been adopted to manage the risks and that any possible measures that have not been adopted will have negligible effect on the risk of not achieving the design objectives.(iv) as far as the building structure is concerned,benchmark the acceptable probability of failure in fire against that for normal temperature design. This is similar to the approach used when considering Building Situation 1 but only considers the building structure and not the effects of flame or smoke spread. It is not a holistic approach to fire safety.Finally, the questions of arson and terrorism must be considered. Deliberate acts of fire initiation range from relatively minor incidents to acts of mass destruction.Acts of arson are well within the accepted range of fire events experienced by build- ings(e.g. 8% of fire starts in offices are deemed "suspicious"). The simplest act is to use a small heat source to start a fire. The resulting fire will develop slowly in one location within the building and will most probably be controlled by the various fire- safety systems within the building. The outcome is likely to be the same even if an accelerant is used to assist fire spread.An important illustration of this occurred during the race riots in Los Angeles in 1992 (Hart 1992) when fires were started in many buildings often at multiple locations. In the case of buildings with sprinkler systems,the damage was limited and the fires significantly controlled.Although the intent was to destroy the buildings,the fire-safety systems were able to limit the resulting fires. Security measures are provided with systems such as sprinkler systems and include:- locking of valves- anti-tamper monitoring- location of valves in secure locationsFurthermore, access to significant buildings is often restricted by security measures.The very fact that the above steps have been taken demonstrates that acts of destruction within buildings are considered although most acts of arson do not involve any attempt to disable the fire-safety systems.At the one end of the spectrum is "simple" arson and at the other end, extremely rare acts where attempts are made to destroy the fire-safety systems along with substantial parts of the building.This can be only achieved through massive impact or the use of explosives. The latter may be achieved through explosives being introduced into the building or from outside by missile attack.The former could result from missile attack or from the collision of a large aircraft. The greater the destructiveness of the act,the greater the means and knowledge required. Conversely, the more extreme the act, the less confidence there can be in designing against suchan act. This is because the more extreme the event, the harder it is to predict precisely and the less understood will be its effects. The important point to recognise is that if sufficient means can be assembled, then it will always be possible to overcome a particular building design.Thus these acts are completely different to the other loadings to which a building is subjected such as wind,earthquake and gravity loading. This is because such acts of destruction are the work of intelligent beings and take into account the characteristics of the target.Should high-rise buildings be designed for given terrorist activities,then terrorists will simply use greater means to achieve the end result.For example, if buildings were designed to resist the impact effects from a certain size aircraft, then the use of a larger aircraft or more than one aircraft could still achieve destruction of the building. An appropriate strategy is therefore to minimise the likelihood of means of mass destruction getting into the hands of persons intent on such acts. This is not an engineering solution associated with the building structure.It should not be assumed that structural solutions are always the most appropriate, or indeed, possible.In the same way, aircrafts are not designed to survive a major fire or a crash landing but steps are taken to minimise the likelihood of either occurrence.The mobilization of large quantities of fire load (the normal combustibles on the floors) simultaneously on numerous levels throughout a building is well outside fire situations envisaged by current fire test standards and prescriptive regulations. Risk management measures to avoid such a possibility must be considered.4 CONCLUSIONSFire differs significantly from other “loads” such as wind, live load and earthquakes i n respect of its origin and its effects.Due to the fact that fire originates from human activities or equipment installed within buildings, it is possible to directly influence the potential effects on the building by reducing the rate of fire starts and providing measures to directly limit fire severity.The design of buildings for fire safety is mostly achieved by following the prescriptive requirements of building codes such as the BCA. For situations that fall outside of the scope of such regulations, or where proposed designs are not in accordance with the prescriptive requirements, it is possible to undertake performance-based fire engineering designs.However, there are no design codes or standards or detailed methodologies available for undertaking such designs.Building regulations require that such alternative designs satisfy performance requirements and give some guidance as to the basis for acceptance of these designs (i.e. acceptance criteria).This paper presents a number of possible acceptance criteria, all of which use the measure of risk level as the basis for comparison.Strictly, when considering the risks。

Civil engineering introduction papersAbstract: the civil engineering is a huge discipline, but the main one is building, building whether in China or abroad, has a long history, long-term development process. The world is changing every day, but the building also along with the progress of science and development. Mechanics findings, material of update, ever more scientific technology into the building.But before a room with a tile to cover the top of the house, now for comfort, different ideas, different scientific, promoted the development of civil engineering, making it more perfect.[key words] : civil engineering; Architecture; Mechanics, Materials.Civil engineering is build various projects collectively. It was meant to be and "military project" corresponding. In English the history of Civil Engineering, mechanical Engineering, electrical Engineering, chemical Engineering belong to to Engineering, because they all have MinYongXing. Later, as the project development of science and technology, mechanical, electrical, chemical has gradually formed independent scientific, to Engineering became Civil Engineering of specialized nouns. So far, in English, to Engineering include water conservancy project, port Engineering, While in our country, water conservancy projects and port projects also become very close and civil engineering relatively independent branch. Civil engineering construction of object, both refers to that built on the ground, underground water engineering facilities, also refers to applied materials equipment and conduct of the investigation, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional technology.Civil engineering is a kind of with people's food, clothing, shelter and transportation has close relation of the project. Among them with "live" relationship is directly. Because, to solve the "live" problem must build various types of buildings. To solve the "line, food and clothes" problem both direct side, but also a indirect side. "Line", must build railways, roads, Bridges, "Feed", must be well drilling water, water conservancy, farm irrigation, drainage water supply for the city, that is direct relation. Indirectly relationship is no matter what you do, manufacturing cars, ships, or spinning and weaving, clothing, or even production steel, launch satellites, conducting scientific research activities are inseparable from build various buildings, structures and build all kinds of project facilities.Civil engineering with the progress of human society and development, yet has evolved into large-scale comprehensive discipline, it has out many branch, such as: architectural engineering, the railway engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, special engineering structure, waterand wastewater engineering, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environment engineering disciplines. [1]Civil engineering as an important basic disciplines, and has its important attributes of: integrated, sociality, practicality, unity. Civil engineering for the development of national economy and the improvement of people's life provides an important material and technical basis, for many industrial invigoration played a role in promoting, engineering construction is the formation of a fixed asset basic production process, therefore, construction and real estate become in many countries and regions, economic powerhouses.Construction project is housing planning, survey, design, construction of the floorboard. Purpose is for human life and production provide places.Houses will be like a man, it's like a man's life planning environment is responsible by the planners, Its layout and artistic processing, corresponding to the body shape looks and temperament, is responsible by the architect, Its structure is like a person's bones and life expectancy, the structural engineer is responsible, Its water, heating ventilation and electrical facilities such as the human organ and the nerve, is by the equipment engineer is responsible for. Also like nature intact shaped like people, in the city I district planning based on build houses, and is the construction unit, reconnaissance unit, design unit of various design engineers and construction units comprehensive coordination and cooperation process.After all, but is structural stress body reaction force and the internal stress and how external force balance. Building to tackle, also must solve the problem is mechanical problems. We have to solve the problem of discipline called architectural mechanics. Architectural mechanics have can be divided into: statics, material mechanics and structural mechanics three mechanical system. Architectural mechanics is discussion and research building structure and component in load and other factors affecting the working condition of, also is the building of intensity, stiffness and stability. In load, bear load and load of structure and component can cause the surrounding objects in their function, and the object itself by the load effect and deformation, and there is the possibility of damage, but the structure itself has certain resistance to deformation and destruction of competence, and the bearing capacity of the structure size is and component of materials, cross section, and the structural properties of geometry size, working conditions and structure circumstance relevant. While these relationships can be improved by mechanics formula solved through calculation.Building materials in building and has a pivotal role. Building material is with human society productivity and science and technologyimproves gradually developed. In ancient times, the human lives, the line USES is the rocks andTrees. The 4th century BC, 12 ~ has created a tile and brick, humans are only useful synthetic materials made of housing. The 17th century had cast iron and ShouTie later, until the eighteenth century had Portland cement, just make later reinforced concrete engineering get vigorous development. Now all sorts of high-strength structural materials, new decoration materials and waterproof material development, criterion and 20th century since mid organic polymer materials in civil engineering are closely related to the widely application. In all materials, the most main and most popular is steel, concrete, lumber, masonry. In recent years, by using two kinds of material advantage, will make them together, the combination of structure was developed. Now, architecture, engineering quality fit and unfit quality usually adopted materials quality, performance and using reasonable or not have direct connection, in meet the same technical indicators and quality requirements, under the precondition of choice of different material is different, use method of engineering cost has direct impact.In construction process, building construction is and architectural mechanics, building materials also important links. Construction is to the mind of the designer, intention and idea into realistic process, from the ancient holeJuChao place to now skyscrapers, from rural to urban country road elevated road all need through "construction" means. A construction project, including many jobs such as dredging engineering, deep foundation pit bracing engineering, foundation engineering, reinforced concrete structure engineering, structural lifting project, waterproofing, decorate projects, each type of project has its own rules, all need according to different construction object and construction environment conditions using relevant construction technology, in work-site.whenever while, need and the relevant hydropower and other equipment composition of a whole, each project between reasonable organizing and coordination, better play investment benefit. Civil engineering construction in the benefit, while also issued by the state in strict accordance with the relevant construction technology standard, thus further enhance China's construction level to ensure construction quality, reduce the cost for the project.Reference:[1] LuoFuWu editor. Civil engineering (professional). Introduction to wuhan. Wuhan university of technology press. 2007[2] WangFuChuan, palace rice expensive editor. Construction engineering materials. Beijing. Science and technology literature press. 2002[3] jiang see whales, zhiming editor. Civil engineering introduction of higher education press. Beijing.. 1992。

一、外文原文Talling building and Steel construction Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result ofseveral types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and thecontrol of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete bu ilding( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.二、原文翻译高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。

土木工程--外文文献翻译-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1学院：专业：土木工程姓名：学号：外文出处： Structural Systems to resist (用外文写)Lateral loads附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文抗侧向荷载的结构体系常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。

确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。

这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。

实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。

如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类：1.抗弯矩框架。

2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。

3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。

4.筒中框架。

5.筒中筒结构。

6.核心交互结构。

7. 框格体系或束筒体系。

特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。

而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。

将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。

其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。

这并不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。

正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。

无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。

虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。

设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。

参考译文第一单元第一部分钢筋混凝土混凝土混凝土由水，砂，石子和水泥构成。

这些不同的，分散的材料混合在一起就构成了一种坚硬的大块状物体（形状各异），有着良好的性能。

混凝土被用作建筑材料已有150年的历史。

它的普遍应用主要由于以下几点：（1）恶劣环境下的耐久性（包括耐水）（2）极易被浇铸成不同的形状和尺寸（3）相对经济实惠，极易获得（4）有极强的抗压能力但众所周知，与其较强的抗压强度相比，混凝土抗拉和抗弯强度较低。

因此，每当荷载，限制收缩或是温度发生变化，产生的拉应力超过混凝土的拉伸强度时，就会有裂缝出现。

在结构应用方面，通常的做法是利用钢筋来抵抗拉力或者是给混凝土施加压力来抵消这些拉力。

预应力混凝土对混凝土构件加载之前，对其进行压缩的方法称为预应力。

把钢筋和混凝土使用很强的力结合在一起就被称为预应力混凝土。

预应力混凝土的优点如下：1.在预应力操作过程中，混凝土和钢筋经过严格测试，较低的安全系数也是正当的。

2.混凝土中可容许的工作压力通常是抗压强度的三分之一，从而使保证金来弥补劣质混凝土在临界区发生的风险。

3.预应力减少风险，是由于混凝土在预应力操作期间产生的应力可能是其抗压强度的50%到75%。

今天，预应力混凝土被应用于建筑物，地下结构，电视塔，浮动储藏器和海上结构，电站，核反应堆容器和包括拱形桥和斜拉桥在内的各种桥梁系统当中。

这说明了预应力概念的多方面适应性以及对它的广泛应用。

所有这些结构的发展和建造的成功都是由于材料技术的进步，尤其是预应力钢和在估计预应力长期和短期损失方面积累的知识。

钢筋钢筋是一种极好的建筑材料。

与其他材料相比，钢筋有着较高的抗拉强度。

尽管在体积上是木材的十倍以上。

钢筋有着较高的弹性模量，因此在荷载下容易发生小的变形。

到目前为止所描述的钢筋的特性只适用于温度保持在70F上下的情况，大约从30F到110F。

这个温度区间覆盖了大多数结构的运行状况，但搞清楚当温度远远超出正常水平时所发生的情况仍然非常重要。

土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译土木工程师建造道路、桥梁、隧道、水坝、港口、发电厂、水和污水系统、医院、学校、大众交通和其他对现代社会和大量人口集中地区至关重要的公共设施。

他们还建造私人拥有的设施，如机场、铁路、管道、摩天大楼和其他为工业、商业或住宅使用而设计的大型结构。

此外，土木工程师规划、设计和建造完整的城市和城镇，最近还在规划和设计太空平台，以容纳自给自足的社区。

___ passes the planning。

design。

n。

and management of the built ___ scientific principles。

from ___ are essential to modern society。

such as roads。

bridges。

___。

dams。

and hospitals.___ public facilities。

civil engineers also design and build privately-owned structures。

including airports。

railroads。

pipelines。

skyscrapers。

and other ___。

and ___.Overall。

___ civil engineers。

our modern infrastructure and public facilities would not exist.___。

n。

and maintenance of public and private infrastructure。

This includes roads。

bridges。

pipelines。

dams。

ports。

power plants。

water supply and sewage systems。

hospitals。

schools。

___。

and other structures that are essential to modern ___ as airports。

土木工程专业英语课文_翻译_考试必备土木工程专业英语课文翻译The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romanssometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.早期时代的主要施工材料，木材和砌体砖，石，或瓷砖，和类似的材料。

这些课程或层密切联系在一起，用砂浆或沥青，焦油一个样物质，或其他一些有约束力的代理人。

希腊人和罗马人有时用铁棍或拍手以加强其建设。

在雅典的帕台农神庙列，例如，在他们的铁钻的酒吧现在已经生锈了孔。

罗马人还使用了天然水泥称为令人费解的，由火山灰制成，变得像石头一样坚硬在水中。

Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile force which, as we have seen,tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.钢铁和水泥，两个最重要的现代建筑材料，介绍了在十九世纪。

Civil engineering introduction papers[英语原文]Abstract: the civil engineering is a huge discipline, but the main one is building, building whether in China or abroad, has a long history, long-term development process. The world is changing every day, but the building also along with the progress of science and development. Mechanics findings, material of update, ever more scientific technology into the building. But before a room with a tile to cover the top of the house, now for comfort, different ideas, different scientific, promoted the development of civil engineering, making it more perfect.[key words] : civil engineering; Architecture; Mechanics, Materials.Civil engineering is build various projects collectively. It was meant to be and "military project" corresponding. In English the history of Civil Engineering, mechanical Engineering, electrical Engineering, chemical Engineering belong to to Engineering, because they all have MinYongXing. Later, as the project development of science and technology, mechanical, electrical, chemical has gradually formed independent scientific, to Engineering became Civil Engineering of specialized nouns. So far, in English, to Engineering include water conservancy project, port Engineering, While in our country, water conservancy projects and port projects also become very close and civil engineering relatively independent branch. Civil engineering construction of object, both refers to that built on the ground, underground water engineering facilities, also refers to applied materials equipment and conduct of the investigation, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional technology.Civil engineering is a kind of with people's food, clothing, shelter and transportation has close relation of the project. Among them with "live" relationship is directly. Because, to solve the "live" problem must build various types of buildings. To solve the "line, food and clothes" problem both direct side, but also a indirect side. "Line", must build railways, roads, Bridges, "Feed", must be well drilling water, water conservancy, farm irrigation, drainage water supply for the city, that is direct relation. Indirectly relationship is no matter what you do, manufacturing cars, ships, or spinning and weaving, clothing, or even production steel, launch satellites, conducting scientific research activities are inseparable from build various buildings, structures and build all kinds of project facilities.Civil engineering with the progress of human society and development, yet has evolved into large-scale comprehensive discipline, it has out many branch, such as: architectural engineering, the railway engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, special engineering structure, waterand wastewater engineering, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environment engineering disciplines. [1]Civil engineering as an important basic disciplines, and has its important attributes of: integrated, sociality, practicality, unity. Civil engineering for the development of national economy and the improvement of people's life provides an important material and technical basis, for many industrial invigoration played a role in promoting, engineering construction is the formation of a fixed asset basic production process, therefore, construction and real estate become in many countries and regions, economic powerhouses.Construction project is housing planning, survey, design, construction of the floorboard. Purpose is for human life and production provide places.Houses will be like a man, it's like a man's life planning environment is responsible by the planners, Its layout and artistic processing, corresponding to the body shape looks and temperament, is responsible by the architect, Its structure is like a person's bones and life expectancy, the structural engineer is responsible, Its water, heating ventilation and electrical facilities such as the human organ and the nerve, is by the equipment engineer is responsible for. Also like nature intact shaped like people, in the city I district planning based on build houses, and is the construction unit, reconnaissance unit, design unit of various design engineers and construction units comprehensive coordination and cooperation process.After all, but is structural stress body reaction force and the internal stress and how external force balance. Building to tackle, also must solve the problem is mechanical problems. We have to solve the problem of discipline called architectural mechanics. Architectural mechanics have can be divided into: statics, material mechanics and structural mechanics three mechanical system. Architectural mechanics is discussion and research building structure and component in load and other factors affecting the working condition of, also is the building of intensity, stiffness and stability. In load, bear load and load of structure and component can cause the surrounding objects in their function, and the object itself by the load effect and deformation, and there is the possibility of damage, but the structure itself has certain resistance to deformation and destruction of competence, and the bearing capacity of the structure size is and component of materials, cross section, and the structural properties of geometry size, working conditions and structure circumstance relevant. While these relationships can be improved by mechanics formula solved through calculation.Building materials in building and has a pivotal role. Building material is with human society productivity and science and technologyimproves gradually developed. In ancient times, the human lives, the line USES is the rocks andTrees. The 4th century BC, 12 ~ has created a tile and brick, humans are only useful synthetic materials made of housing. The 17th century had cast iron and ShouTie later, until the eighteenth century had Portland cement, just make later reinforced concrete engineering get vigorous development. Now all sorts of high-strength structural materials, new decoration materials and waterproof material development, criterion and 20th century since mid organic polymer materials in civil engineering are closely related to the widely application. In all materials, the most main and most popular is steel, concrete, lumber, masonry. In recent years, by using two kinds of material advantage, will make them together, the combination of structure was developed. Now, architecture, engineering quality fit and unfit quality usually adopted materials quality, performance and using reasonable or not have direct connection, in meet the same technical indicators and quality requirements, under the precondition of choice of different material is different, use method of engineering cost has direct impact.In construction process, building construction is and architectural mechanics, building materials also important links. Construction is to the mind of the designer, intention and idea into realistic process, from the ancient hole JuChao place to now skyscrapers, from rural to urban country road elevated road all need through "construction" means. A construction project, including many jobs such as dredging engineering, deep foundation pit bracing engineering, foundation engineering, reinforced concrete structure engineering, structural lifting project, waterproofing, decorate projects, each type of project has its own rules, all need according to different construction object and construction environment conditions using relevant construction technology, in work-site.whenever while, need and the relevant hydropower and other equipment composition of a whole, each project between reasonable organizing and coordination, better play investment benefit. Civil engineering construction in the benefit, while also issued by the state in strict accordance with the relevant construction technology standard, thus further enhance China's construction level to ensure construction quality, reduce the cost for the project.Any building built on the surface of the earth all strata, building weight eventually to stratum, have to bear. Formation Support building the rocks were referred to as foundation, and the buildings on the ground and under the upper structure of self-respect and liable to load transfer to the foundation of components or component called foundation. Foundation, and the foundation and the superstructure is a building of three inseparable part. According to the function is different, but in load, under the action of them are related to each other, is theinteraction of the whole. Foundation can be divided into natural foundation and artificial foundation, basic according to the buried depth is divided into deep foundation and shallow foundation. , foundation and foundation is the guarantee of the quality of the buildings and normal use close button, where buildings foundation in building under loads of both must maintain overall stability and if the settlement of foundation produce in building scope permitted inside, and foundation itself should have sufficient strength, stiffness and durability, also consider repair methods and the necessary foundation soil retaining retaining water and relevant measures. [3]As people living standard rise ceaselessly, the people to their place of building space has become not only from the number, and put forward higher requirement from quality are put car higher demands that the environment is beautiful, have certain comfort. This needs to decorate a building to be necessary. If architecture major engineering constitutes the skeleton of the building, then after adornment building has become the flesh-and-blood organism, final with rich, perfect appearance in people's in front, the best architecture should fully embody all sorts of adornment material related properties, with existing construction technology, the most effective gimmick, to achieve conception must express effect. Building outfit fix to consider the architectural space use requirement, protect the subject institutions from damage, give a person with beautifulenjoying, satisfy the requirements of fire evacuation, decorative materials and scheme of rationality, construction technology and economic feasibility, etc. Housing construction development and at the same time, like housing construction as affecting people life of roads, Bridges, tunnels has made great progress.In general civil engineering is one of the oldest subjects, it has made great achievements, the future of the civil engineering will occupy in people's life more important position. The environment worsening population increase, people to fight for survival, to strive for a more comfortable living environment, and will pay more attention to civil engineering. In the near future, some major projects extimated to build, insert roller skyscrapers, across the oceanBridges, more convenient traffic would not dream. The development of science and technology, and the earth is deteriorating environment will be prompted civil engineering to aerospace and Marine development, provide mankind broader space of living. In recent years, engineering materials mainly is reinforced concrete, lumber and brick materials, in the future, the traditional materials will be improved, more suitable for some new building materials market, especially the chemistry materials will promote the construction of towards a higher point. Meanwhile, design method of precision, design work of automation, information and intelligent technology of introducing, will be people have a morecomfortable living environment. The word, and the development of the theory and new materials, the emergence of the application of computer, high-tech introduction to wait to will make civil engineering have a new leap.This is a door needs calm and a great deal of patience and attentive professional. Because hundreds of thousands, even hundreds of thousands of lines to building each place structure clearly reflected. Without a gentle state of mind, do what thing just floating on the surface, to any a building structure, to be engaged in business and could not have had a clear, accurate and profound understanding of, the nature is no good. In this business, probably not burn the midnight oil of courage, not to reach the goal of spirit not to give up, will only be companies eliminated.This is a responsible and caring industry. Should have a single responsible heart - I one's life in my hand, thousands of life in my hand. Since the civil, should choose dependably shoulder the responsibility.Finally, this is a constant pursuit of perfect industry. Pyramid, spectacular now: The Great Wall, the majestic... But if no generations of the pursuit of today, we may also use the sort of the oldest way to build this same architecture. Design a building structure is numerous, but this is all experienced centuries of clarification, through continuous accumulation, keep improving, innovation obtained. And such pursuit, not confined in the past. Just think, if the design of a building can be like calculation one plus one equals two as simple and easy to grasp, that was not for what? Therefore, a civil engineer is in constant of in formation. One of the most simple structure, the least cost, the biggest function. Choose civil, choosing a steadfast diligence, innovation, pursuit of perfect path.Reference:[1] LuoFuWu editor. Civil engineering (professional). Introduction to wuhan. Wuhan university of technology press. 2007[2] WangFuChuan, palace rice expensive editor. Construction engineering materials. Beijing. Science and technology literature press. 2002[3] jiang see whales, zhiming editor. Civil engineering introduction of higher education press. Beijing.. 1992土木工程概论 [译文]摘要：土木工程是个庞大的学科，但最主要的是建筑，建筑无论是在中国还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史，长期的发展历程。

土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译第一篇：土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译PAVEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSEDBY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADESBy Sandra L.Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE(Reviewed by the Highway Division)ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com-mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation.Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils.A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented.Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used.INTRODUCTION When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume,increase in volume, or do nothing.A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil.The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting.Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be-ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs.The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing withthese problem subgrade materials.Each project will have different design considerations, economic con-straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account.However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made.For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include:(1)In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash;(2)seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems;or(3)a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod-ification of the design to “accept” the anticipated expansion.In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change(especially non-uniform volume change)must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data.Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem.The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple methods for:(1)Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible;and(2)estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst.Prof., Ctr.for Advanced Res.in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287.Note.Discussion open until April 1, 1989.To extend the closing date one month,a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals.The manuscriptfor this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on February 3, 1988.This paper is part of the Journal of Transportation.Engineering, Vol.114, No.6,November, 1988.ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/88/0006-0673/$1.00 + $.15 per page.Paper No.22902.673field for the collapsible soils.Then this information will place the engineerin a position to make a rational design decision.Collapsible soils are fre-quently encountered in an arid climate.The depositional process and for-mation of these soils, and methods for identification and evaluation of theamount of volume change that may occur, will be discussed in the followingsections.COLLAPSIBLE SOILSFormation of Collapsible SoilsCollapsible soils have high void ratios and low densities and are typicallycohesionless or only slightly cohesive.In an arid climate, evaporation greatlyexceeds rainfall.Consequently, only the near-surface soils become wettedfrom normal rainfall.It is the combination of the depositional process andthe climate conditions that leads to the formation of the collapsible soil.Although collapsible soils exist in nondesert regions, the dry environment inwhich evaporation exceeds precipitation is very favorable for the formationof the collapsible structure.As the soil dries by evaporation, capillary tension causes the remainingwater to withdraw into the soil grain interfaces, bringing with it soluble salts,clay, and silt particles.As the soil continues to dry, these salts, clays, andsilts come out of solution, and “tack-we ld” the larger grains together.Thisleads to a soil structure that has high apparent strength at its low, naturalwater content.However, collapse of the “cemented” structure may occurupon wetting because the bonding material weakens and softens, and the soilis unstable at any stress level that exceeds that at which the soil had beenpreviously wetted.Thus, if the amount of water made available to the soilis increased above that which naturally exists, collapse can occur at fairlylow levels of stress, equivalent only to overburden soil pressure.Additionalloads, such as traffic loading or the presence of a bridge structure, add tothe collapse, especially of shallow collapsible soil.The triggering mechanismfor collapse, however, is the addition of water.Highway Problems Resulting from Collapsible SoilsNonuniform collapse can result from either a nonhomogeneous subgradedeposit in which differing degrees of collapse potential exist and/or fromnonuniform wetting of subgrade materials.When differential collapse ofsubgrade soils occurs, the result is a rough, wavy surface, and potentiallymany miles of extensively damaged highway.There have been several re-ported cases for which differential collapse has been cited as the cause ofroadway or highway bridge distress.A few of these in the Arizona and NewMexico region include sections of 1-10 near Benson, Arizona, and sectionsof 1-25 in the vicinity of Algadonas, New Mexico(Lovelace et al.1982;Russman 1987).In addition to the excessive waviness of the roadway sur-face, bridge foundations failures, such as the Steins Pass Highway bridge,1-10, in Arizona, have frequently been identified with collapse of foundationsoils.Identification of Collapsible SoilsThere have been many techniques proposed for identifying a collapsiblesoil problem.These methods range from qualitative index tests conducted on4disturbed samples, to response to wetting tests conducted on relatively un-disturbed samples, to in situ meausrement techniques.In all cases, the en-gineer must first know if the soils may become wetted to a water contentabove their natural moisture state, and if so, what the extent of the potentialwetted zone will be.Most methods for identifying collapsible soils are onlyqualitative in nature, providing no information on the magnitude of the col-lapse strain potential.These qualitative methods are based on various func-tions of dry density, moisture content, void ratio, specific gravity, and At-terberg limits.In situ measurement methods appear promising in some cases, in that manyresearchers feel that sample disturbance is greatly reduced, and that a morenearly quantitative measure of collapse potential is obtainable.However,in situ test methods for collapsible soils typically suffer from the deficien-cy of an unknown extent and degree of wetting during the field test.Thismakes a quantitative measurement difficult because the zone of materialbeing influenced is not well-known, and, therefore, the actual strains, in-duced by the addition of stress and water, are not well-known.In addition,the degree of saturation achieved in the field test is variable and usuallyunknown.Based on recently conducted research, it appears that the most reliablemethod for identifying a collapsible soil problem is to obtain the best qualityundisturbed sample possible and to subject this sample to a response to wet-ting test in the laboratory.The results of a simple oedometer test will indicatewhether the soil is collapsible and, at the same time, give a direct measureof the amount of collapse strain potential that may occur in the field.Potentialproblems associated with the direct sampling method include sample distur-bance and the possibility that the degree of saturation achieved in the fieldwill be less than that achieved in the laboratory test.The quality of an undisturbed sample is related most strongly to the arearatio of the tube that is used for sample collection.The area ratio is a measureof the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the sample collected to the cross-sectional area of the sample tube.A thin-walled tube sampler by definitionhas an area ratio of about 10-15%.Although undisturbed samples are bestobtained through the use of thin-walled tube samplers, it frequently occursthat these stiff, cemented collapsible soils, especially those containing gravel,cannot be sampled unless a tube with a much thicker wall is used.Samplershaving an area ratio as great as 56% are commonly used for Arizona col-lapsible soils.Further, it may take considerable hammering of the tube todrive the sample.The result is, of course, some degree of sample distur-bance, broken.bonds, densification, and a correspondingly reduced collapsemeasured upon laboratory testing.However, for collapsible soils, which arecompressive by definition, the insertion of the sample tube leads to localshear failure at the base of the cutting edge, and, therefore, there is lesssample disturbance than would be expected for soils that exhibit general shearfailure(i.e., saturated clays or dilative soils).Results of an ongoing studyof sample disturbance for collapsible soils indicate that block samples some-times exhibit somewhat higher collapse strains compared to thick-walled tubesamples.Block samples are usually assumed to be the very best obtainableundisturbed samples, although they are frequently difficult-to-impossible toobtain, especially at substantial depths.The overall effect of sample distur-bance is a slight underestimate of the collapse potential for the soil.675译文：湿陷性地基引起的路面问题作者：...摘要：在干旱环境中，湿陷性土壤组成的路基材料是很常见的，干旱环境中的气候条件、沉积以及风化作用都有利于湿陷性土的形成。