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第二语言习得理论的发展作者：成存雪来源：《参花（下）》2017年第10期摘要：本文追溯第二语言——英语习得理论发展的过程，优选讨论发展初期有影响的著作，聚焦对二语习得研究产生的持久影响，且衍生的大量研究课题理论。
笔者认为，对最新理论给予的关注不如较早地研究，因为目前难以明确它最终对二语习得领域有多大的影响。
关键词：第二语言英语习得理论第二语言习得（SLA）目前是一门确立的学科，这可以表现在以其命名的研究生课程以及在应用语言学、TESOL和英语教学方面研究生课程的方案上。
它拥有专门的期刊和学术会议，在各种会议上，它是非常引人关注的。
虽然关于二语习得研究的准确范围存在着争议，有些学者认为它是认知心理学的一个分支，有些则认为它主要还是一种社会现象。
但是关于这门学科的主要研究领域是什么还是达成了一致意见，比如那些与二语学习者语言描述有联系的领域，无论解释得狭窄还是宽泛，以及它是如何被习得的解释方面。
一、第二语言习得理论发展的过程第二语言习得（二语习得）是一个比较新的研究领域。
在20世纪60年代，教育者们有过关于第二语言学习的论述，但很大程度上把它作为以行为主义为基础的语言教学法的附属物。
行为主义在当时的心理学领域是居主导地位的学习理论。
在行为主义看来，英语学习者面临的任务就是死记硬背，练习所学语言的语法结构和词汇，以便形成新的“习惯”，即新的刺激——反应链，并且通过强化加以巩固。
为了防止学习过程中将第一语言中的旧习惯“复制”或“转移”至第二语言中，研究人员开始全面描述所学语言中的两种语言对比，以便发现语言的区别以及学习难点。
当时研究的重点基本上是第一语言与第二语言对比的描写，很少关注英语学习者如何学以致用，或者第二语言的实际输出。
这种现状在20世纪60年代后半期得以改观。
这主要得益于在第一语言习得领域的乔姆斯基革命。
学习第一语言的孩子在语言习得方面具有非凡的創造力，而非简单地模仿周围的语言。
在二语习得的研究中，学者们开始关注学习者第一次的实际输出，特别是他们的语言错误。
一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语） also commonly called a target language (TL)3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?3). Why are some learners more successful than others?4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only beestimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not bereliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part oflanguage structure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may havelittle effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and socialfactors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has littleeffect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learningⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from theinput.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。
第二语言习得研究历史及其研究视角提要：第二语言研究的历史短暂但其发展迅速，出现了多种理论和流派，它是一门独立的边缘交叉学科，涉及语言学、心理学、社会学、人类学、神经学等多种学科知识。
下面，我们就第二语言习得研究的发展历史和研究视角作一下简单的了解。
关键词：第二语言习得研究历史研究视角一、第二语言习得研究的发展历史人们对第二语言习得产生兴趣并开展研究要始于五十年代初weinreich(1953)在他的著作《语言的联系》一书中讨论了母语和第二语言两种体系的关系，并提出了“干扰”（interference）这一重要概念。
1957年，美国语言学家robret lado 提出了语言的“正迁移”（positive transfer）和“负迁移”（negative transfer）现象。
他认为对于第二语言学习者来说，学习第二语言最困难的地方就是第二语言和母语不同的地方，两种语言相同之处的迁移将对第二语言习得产生积极的影响。
不同之处的迁移，将对第二语言习得产生消极的影响。
到了六十年代末，corder 提出了“偏误分析”的理论和研究方法，对二语习得者语言错误产生的原因进行了分析。
1972年，美国语言学家larry selinker 发表了著名的“中介语”（interlanguage）一文。
中介语是第二语言学习者在学习过程中产生的一种独立的语言体系。
“中介语”理论的提出标志着第二语言习得研究作为一门独立的学科的诞生。
70年代末、80年代初，krashen(1982)提出了一套完整的第二语言习得模型，这一模型全面的解释了第二语言的习得过程，并且为外语教学提供了重要的理论指导依据，成为第二语言习得研究中影响最大,引起争议也最多的语言习得模型。
八十年代，一些学者开始以认知理论为基础探讨语言习得的过程和语言运用的过程。
有人认为语言处理过程必须运用基本的认知能力，也有观点说语言系统和认知过程分别按大脑的不同部位处理不同的信息。
二语词汇习得研究：十年回溯与展望（一）二语词汇习得研究：十年回溯与展望(一)【内容提要】本文回顾了10年来发表于国内9大外语重要刊物（注：通过中国期刊网cnki搜索的9大外语重要刊物为：《外语教学与研究》、《现代外语》、《外语与外语教学》、《外国语》、《外语学刊》、《解放军外国语学院学报》、《外语教学》、《外语界》、《山东外语教学》。
）上有关二语词汇习得的研究成果，内容包括：1)二语词汇的附带习得与学得；2)二语词汇习得的策略研究；3)习得目标词汇的广度与深度研究；4)母语对二语词汇习得的影响；5)基于语料库的词汇习得与本族语者的比较。
文章在回顾的基础上提出了国内二语词汇习得领域内有待进一步研究的几个问题，建议我国未来的二语词汇习得研究应该多方吸收国内外相关学科的最新理论和研究成果，探讨中国各层次二语学习者词汇习得过程中的特点和难点，更好地提高二语学习者的学习效率和习得效果。
【全文题】语言学【关键词】二语词汇/词汇习得/成果综述【正文】1.引言自上世纪70年代以来，二语词汇习得研究逐渐沦为二语习得研究领域里的一个热点，存有学者(lewis,1993)指出词汇习得就是二语习得的中心任务，每一项语言能力的自学和提升都有赖于对词汇的倚赖，但是二语词汇的习得又就是一个充斥终身的心智过程，无人能够掌控一门语言的全部词汇。
因此，二语词汇的习得又成为令众多学习者和研究者呕心沥血的一大难点，研究二语词汇习得的国内外学者越来越多，他们从不同的方面对词汇习得进行了讨论和实证研究（如：laufer,2001；刘绍龙，2002；濮建忠，2000；张淑静，2021等），形成如火如荼之势，将二语词汇习得研究持续引向深入。
在此关头有必要对相关研究作全面的总结回顾，并对未来二语词汇习得研究进行展望。
本文重点分析1995-2021年这10年间在国内关键外语核心刊物上刊登的有关二语词汇习得的研究论文，对国外的有关成果也有所牵涉，但有关国外二语词汇习得研究将另文综述。
Chapter 1. Introducing Second Language AcquisitionI. What id SLA?1. The definition of SLASLA, that is Second Language Acquisition. It refers both to the study of individual and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language. The additional language is called a second language or target language.2.The scope of SLAIt includes informal L2 learning and formal L2 learning.Informal L2 learning take place in naturalistic context, formal L2 learning takes place in classrooms.3.Three basic questionsIn trying to understand the process of second language acquisition, we are seeking to answer three basic questions:(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the learner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?There are probably no answers that all second language researches would agree on completely. This is because SLA is highly complex in nature, and in part because scholars studying SLA come from academic disciplines which differ greatly in theory and research methods.II. What is a second Language?A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes.A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for further travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for further learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.III. What is a first language?Acquisition of more than one language during early childhood is called simultaneous multilingualism.Sequential multilingualism: learning additional languages after L1.IV. Diversity in learning and learnersWhat is learned in acquiring a second language, as well as how it islearned is often influenced by whether the situation involves informal exposure to speakers of other languages, immersion in a setting where one needs a new language to meet basic needs, or formal instruction in school, and these learning conditions are often profoundly influenced by powerful social, cultural, and economic factors affecting the status of both languages and learners.Chapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionI. The world of second languageNot only is bilingualism worldwide, it is a phenomenon that has existed since the beginning of language in human history. It is probably true that no language group has ever existed in isolation from other language groups. There are many more bilingual or multilingual individuals in the world than there are monolingual.Multilingualism refers to the ability to use two or more languages.Monolingualism refers to the ability to use only one.Those who grow up in a multilingual environment acquire multilingual competence in the natural course of using two or more languages from childhood with the people around them, and tend to regard it as perfectly normal to do so. Adding second languages at an older age often takes considerable effort, however, and thus requires motivation. This motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:(1)invasion or conquest of one's country by speakers of another language;(2)A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;(3)Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's another language;(4)Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language.(5)A need or desire to pursue educational experience s where access requires proficiency in another language;(6)A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;(7)An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or literatures.II. Reasons for uncertainty in reporting language data include some which have social and political significance, and some which merely reflect imprecise or ambiguous terminology, for example:1.Linguistic information is often not officially collected2.Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not be reliable3.There is lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria for identificationIII. The nature of language learningBy the age of six months an infant has produced all of the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds of any language in the world.On average children have mastered most of the distinctive sounds of their first language before they are three years old, and an awareness of basic discourse patterns such as conversational turn-taking appear at aneven earlier age. Children control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns before they are five or six, although complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the school years.The understanding of how children accomplish the early mastery of L1has changed radically in the past fifty years or so. (1). It was suggested that first language acquisition is in larger part the result of children's natural desire to please their doting parents. (2). Others argued that children's language acquisition is purposive, that they develop language because of their urge to communicate their wants and needs to the people who take care of them. (3). The most widely held view by the middle of the twentieth century was that children learn language by imitation .IV. The role of natural abilityHumans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language. In viewing the natural ability to acquire language in terms of innate capacity, we are saying that part of language structure is genetically "given" to every human child. If a child had to consciously learn the set of abstract principles that indicate which sequences of words are possible sentences in their language as opposed to those that are not, only the smartest would learn to talk, and it would take them many more years than it actually does.V. The role of social experienceEven if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed inchildren, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Appropriate social experience , including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.Sources of L1 input and interaction vary depending on cultural and social factors. Mother's talk is often assumed to be the most important source of early language input to children. The relative importance of input from other young children also varies in different cultures, as does the importance of social institutions such as nursery schools.When young children's social experience includes people around them using two or more languages, they have the same innate capacity to learn both or all of them.VI. L1 versus L2 learningThis brief comparison of L1 and L2 learning is divided into three phases. The first is the initial state, which many linguists ans psychologists believe includes the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that is in learner's heads at the very start of L1or L2 acquisition. The second phase, the intermediate states, covers all stages of basic language development. The third phase is the final state, which is the outcome of L1and L2 learning.(1). Initial stateSome linguists and psychologists believe that the genetic predispositionwhich children have from birth to learn language remains with them throughout life, and that differences in the final outcomes of L1and L2 learning are attributable to other factors. Others believe that some aspects of the innate capacity which children have for L1 remain in force for acquisition of subsequent languages, but that some aspects of this natural ability are lost with advancing age.There is complete agreement , however, that since L2 acquisition follows L1 acquisition , a major component of the initial state for L2 learning must be prior knowledge of L1.(2).Intermediate statesThere is similarity in that the development of both L1and L2 is largely systematic, including predictable sequencing of many phenomena within each and some similarity of sequencing across languages, and in the fact that L1and L2 learners both play a creative role in their own language development and do not mimic what they have heard or been taught. ·processes·necessary conditions·facilitating conditions(3)final stateThe final state is the outcome of L1or L2 learning . The final state of L1development is native linguistic competence. While vocabulary learning and cultivation of specialized registers may continue intoadulthood,the basic phonological and grammatical systems of whatever languages children hear around them re essentially established by the age of about five or six years , along with vocabulary knowledge and interaction skills that are adequate for fulfilling communicative functions. VII. The logical problem of language learningThe "problem" as it has been formulated by linguists relates most importantly to syntactic phenomena. As noted in the preceding section, most linguists ans psychologist assume this achievement must be attributed to innate and spontaneous language-learning construct and/or process. The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underline language acquisition. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:1.Children's knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input they receiveThis is essentially the poverty -of- the- stimulus argument. According to this argument, children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input,and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system.2.Constrains and principles cannot be learnedConstrains ans principles cannot be learned in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond theircomprehension; Constrains ans principles are thus outside the realm of learning processes which are related to general intelligence.3.Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific inputThe extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child's mind. The logical problem of language learningFirst of all, children often say things that adults do not.Next, children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language even though they have not yet developed the cognitive ability necessary to understand these rules.Finally, patterns of children's language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.VIII. Frameworks for SLAFrameworks for study of SLATimeline linguistic psychological social195os and before structuralism behaviorism sociocultural theory 1960s TGG neurolinguistics information processing ethnography of communication variation theory1970s functionalism humanistic models acculturation theroy1980s principles and parameters model connectionism social psychology1990s minimalist program processabilityThis view is still influential in SLA approaches which are concerned with the role of input and interaction.1.linguisticThere have been two foci for the study fo SLA from a linguistic perspective since 1960:internal and external. The internal focus has been based primarily on the work of Noam Chomsky and his followers. It sets the goal of study as accounting for speakers' internalized, underlying knowledge of language rather than the description of surface forms as in earlier Structuralism. The external focus for the study of SLA has emphasized language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners' production at different stages of development.2.PsychologicalThere have been three foci in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective: languages and the brain, learning processes and learner differences.Language and the brainThe location and representation of language in the brain has been of interest to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century. And the expanding field of Neurolinguistics was one of the first to influencecognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in th e1960s.Learning processesThe focus on learning processes has been heavily influenced by computer-based Information Processing(IP) models of learning, which were established in cognitive psychology by the 1960s. Explanations of SLA phenomena based on this framework involve assumptions that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills.Learner differencesThe focus on learner differences in SLA has been most concerned with the question of why some learners are more successful than others. This framework calls for consideration of emotional involvement in learning, such as affective factors of attitude, motivation, and anxiety level.SocialThere are two foci for the study of SLA from this perspective:micro-social and macro-social.Micro-social focusThe concerns within the micro-social focus relate to language acquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation and interaction.Macro-social focusThe concerns fo the macro-social focus relate language acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political and educational settings.。
第一节第二语言习得研究一第二语言习得研究的兴起第二语言习得指的是“在自然的或有指导的情况下通过有意识学习或无意识吸收掌握母语以外的一门语言的过程”（R．Ellis，1985）。
具体说来第二语言习得包括两种类型：一是日常交际的第二语言习得，即通过与说本族语者的直接交往而学习第二语言；二是课堂教学的第二语言习得，即通过教师在课堂上的传授而学习第二语言。
第二语言习得研究实际上就是对学习者习得和使用第二语言的内在（underlying）过程（即学习者习得的“内容”以及这些内容是“如何”习得的）的研究。
第二语言习得研究的开端，根据该领域多数人的观点，是以科德（S．P．Corder）于1967年发表的“学习者错误的意义”（TheSignificance of Learners' Errors）和塞林克（ L．Selinker）于1972年发表的“中介语”（Interlanguage）两篇论文为标志的。
第二语言习得研究领域的开辟主要是受到了两个方面的影响。
其一是母语习得研究的发展。
对母语习得的研究最早可追溯到18世纪末，当时德国的哲学家迪尔雷克·泰特曼（Dietrich Tiedemann）对自己儿子的语言和心理发展过程进行了观察，并记录了观察的结果。
在以后的一个多世纪里，母语习得的研究几乎没有什么大的进展，大部分的研究仅限于对儿童的话语作日记性的记录以求划分和罗列出儿童所用词的类别。
到了本世纪的四五十年代以后，人们才开始系统地分析和描述儿童语言的形式，试图找出促使人类在相当短的时间里能熟练掌握语言这一极其复杂的交际系统的规律。
研究者们对母语习得这一过程的本质提出了各种各样的解释，形成了不同的有关母语习得的理论的派别。
如比较有影响的有：机械主义的“强化”论（Reinforcement Theory）、机械主义的“传递”论（Mediation Theory）、心灵主义的“内在”论（Innate Theory）、“认知”论（Cognitive Theory）等。
二语习得研究的近代史●研究者们提出的各种问题都是建立在早期的语言学、心理学、社会学和教育学理论发展的基础上的，●目的：并非是给读者对早期的研究方法作出详细的叙述，而是去探索当今一些思想的理论基础。
●50—60年代：a.二语学习的理论仍然是语言教学实践的一个附属品。
然而，至少在19世纪末的教学革新运动以来，与语言教学方法相关的潜在学习理论已经得以很好地论证（Howatt, 1984, pp. 169-208 for an account of these)。
在20世纪50年代和60年代，语言教学的专家写出了大量的文章，包括了一些学习理论的严肃思考，这些可以看成是他们进行实践的初步理论(Lado, 1964; Rivers, 1964, 1968)。
b.结构主义：这些语言学家包括20世纪20年代的Palmer，还有就是40年代的Fries以及他在Michigan的同事们。
Howatt对这一方法的总结如下：1．认为语言系统是由一套有限的作为模型的“形式”或者“结构”组成的，这些模型可以产生无限的结构相似的句子；2．认为重复和实践有助于养成准确而流利地说外语的习惯；3．一种教学法，即在鼓励学习者交流他们的思想和观点之前，应先教给他们一些‘基础知识’。
(Howatt, 1988, pp. 14-15)c. 行为主义根据行为主义学家的观点(Watson, 1924; Thorndike, 1932; Bloomfield, 1933; Skinner 1957)，语言的学习和其它的学习是一样的，是一种习惯的养成。
这种观点来源于心理学上的研究，即把对任何一种行为的学习都看成是基于“刺激”和“反应”上的。
这种观点认为人类在生活的环境中接触到各种各样的刺激，如果对这些刺激作出的反应成功的话（即达到期望中的效果），那习惯就得以巩固和加强。
通过反复的巩固（或加强），某一刺激就会反复地引发同样的反应，从而形成一种习惯。
故对于任何一种技能的学习都可以被看成是一种习惯的养成，也就是说，刺激和反应是对出现的创造物并通过不断的巩固变得越来越扎实。
把这种观点运用于语言学习，特定的情景就会要求有特定的反映。
例如：遇见人就会打招呼，如果获得期望的结果（即问候被回应了），反映就得以巩固和加强。
如果交流突然中断，特定的反映就得不到巩固，而学习者为了支持所期望的反映就会自动放弃原来的而作出可能引发成功的反映，并由此得以巩固和加强。
d. 遭到攻击的行为主义理论从20世纪50年代开始一直持续到60年代，语言学和心理学两个领域都有所发展。
语言学领域就是从结构语言学转移到了生成语言学，前者是以对大量的语言文集的表层结构进行描述为基础，而后者是强调人类语言是受规则支配的，而且是有创造性的。
这一转变起源于1957年“句法结构”一书的出版，这是Noam Chomsky最有影响的书中的第一部。
70 年代a.习得顺序研究者的研究工作极大地推动了对儿童语言习得的观察研究，研究者有Klima and Bellugi (1966), Slobin (1970) or Brown (1973)。
这些研究者们发现了儿童学习语言有惊人的相似点，无论他们学习的是什么语言。
似乎全球的儿童都经历了同样的阶段。
为了表达相同的含义，使用的结构也是相同的，甚至也犯同样的错误。
b.对比分析c.错误分析Corde是第一个把注意力集中于研究学习者错误的重要性上的，他指出错误并非都是由于母语的影响而产生的。
对比分析预测所有的错误都是由母语的干扰造成的，而实际并不是如此，因为许多研究已经足以使人信服地表明了大多数的错误并非母语影响造成的，母语中应该阻止错误发生的领域也不是都没有错误的d.中介语：Selinker于1969年提出中介语假说(interlanguage)的概念。
1972年在其著名论文《中介语》中提出的中介语假说,是试图探索第二语言习得者在习得过程中的语言系统和习得规律的假说，在第二语言习得的研究史上有重大意义。
中介语理论（Interlanguage Theory）是由Selinker等人最先提出来的。
所谓中介语是指第二语言学习者建构起来的介于母语和目的语之间的过渡性语言，它处于不断的发展变化过程中，并逐渐向目的语靠近。
Selinker的中介语理论重点强调了第二语言学习中三个方面的问题，①什么样的认知过程负责中介语的建构？②中介语知识系统的性质如何？③为什么多数第二语言学习者不能完全获得目的语的语言能力？这是关于中介语的一个最早的定义.“The separateness of a second language learner's system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target languages”. (二语/外语学习者的一种独立的语言系统，在结构上处于母语与目的语的中间状态)。
对中介语的研究比错误分析更进了一步，它把学习者的语言系统看成是一个整体，而不是仅仅把注意力集中在偏离目标语的特征上。
e. Krashen的监控模型基于早期的理论，Krashen的理论在20世纪70年代末开始发展（Krashen, 1977a, 1977b, 1978)，80年代早期的一些书中对这些理论和观点进行提炼和延伸(Krashen, 1981, 1982, 1985)。
Krashen的理论建立在下面五个基本的假设上：⏹The acquisition-learning hypothesis(习得与学得区别假说)⏹The natural order hypothesis (自然顺序假说)⏹The input hypothesis (输入假说)⏹The affective filter hypothesis (情感过滤假说)⏹The monitor hypothesis (监控假说)f. Schumann的洋泾滨语洋泾浜语（pidgin）和克里奥语（creole）有时又合称混合语（mixed languages），边缘语（marginal languages）或者重组语（restructured language）。
Pidgin这个名字来自Pidgin English，也就是我们通常所说的洋泾浜英语。
洋泾浜英语形成于十八世纪的广州，是来中国的英国商人同中国人进行贸易时使用的工作语言，词汇以源自英语的为主，杂有来自广东语，葡萄牙语，马来语以及印地语的少量字眼，而语法结构则基本上是广东话的。
广东人说洋泾浜英语时基本上按照广东话的语音和音系规则行事，把源自其他语言的词汇都加以改造，象pidgin这个词就是英语的business经过广东人的变音而形成的。
到了十九世纪，上海成为另一个对外贸易的中心，洋泾浜英语开始在那里流行。
洋泾浜是旧上海的一个地方，靠近今天的外滩，上个世纪时是涉外贸易的一个中心，洋泾浜英语因使用地点而得名，也算是名正言顺的了。
所谓洋泾浜化，是指当不同语言的使用者在有限的接触中，为了使相互之间的交流更容易而去发展一种辅助性的交际工具的过程。
Schumann认为洋泾浜化的过程必然伴随着语言文化移入(acculturation)。
语言文化移入，又被称作语言文化适应，指一个社会集团与具有不同语言、文化、价值观念的另一社团相互交往时，其语言、文化、价值观念产生变化的过程。
从社会心理角度来看，与目标语的社会、心理距离将最终决定是否形成洋泾浜语。
社会距离(social distance)、心理距离(psychological distance)的概念是由Schumann提出来的。
Schumann 认为二语习得中的社会距离由下列几个因素构成: 支配(dominance)、融合(integration)、封闭(enclosure)和其他因素, 如: 群体的大小和凝聚力、两种文化的相似度、两个群体之间的相互态度、二语学习者在目的国打算居留的时间等。
在Schumann看来，二语学习的心理距离由下列情感因素构成: 语言碰撞(language shock)、文化碰撞(cultural shock)、动机(motivation)。
Schumann认为洋泾浜化的过程可能会呈现出二语习得初期的所有特征, 只要存在社会、心理距离，洋泾浜化的过程就会持续下去。
因此，社会、心理距离的存在亦是形成洋泾浜语的必要条件。
第二语言习得的研究热点和发展趋势本文以北京外国语大学出版的中文期刊《外语教学与研究》为研究材料，此刊为外语教学界的全国核心期刊，刊载较多第二语言习得方面的文章。
通过逐一分析本刊2000年至2009年10年间的关于二语习得研究方面的文章，总结第二语言习得的研究热点和发展趋势。
在近十年来，二语习得的研究取得了长足的进步，国内召开了多次二语习得研究会议和论坛，从理论、应用、跨学科和实证等方面进行了研究探讨。
同时，二语习得研究也推动了语言教学的进步，在教育部的带领下，全国大部分高校都在进行全方位，大范围的外语教学改革。
国外对第二语言习得的研究始于本世纪60年代末。
赞同第二语言习得研究始于二十世纪六十年代末七十年代初的专家学者们是把科德(Corder) 1967年在International Review of Applied Linguistics 上发表的“The Significance of Learners’ Errors”和塞林科(Selinker) 1972在同一杂志上发表的“Interlanguage”两篇非常重要的文章看作是对第二语言习得研究的正式开始。
近十几年来, 国内这一领域的研究迅速也在发展, 其特点表现为研究范围广泛, 研究队伍庞大, 研究成果丰硕, 特别是英语作为第二语言的习得研究更是这一研究领域中的主旋律。
本文首先根据《外语教学与研究》中大量文献，阐释当代第二语言习得的研究方向，研究方法，研究重心，学习策略，研究范围和研究成果，并展望未来的发展趋势，然后谈一下这一领域的研究与外语教学的关系。
1. 二语习得研究中的两种倾向二语习得研究中一直存在着两种倾向：一种是向纵深发展，对本学科的研究越挖越深;一种是横向发展，力求与不同学科建立联系，以解决种种复杂的语言问题。
前一倾向出现较早，如学者会从语音，构词法，句法，语法，语用，等语言学范畴及语言教学等方面，在本学科内进行纵深层次的研究拓展。
后一倾向较多地出现于二十世纪下半叶至今。
就语言学科的发展而言，今天跨学科发展比单学科发展趋向更明显，规模更大。
现在对第二语言习得的研究已不仅仅限于语言学范畴，而是广泛借鉴了心理语言学、应用语言学、语言学、社会学、心理学、社会心理学、教育学、人类学等多学科的研究成果。
