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管理信息系统英语结构表达法管理信息系统（Management Information System，简称MIS）是指在组织中使用计算机和通信技术来收集、处理、存储和传递信息的系统。
它是一个综合性的系统，由硬件、软件、数据库、网络和人员组成，旨在支持管理决策和组织运营。
MIS的英语结构表达法可以根据不同的方面进行解释。
以下是一些常见的MIS相关术语及其解释：1. Management Information System (MIS)MIS refers to a comprehensive system that utilizes computer and communication technologies to collect, process, store, and transmit information within an organization. It comprises hardware, software, databases, networks, and personnel, and is designed to support managerial decision-making and organizational operations.2. HardwareHardware refers to the physical components of a computer system, such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage devices, input devices (e.g., keyboard, mouse), and output devices (e.g., monitor, printer). It provides the necessary infrastructure for running softwareand storing data.3. SoftwareSoftware refers to the programs, instructions, and data that control and operate computer hardware. It includes operating systems, application software, and utility programs. Operating systems manage computer resources, while application software enables specific tasks or functions to be performed, such as word processing or data analysis.4. DatabaseA database is an organized collection of data that is stored and accessed electronically. It consists of tables, records, and fields, where tables represent entities, records represent individual instances, and fields represent specific data elements. Databases enable efficient storage, retrieval, and manipulation of data for use in MIS.5. NetworkA network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as computers, servers, and routers, that facilitate communication and information sharing. Networks can be local area networks (LANs), connecting devices within a limited geographical area, or wide area networks (WANs), connecting devices across larger distances. They enable datatransmission and resource sharing among users in an MIS.6. PersonnelPersonnel in an MIS context refer to the individuals who operate, maintain, and utilize the system. They include IT professionals responsible for system administration, database management, software development, and user support. Personnel play a crucial role in ensuring the effective functioning and utilization of MIS within an organization.以上是对管理信息系统英语结构表达法的解释，希望能够对您有所帮助。
管理的角色和技能管理角色亨利·明茨伯格对执行者行为的研究让他得出这样的结论:经理都需要承担大量的角色。
一个角色是一组预期的行为对一个特定的位置。
明茨伯格的角色可以分为三大类如图1.1所示:信息角色(管理信息);人际角色(管理通过人)和决策角色(管理行动)。
每个角色代表活动经理承担最终完成的功能规划、组织、领导、控制。
重要的是要记住,真正的工作的管理不能练习作为一组独立的部分;所有的角色交互的方式在现实世界的管理。
图1.1 管理角色信息角色描述活动用来维持和发展一个信息网络。
这三个信息角色监督者、传播者和发言人。
监督者涉及从许多来源寻求当前的信息。
经理获得信息来自他人和扫描书面材料来保持消息灵通。
传播者和发言人的角色是正好相反。
经理把当前信息传递给他人,内部和外部的组织,才能使用它。
与授权趋势的低级别员工,很多经理都共享尽可能丰富的信息。
由于人际角色让经理们被叫去与众多组织和个人交互。
这三个人际角色是挂名首脑、领袖和交流与合作者。
这个挂名首脑角色专注于管理正式的和象征性的活动的部门或组织。
经理代表本组织在他或她作为单位的负责人的正式管理能力。
领导的作用是指经理的工作在激励下属,以满足单位的目标。
交流与合作者的作用来自于经理的责任与各种团体在组织内外交流。
一个例子是一个面对面讨论控制器和计划主管之间解决关于预算的一种误解。
决策角色指管理的决策过程。
这些角色通常需要概念以及人类的技能。
这四种管理角色都属于这一类企业家,障碍处理者,资源分配者,谈判代表。
一个管理者承担一个企业家的角色当他或她启动项目来提高部门或工作单位时。
当问题比如错过了交付关键客户的出现,经理必须采用一个障碍处理的角色。
决定如何分配单位的金钱、时间、材料和其他资源,称为经理的资源分配角色。
最后,谈判者角色指的是这种情况,经理必须代表单位和其他人的利益,如供应商、客户和政府。
根据一篇经典文章由罗伯特·l·卡茨,管理上的成功主要取决于性能而不是人格特质。
外文资料：Information management systemWiliam K.Thomson U.S.AAbstract:An information storage, searching and retrieval system for large (gigabytes) domains of archived textual dam. The system includes multiple query generation processes, a search process, and a presentation of search results that is sorted by category or type and that may be customized based on the professional discipline(or analogous personal characteristic of the user), thereby reducing the amount of time and cost required to retrieve relevant results.Keyword:Information management Retrieval system Object-Oriented1.INTRUDUCTIONThis invention relates to an information storage, searching and retrieval system that incorporates a novel organization for presentation of search results from large (gigabytes) domains of archived textual data.2.BACKGROUDN OF THE INVENTIONOn-line information retrieval systems are utilized for searching and retrieving many kinds of information. Most systems used today work in essentially the same manner; that is, users log on (through a computer terminal or personal microcomputer, and typically from a remote location), select a source of information (i.e., a particular database) which is usually something less than the complete domain, formulate a query, launch the search, and then review the search results displayed on the terminal or microcomputer, typically with documents (or summaries of documents) displayed in reverse chronological order. This process must be repeated each time another source (database) or group of sources is selected (which is frequently necessary in order to insure all relevant documents have been found).Additionally, this process places on the user the burden of organizing and assimilating the multiple results generated from the launch of the same query in each of the multiple sources (databases) that the user needs (or wants) to search. Present systems that allow searching of large domains require persons seeking information in these domains to attempt to modify their queries to reduce the search results to a size that the user can assimilate by browsing through them (thus, potentially eliminating relevant results).In many cases end users have been forced to use an intermediary (i.e., a professional searcher) because the current collections of sources are both complex and extensive, and effective search strategies often vary significantly from one source to another. Even with such guidance, potential relevant answers are missed because all potentially relevant databases or information sources are not searched on every query. Much effort has been expended on refining and improving source selection by grouping sources or database files together. Significant efforthas also been expended on query formulation through the use of knowledge bases and natural language processing. However, as the groupings of sources become larger, and the responses to more comprehensive search queries become more complete, the person seeking information is often faced with the daunting task of sifting through large unorganized answer sets in an attempt to find the most relevant documents or information.3.SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONThe invention provides an information storage, searching and retrieval system for a large domain of archived data of various types, in which the results of a search are organized into discrete types of documents and groups of document types so that users may easily identify relevant information more efficiently and more conveniently than systems currently in use. The system of the invention includes means for storing a large domain of data contained in multiple source records, at least some of the source records being comprised of individual documents of multiple document types; means for searching substantially all of the domain with a single search query to identify documents responsive to the query; and means for categorizing documents responsive to the query based on document type, including means for generating a summary of the number of documents responsive to the query which fall within various predetermined categories of document types.The query generation process may contain a knowledge base including a thesaurus that has predetermined and embedded complex search queries, or use natural language processing, or fuzzy logic, or tree structures, or hierarchical relationship or a set of commands that allow persons seeking information to formulate their queries.The search process can utilize any index and search engine techniques including Boolean, vector, and probabilistic as long as a substantial portion of the entire domain of archived textual data is searched for each query and all documents found are returned to the organizing process.The sorting/categorization process prepares the search results for presentation by assembling the various document types retrieved by the search engine and then arranging these basic document types into sometimes broader categories that are readily understood by and relevant to the user.The search results are then presented to the user and arranged by category along with an indication as to the number of relevant documents found in each category. The user may then examine search results in multiple formats, allowing the user to view as much of the document as the user deems necessary.4.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGSFIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an information retrieval system of the invention;FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a query formulation and search process utilized in the invention;FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a sorting process for organizing and presenting search results.5.BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTIONAs is illustrated in the block diagram of FIG. 1 , the information retrieval system of the invention includes an input/output process ,a query generation process, a search process that involves a large domain of textual data (typically in the multiple gigabyte range), an organizing process, presentation of the information to the user, and a process to identify and characterize the types of documents contained in the large domain of data.Turning now to FIG. 2, the query generation process preferably includes a knowledge base containing a thesaurus and a note pad, and preferably utilizes embedded predefined complex Boolean strategies. Such a system allows the user to enter their description of the information needed using simple words/phrases made up of "natural" language and to rely on the system to assist in generating the full search query, which would include, e.g., synonyms and alternate phraseology. The user can then request, by a command such as "VI CO 1", to view the complete document selected from the list, giving, in this case, complete information about the identity and credentials of the expert.FIG. 3 illustrates how five typical sources of information (i.e., source records) can be sorted into many document types and then subsequently into categories. For example, a typical trade magazine may contain several types of information such as editorials, regular columns, feature articles, news, product announcements, and a calendar of events. Thus, the trade magazine (i.e., the source record) may be sorted into these various document types, and these document types inturn may be categorized or grouped into categories contained in one or more sets of categories; each document type typically will be sorted into one category within a set of categories, but the individual categories within each set will vary from one set to another. For example, one set of categories may be established for a first characteristic type of user, and a different set of categories may be established for a second characteristic type of user. When a user corresponding to type #1 executes a search, the system automatically utilizes the categories of set #1, corresponding to that particular type of user, in organizing the results of the search for review by the user. When a user from type #2 executes a search, however, the system automatically utilizes the categories of set #2 in presenting the search results to the user.The information storage, searching and retrieval system of the invention resolves the common difficulties in typical on-line information retrieval systems that operate on large (e.g., 2 gigabytes or more) domains of textual data, query generation, source selection, and organizing search results. The information base with the thesaurus and embedded search strategies allows users to generate expert search queries in their own "natural" language. Source (i.e., database) selection is not an issue because the search engines are capable of searching substantially the entire domain on every query. Moreover, the unique presentation of search results by category set substantially reduces the time and cost of performing repetitive searches in multiple databases and therefore of efficiently retrieving relevant search results.While a preferred embodiment of the present invention has been described, it should be understood that various changes, adaptations and modifications may be made therein without departing from the spirit of the invention and the scope of the appended claims.中文译文：信息管理系统Wiliam K.Thomson U.S.A摘要：一个信息存储，查询和检索系统主要应用于大(千兆字节)的需要存档的文字领域。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译学院：计算机工程学院专业：通信工程姓名：学号：1081302228外文出处：/space.php?uid=7433&do=blog&id=5689(用外文写)附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文信息管理系统对于“管理信息系统”并没有一致的定义。
一些作者喜欢用其他术语代替，例如：“信息处理系统”“信息与决策系统”“组织信息系统”，或者干脆将“信息系统”用组织内具有支持操作、管理、决策职能的计算机信息处理系统代替。
这篇文章使用“管理信息系统”一词，是因为它是通俗易懂的，当涉及组织信息系统时也常用“信息系统”代替“管理信息系统”。
一个管理信息系统的定义，通常被理解为：一种集成用户机器系统，为组织提供信息支持运作、管理、决策职能。
该信息系统利用计算机硬件和软件；手工处理程序；模拟分析法计划、控制和决策；和数据库。
事实上，它是一个集成系统并不意味着它是单一的，单块集成结构；相反，它意味着零件适合加入整体设计。
内容定义如下：计算机为主的用户机器系统理论上，管理信息系统可以脱离计算机上而存在，但是计算机的存在可以让管理信息系统可行。
问题不是计算机是否被使用在管理信息系统中，而是信息的使用被计算机化的程度。
用户机器系统的概念暗示了, 一些任务最好由人执行, 其他的最好由机器做。
MIS的使用者是那些负责输入输入数据、指示系统或运用系统信息产品的人。
因为许多问题，用户和计算机建立了一个联合系统，其结果通过一套在计算机和用户之间的相互作用得到。
用户机器的相互作用是由用户连接在计算机上的输入-输出设备（通常是一个视觉显示终端）推动的。
计算机可以使一台个人机器服务于一名用户或者一台大规模的机器为一定数量通过终端由通信线路连接的用户服务。
用户输入-输出设备允许直接输入数据和紧接着输出结果。
例如：一个人使用计算机交互的在金融理财上通过在终端键盘输入提交“如果什么，怎么办？”之类的问题，结果几秒钟后便被显示在屏幕上。
中英文对照翻译信息管理系统对于“管理信息系统”并没有一致的定义。
一些作者喜欢用其他术语代替，例如：“信息处理系统”“信息与决策系统”“组织信息系统”，或者干脆将“信息系统”用组织内具有支持操作、管理、决策职能的计算机信息处理系统代替。
这篇文章使用“管理信息系统”一词，是因为它是通俗易懂的，当涉及组织信息系统时也常用“信息系统”代替“管理信息系统”。
一个管理信息系统的定义，通常被理解为：一种集成用户机器系统，为组织提供信息支持运作、管理、决策职能。
该信息系统利用计算机硬件和软件；手工处理程序；模拟分析法计划、控制和决策；和数据库。
事实上，它是一个集成系统并不意味着它是单一的，单块集成结构；相反，它意味着零件适合加入整体设计。
内容定义如下：计算机为主的用户机器系统理论上，管理信息系统可以脱离计算机上而存在，但是计算机的存在可以让管理信息系统可行。
问题不是计算机是否被使用在管理信息系统中，而是信息的使用被计算机化的程度。
用户机器系统的概念暗示了, 一些任务最好由人执行, 其他的最好由机器做。
MIS的使用者是那些负责输入输入数据、指示系统或运用系统信息产品的人。
因为许多问题，用户和计算机建立了一个联合系统，其结果通过一套在计算机和用户之间的相互作用得到。
用户机器的相互作用是由用户连接在计算机上的输入-输出设备（通常是一个视觉显示终端）推动的。
计算机可以使一台个人机器服务于一名用户或者一台大规模的机器为一定数量通过终端由通信线路连接的用户服务。
用户输入-输出设备允许直接输入数据和紧接着输出结果。
例如：一个人使用计算机交互的在金融理财上通过在终端键盘输入提交“如果什么，怎么办？”之类的问题，结果几秒钟后便被显示在屏幕上。
MIS的计算机为主的用户机器特征影响系统开发商和系统用户的知识要求。
“计算机为主”意味着管理信息系统的设计者必须拥有计算机和对处理有用的知识。
“用户机器”的概念意味着系统设计者也应该了解人作为系统组成部分（信息处理器）的能力和人作为信息使用者的行为。
英文文献翻译二〇年月日科技文章摘译Definition of a Management Information SystemThere is no consensus of the definition of the term "management information system". Some writers prefer alternative terminology such as "information processing system", "information and decision system", "organizational information system", or simply "information system" to refer to the computer-based information processing system which supports the operations, management, and decision-making functions of an organization. This text uses “MIS” because it is descriptive and generally understood; it also frequently uses “information system” instead of “MIS” to refer to an organizational information system.A definition of a management information system, as the term is generally understood, is an integrated, user-machine system for providing information to support operations, management, and decision-making functions in an organization. The system utilizes computer hardware and software; manual procedures; models for analysis planning, control and decision making; and a database. The fact that it is an integrated system does not mean that it is a single, monolithic structure; rather, it means that the parts fit into an overall design. The elements of the definition are highlighted below.1 Computer-based user-machine systemConceptually, management information can exist without computer, but it is the power of the computer which makes MIS feasible. The question is not whether computers should be used in management information system, but the extent to which information use should be computerized. The concept of a user-machine system implies that some tasks are best performed by humans, while others are best done by machine. The user of an MIS is any person responsible for entering input data, instructing the system, or utilizing the information output of the system. For many problems, the user and the computer form a combined system with results obtained through a set of interactions between the computer and the user.User-machine interaction is facilitated by operation in which the user’s input-output device (usually a visual display terminal) is connected to the computer. The computer can be a personal computer serving only one user or a large computer that serves a number of users through terminals connected by communication lines. The user input-output device permits direct input of data and immediate output of results. For instance, a person using the computer interactively in financial planning poses “what if” questions by entering input at the terminal keyboard; the results are displayed on the screen in a few second.The computer-based user-machine characteristics of an MIS affect the knowledge requirements of both system developer and system user. “computer-based” means that the designer of a management information system must have knowledge of computers and of their use in processing. The “user-machine” concept means the system designer should also understand the capabilities of humans as system components (as information processors) and the behavior of humans as users of information.Information system applications should not require users to be computer experts. However, users need to be able to specify their information requirements; some understanding of computers, the nature of information, and its use in various management function aids users in this task.2 Integrated systemManagement information system typically provides the basis for integration of organizational information processing. Individual applications within information systems are developed for and by diverse sets of users. If there are no integrating processes and mechanisms, the individual applications may be inconsistent and incompatible. Data item may be specified differently and may not be compatible across applications that use the same data. There may be redundant development of separate applications when actually a single application could serve more than one need. A user wanting to perform analysis using data from two different applications may find the task very difficult and sometimes impossible.The first step in integration of information system applications is an overall information system plan. Even though application systems areimplemented one at a time, their design can be guided by the overall plan, which determines how they fit in with other functions. In essence, the information system is designed as a planed federation of small systems.Information system integration is also achieved through standards, guidelines, and procedures set by the MIS function. The enforcement of such standards and procedures permit diverse applications to share data, meet audit and control requirements, and be shares by multiple users. For instance, an application may be developed to run on a particular small computer. Standards for integration may dictate that the equipment selected be compatible with the centralized database. The trend in information system design is toward separate application processing form the data used to support it. The separate database is the mechanism by which data items are integrated across many applications and made consistently available to a variety of users. The need for a database in MIS is discussed below.3 Need for a databaseThe term “information” and “data” are frequently used interchangeably; however, information is generally defined as data that is meaningful or useful to the recipient. Data items are therefore the raw material for producing information.The underlying concept of a database is that data needs to be managed in order to be available for processing and have appropriate quality. This data management includes both software and organization. The software to create and manage a database is a database management system.When all access to any use of database is controlled through a database management system, all applications utilizing a particular data item access the same data item which is stored in only one place. A single updating of the data item updates it for all uses. Integration through a database management system requires a central authority for the database. The data can be stored in one central computer or dispersed among several computers; the overriding requirement is that there is an organizational function to exercise control.4 Utilization of ModelsIt is usually insufficient for human recipients to receive only raw data or even summarized data. Data usually needs to be processed andpresented in such a way that the result is directed toward the decision to be made. To do this, processing of data items is based on a decision model. For example, an investment decision relative to new capital expenditures might be processed in terms of a capital expenditure decision model.Decision models can be used to support different stages in the decision-making process. “Intelligence” models can be used to search for problems and/or opportunities. Models can be used to identify and analyze possible solutions. Choice models such as optimization models maybe used to find the most desirable solutionIn other words, multiple approaches are needed to meet a variety of decision situations. The following are examples and the type of model that might be included in an MIS to aid in analysis in support of decision-making; in a comprehensive information system, the decision maker has available a set of general models that can be applied to many analysis and decision situations plus a set of very specific models for unique decisions. Similar models are available for planning and control. The set of models is the model base for the MIS.The management information system (MIS) not only supports the underlying bed administrator, moreover may support the intermediate deck personnel's control check, for high level also can provide certain information. The management information system frame by four parts: Information source, information processor, information user and information superintendent. The information source is the information production place; Information processor burden task/role and so on information transmission, processing, save; The information user is the information user, carries on the decision-making using the information; The information superintendent is responsible for the information system the design, the implementation and the safeguarding. The management information system is regarded as generally a pyramid shape the structure, divides into from the lower level handling of traffic to the operating control, the control check, the topmost story strategic planning. The most basic unit greatly processes the numerous and diverse transaction information and the state information framing by the task/role.In a word, the management information system (Management InformationSystem, MIS), is by the artificial leadership, using the computer hardware, the software, the network communicates these devices and other office equipments carries on the information the collection, the transmission, the processing, the storage, the update and the safeguarding by achieved the enterprise strategy competes superior, enhances the benefit and the efficiency target, supports the enterprise the high level decision-making, the intermediate deck check and the basic unit operation integration man-machine system. MIS is the superintendent provides the report, provides the enterprise the recent situation as well as the historic record. This system main localization is aims at in the enterprise, for control function and so on level plan, check and decision-making serves, provides the data generally by the lower level handling of traffic system. MIS will be able the actual enterprise's each kind of run situation, and using the past historical data forecast future, embarks the assistance enterprise from the enterprise overall situation angle to carry on the decision-making, used the message control enterprise the behavior, helped the enterprise to achieve its plan管理信息系统的定义对于“管理信息系统”并没有一致的定义。
Managemengt Information SystemsBy a management information system,we propose the follow alternate definition: an integrated uer/machine system (usually computerized) for providing information to support decision making in an enterprise.The key elements of this definition are—An integrated uer/machine system—For proving information—To support decision making—In an enterpriseA management information system utilizes—Computer hardware and software—Manual procedures—Models for analysis—A databaseJust as there is a logical flow of materials in the creation of a product, there is logical flow of information in a management information system.In manufacturing,raw materials move through a process that transforms the raw materials into usable products. In a similar fashion, in an information system,data are supplied to a system(input), the data are manipulated(processed),and they are transformed into information(output).In its simplest form ,a management information systemed may be depicted by an input-process-output(IPO) model(Fig.10.1). An understanding of this model is worthwhile becaue it can be used to represent all MISs.Note in that figure that the MIS, through its processing technology (of collecting, coding,storing,processing,decoding,and reporting), transforms the data coming into an enterprise into usable information.Fig.10.1 An Input-Process-Output Medel of a Management Information System We may further enhance our understanding of management information systems by discussing their general function and major elements. These systems exist in most enterprises, whether public or private, primarily to assist management in improving revenues, reducing costs and managing assets. Therefore, improving the performance of an enterprise is the ultimate objective of management infoemation systems- not the storage of data, the generation of reports,or even”getting the right information to the right person at the right time.”And MIS can best improve an enterprise’s performance by helping to improve the quality of managerial decisions.Transaction processing (TP), reporting systems(RS), and decision-support systems(DSS) are the major elements of a management infortion system.The primary role of TP in an enterprise is the collection, storage,and processing ofdata in such a way that transactions within an enterprise are described and thus the procedural actions of the enterprise supported .More specifically, a TP system may be viewed as a computer-based means of capturing transaction so that may be recreated. The out of a transaction-processing system includes stored transaction images, documents needed by an enterprise to fulfill its mainstream purposes(invoices,production orders,shipping orders,purchase orders, mailing lists, pay checks, work orders,and so forth), and listings of transaction that have occurred over a period of time (for confirmation or references).Reporting systems(RS) and decision-support systems (DSS) often are confused with each other and thus misunderstood. Yet, each has a clear orientation. And distinctions may be drawn in terms of their areas of impact on the payoff to an enterprise and their relevance to a manager. So an RS provides standardized reports based on well-known policies, procedures, and rules. And a DSS provides information to help management with new , unstructured decision making.A pyramid may be used to illustrate the dimensions of an information system(Fig.10.2).The vertical dimension represents the levels of management (first-line, middle, and top management) , and the horizontal dimension represents the main functional areas of a business firm (for example, marketing, production, and finace).The depth dimension indicates the major management information systems that provide support for managerial activities: the structured and required reporting systems(RS) and decisionmaking system(DSS) . Thesedimensions rest on a base of transactions processing(TP).Fig.10.2 The Dimension of a Management Information SystemAs the figure illustrates, RS and DSS (drawing on the TP system ) are utilized at all managerial levels and acress all function areas . There, it is te management information system(of TP ,RS ,and DSS ) that integrates both the level of management and functional areas .To further demonstrate how the subsystems fit together, the definition of MIS is recreated in the following table , with the components of MIS related to the defintional frame work.Table10.1 Definition of Management Information System (MIS).An integrated user/machine system .Computer, models.For providing information .System output.To support decision making .MIS.DSS.OR/MS. In an enterprise .Frameworkforthe information The system utilizes.Computer hardware and software .Computer system.Manual procedures .Books,manuals,people.Models for analysis .Operations research.A database .Computer ,people Developing a compensation plan to pay executive, managerial, and professional employees is similar in many respects to developing a play for and employees. The basic aims of the plan are the same in that the goal is to attract good employees and maintain their commitment. Furthermore, the basic methods of job evaluation , classifying jobs, ranking them , or assigning points to them ,for instance, are about as applicable to managerial and professional jobs as to production and clerical ones.1)Yet for managerial and professional jobs , job evaluation provides only a partial answer to the question of how to pay these employees, Such jobs tend to emphasize nonquantifiable factor like judgment and problem solving more than do production and clerical jobs . There is also a tendency to pay manager and professionals based on abilitybased on their performance or on what they can do –rather than on the basis of static job demands like working conditions. Developing compensation plans for managers and professionals, therefore, tendsto be relatively complex,2) and evaluation, while still important, usually plays a secondary issues, like bonuses, incentives, and benefits.Compensation Managers There are five elements in a manager’s compensation package: salary, benefits, short-term incentive, long-term incentives, and perquisites.The amount of salary managers are paid usually depends on the value of the person’s work to organization and how well the person is discharging his or her responsibilities.3)AS with other jobs , the value of the person’s work is usually determined through job analysis and salary surveys and salary surveys and the resulting fine tuning of salary levels.Salary is the cornerstone of executive compensation : It is on this element that the others are layered, with benefits, incentives , and perquisites normally awarded in some proportion to the manager’s base pay .4) There is considerable disagreement regarding what determines executive pay and, therefore , whether top executives are worth what are paid . At the lower-management levels(like first-line supervisor),there is no debate ; supervisors’ pay grades are usually set so that their median salaries are 10% to 25% above those of the highest-paid workers supervised. And many employers even pay supervisors for scheduled overtime, although the Fair Labor Standards Act does not require them to do so.It is at the top-management levels that questions regarding pay abound . Thetraditional wisdom is that a top manager’s salary is closely tied to the size of the firm . Yet two experts who tested this idea for the 148 highest-paid executives in the United States concluded that the level of executive responsibility (as measured by total assets, total sales,total number of shares in the company, total value of the shares, and total corporate profits) is not an important variable in determing executive compensation . Instead , say these experts , an executive’s pay is mostly determined by the industry in which he or she works, and the corporate power structure ,since executives who also serve on their firms’ boards of directors can heavily influence how they get paid.Yet there is conflicting evidence. In one study , for instance , the researcher found that a statistical analysis of the total cash compensation of the chief executive officers of 129 companies showed that they were paid for both responsibility and performance. This researcher fond that four compensable factors-company size , profitability, number of employees, and experience-accounted for 83% of the differences in pay .Therefore, it appears that there are rational, acceptable , and abiding principles that govern the total cash compensation of top executives in manufacturing firms.In any case, shareholder activism is combining with congressional reform and other changes to tighten up the restrictions on what firms pay their top executives . For example, the Securities and Exchange Commission voted in 1992 to approve final rules rules regarding executive compensationcommunications.The chief executive officer’s pay is always to be disclosed as well as other officers’pay if their compensation( salary and bonus) exceeds $100,000.5 And for bankers,the Federal Deposit Insurance Act of 1991 contains a prohibition on excessive compensation. One result is that boards of directors must act responsibly in reviewing and setting executive pay . That , says one expert, includes determining the key performance requirements of the executive’s job; assessing the appropriateness of the firm’s current compensation practices ; conducting a pay-for-performance survey; and testing shareholder acceptance of the board’s pay proposals.The general trend today is to reduce the acceptance of base salary and boost the importance of short-and long-term executive incentives. The main issue here is identifying the appropriate performance measures for each type of incentive and then determining how to link these to pay . Typical short-term measures of shareholder value include revenue growth and operating profit margin. Long-term shareholder value measures include rate of return above some predetermined base.Compensating professional employees Compensating nonsupervisory professional employees like engineers and scientists presents unique problems. 6) Analytical jobs put a heavy premium on creativity and problem solving, compensable factors not easily compared or measured. Furthermore, the professional’s economic impact on the firm is often related only indirectly to theperson’s actual efforts; for example,the success of an engineer’s invention depends on many factors, like how well it is produced and marketed.The job evaluation methods we explained previously can be used for evaluating professional jobs. The compensable factors here tend to focus on problem solving , creativity, job scope, and technical knowledge and expertise. Both the point method and factor comparison methods have been used , although the job classification method seems most popular . Here a series of grade descriptions are written, and each position is slotted into the grade having the most appropriate definition.Yet，in praction, traditional methods of job evaluation are rarely used for professional jobs since “it is simply not possible to identify factors and degrees of factors which meaningfully differentiate among the values of professional work ”. “Knowledge and the skill of applying it ,”as one expert notes , “are extremely difficult to quantify and measure.”As a result , most employers use a market-pricing approach in evaluating professional jobs . They price professional jobs in the marketplace to the best of their ability to establish the values for benchmark jobs . These benchmark jobs and the employer’s other professional jobs are then slotted into a salary structure. Specifically, each professional discipline ( like mechanical engineering or electrical engineering ) usually ends up having four to six grade levels , each of which requires a fairly broad salary range . This approach helps ensure that theemplpyer remains competitive when bidding for professionals whose attainments vary widely and whose potential employers are literally found worldwide.Manager must assume certain roles in order to accomplish the different objectives for which they are responsible. In addition , all managers must possess specific managerial skills if they are to adequately perform the function . Managerial RolesHenry Mintzberg’s studies of executive behavior led him to conclude that managers are required to assume a variety of roles . A role is a set of expected behaviors for a specif ic position. 1) Mintzberg’s roles can be grouped into three main categories: interpersonal , informational , and decisional . Mintzberg’s believed that all three roles are common to all levels of management. They provide an interesting perspective of the functions of management.2) Interperesonal roles result form the fact that managers are called upon to interact with numerous groups and individuals. The three interpersonal roles are figurehead, leader , and liaison . The figurehead role refers to ceremonial duties such as throwing out the first pitch for company-sponsored Little League game . The leadership role refers to the manager’s work in motivating subordinates to meet the unit’s objectives. The liaison role comes form the manager’s responsibility to interact with various groups both within and outside the organization .Informational roles exist because managers are important conduits ofinformation in the organization . Managers spend a great deal of their time collecting and disseminating information. The three informational roles are information nerve center, disseminator, and spokesperson . The nerve center role means that the manager is the major information receiver within the work unit . The disseminating role refers to the task of informing subordinates of information that is implemented to them and necessary for their job performance..3) The spokesperson role is implemented when the manager communicates with parties outside the organization ; a speech at the local Lions Club would be an example.Decisional roles refer to management’s decision-making process. The four managerial roles in this category are entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator . A manager assumes an entrepreneurial role when he or she initiates projects to improve the department or work unit . When problems such as a missed delivery to a key customer arise , the manager must adopt a disturbance handling role . 4) The decision on how to allocate the unit’s money , time, materials, and other resource s is referred to as the manager’s resource allocator role. Finally , the negotiator role refers to situations where the manager must represent the unit’s interests with others , such as suppliers , customers, and government .The Skill Needed for Effective Management：What skills do managers need to possess? 5) Noted management authority Rober L.Katz has suggested threespecific skills that are required in all typed of managerial situations .Katz’s managerial skills relate to technical . interpersonal, and cobceptual factors in the manager’s job.Technical skills refer to the ability to use various tools and methods to accomplish specific managerial aspects of a work task. A good illustration of the importance of technical skill is the factory supervisor who must be familiar with how machinery works in order to correct problems that may arise on the plant floor.Interpersonal skills refer to the ability to lead , motivate , and communicate with people to accomplish certain objectives. Interpersonal skills are also important during interactions with supervisors and people outside the work unit such as vendors , customers,and the public. These skills are important at all levels in the organization. A current adaptation of this skill is the cultural awareness nec essary to function in today’s workplace, with its ethnically diversified labor force.Copceptual skills refer to the ability understand and cording the full range of organizational objective and actives .This ability to analyze the entire organization is particularly important to top management. It is a necessary ingredient in the development of strategic plan for the organization.管理信息系统我们对管理信息系统提出以下定义，即一种为企业决策提供信息的集成用户/计算机系统。
