语言学基础introduction

语言学知识点概括Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rul es of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

语言学基础知识语言学是一门探索语言现象和语言规律的学科，它涉及语音、语义、语法、语用等多个方面，对研究和理解语言的发展和使用具有重要意义。

本文将介绍语言学的基本概念、分类及其相关理论，以帮助读者初步了解语言学的基础知识。

一、语言学的定义和概念语言学可以被定义为研究语言现象的学科，它涉及语言的结构、功能、历史、变化等多个方面。

语言是人类交流、表达思想与情感的重要工具，而语言学的目的就是通过观察、分析和解释语言的规律，帮助我们更好地理解语言的本质和运作方式。

语言学的研究对象主要包括语音、语义、语法和语用等多个方面。

语音学研究语言的音素、音节、音调等音声特征；语义学研究语言的意义和词汇的搭配规律；语法学则研究语言的句法结构和短语组织；语用学则关注语言的使用及其在特定语境中的意义。

二、语言学的分类根据研究的层面和对象的不同，语言学可以分为多个不同的分类。

以下是其中几个主要的分类。

1.应用语言学：应用语言学是指将语言学的理论和方法应用于实际语言问题的研究领域。

这包括语言教学、翻译研究、语音识别、自然语言处理等方面。

2.历史语言学：历史语言学研究语言的发展和演变。

它通过比较不同时期和地区的语言形态、语法、词汇等，揭示语言的历史变化规律。

3.形态学：形态学研究词汇的内部结构和构词规律。

它关注词的形态形式、词根、词缀等，以及它们在句中的使用方式和句法功能。

4.句法学：句法学研究句子的结构和组成。

它关注词与词之间的关系以及它们按照一定规律组合而成的短语、从句和主句等句法单位。

5.语音学：语音学研究语言的音素、音节和音调等音声特征。

它通过观察和描述语言的发音规律，揭示不同语言之间的音位差异和音变规律。

6.语义学：语义学研究语言的意义和词汇的表义关系。

它关注词语之间的意义关联和句子的语义结构，帮助我们理解语言中的暗示、隐喻和逻辑关系。

三、语言学的相关理论1. 结构主义：结构主义是20世纪初发展起来的一种语言学理论，强调语言的内在结构和规律。

Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。

语言学基础知识点语言学是对人类语言的系统性研究，涉及语言的结构、使用和习得等方面。

它是一门复杂而精密的学科，需要掌握一系列基础知识点。

本文将介绍语言学的基础知识点，包括语言分类、语音学、语法学和语义学等内容。

一、语言分类语言是人类与世界沟通交流的工具，按照语言之间的关系，可以将语言分为以下几类：1. 语系分类：语系是指由共同祖源的语言所构成的系统，常见的语系有汉藏语系、印欧语系、阿尔泰语系等。

2. 语族分类：语族是指由同一远古时期的原始语所发展而来的一组语言，常见的语族有汉藏语族、印欧语族、阿尔泰语族等。

3. 语支分类：语支是指在一个语族内具有一定程度关系的一组语言，比如在汉藏语族中，汉语是其中的一个语支。

4. 语言类型分类：根据语言的语法结构，可以将语言分为屈折语、孤立语、辅助语等类型。

二、语音学语音学是研究语音的学科，包括音位、音韵和音系等内容。

1. 音位：音位是指在一种语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。

不同语言的音位差异很大，比如汉语有四个声调，而英语则没有。

2. 音韵：音韵是指研究语音的组织和规律的学科，包括音位的组合、音变规律等。

3. 音系：音系是指一个语言中所有音位的总体组织结构，可以通过音标来表示。

不同语言的音系差异很大，比如英语和法语的音系就有很大的不同。

三、语法学语法学是研究句子结构和组织的学科，包括句法、词法和语用学等内容。

1. 句法：句法是研究句子结构的学科，包括短语结构、句子成分等。

不同语言的句法结构也有很大差异，比如汉语的主谓宾结构，英语的主谓宾结构。

2. 词法：词法是研究词的形态和构词规律的学科，包括词的分类、词性等。

不同语言的词法规律也有所不同，比如汉语的词性很多，英语的词性相对简单。

3. 语用学：语用学是研究语言使用的学科，包括语境和语用的关系、指称和概括等。

语用学关注的是语言的真正意义和用途。

四、语义学语义学是研究词义和句义的学科，包括词义学和句义学等内容。

1. 词义学：词义学是研究词的意义和用法的学科，包括词义的构成、词汇关系等。

Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。

Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。

The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。

A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。

1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

语言学基础知识1. 引言语言学是研究语言的科学，它探索语言的结构、功能和使用方式。

本文将介绍语言学的基础知识，包括语言的定义、语言分类、语音、音系、语法和语义等方面。

2. 语言的定义语言是人类用来交流思想、感情和经验的系统。

它通过词汇、语法和语音等要素构成，具有特定的符号系统和语言规则。

3. 语言分类世界上存在着众多语言，根据它们的相关性可以将其划分为不同的语系。

主要的语系有以下几种：3.1 印欧语系：包括英语、法语、德语、西班牙语等。

3.2 汉藏语系：包括汉语、藏语、缅甸语等。

3.3 尼日尔-刚果语系：包括斯瓦希里语、约鲁巴语等。

3.4 韩日语系：包括韩语、日语等。

4. 语音语音是语言的基本单位，它包括音素、音节和音变等要素。

音素是构成语言的最小可区分的音段，而音节是由一个或多个音素构成的发音单位。

音素是语言中的基本音段，它们可分为元音和辅音。

元音是气流通过口腔时，口腔中没有阻塞或狭窄的音段，如英语中的/a/、/i/和/u/。

辅音则是气流在口腔中遇到阻塞或狭窄的音段，如英语中的/p/、/t/和/k/。

4.2 音节音节由一个或多个音素组成，它是一种发音单位。

一个音节通常包括一个元音和一个辅音或复辅音组合。

例如，英语单词“cat”由一个音节组成，而单词“strip”由两个音节组成。

4.3 音变音变是语音上的变化，它指的是音素在特定的语音环境下发生的改变。

例如，英语中的/t/音在单词结尾时通常发生浊化，如“cat”中的/t/音发音为/d/。

5. 音系音系是一个语言中所有音素的组合和规律。

它涉及到音位的分布、音位的对立以及音变规则等内容。

音系的研究对于理解语言的音系和音变规律具有重要意义。

6. 语法语法是语言中词汇和结构之间的关系。

它研究的是词汇如何组成句子以及句子结构的组成原则。

语法包括词法和句法两个方面。

词法是语言中单词的构成和形态变化规则。

它涉及到词类和屈折变化等内容。

不同语言的词法规则各不相同，例如英语中名词的复数形式通常在词尾加上“-s”或“-es”，而汉语中则经常使用数量词来表示复数。

语言学基础知识语言是人类沟通交流的重要工具，它的产生和发展伴随着人类社会进步的步伐。

语言学作为研究语言现象的学科，其基础知识对于深入理解和掌握语言具有重要作用。

本文将介绍语言学的基础知识，包括语言的定义、语言的特点、语言的层次结构以及语言的变体和联系。

一、语言的定义语言是人类特有的交际工具，通过语言的使用，人们能够表达思想、交流信息。

语言可以是口头的，也可以是书面的，它包括词汇、语法、句法等要素。

语言不仅仅是为了传递信息，更反映了人们对事物的认识和思考方式。

二、语言的特点1. 交际性：语言是为了交流而存在的，通过语言可以传递信息、表达感情、进行思考和推理。

2. 符号性：语言使用指定的符号来代表特定的意义，人们通过了解共同的符号系统来理解和表达信息。

3. 音、形、义的综合性：语言包括声音、文字和语义三个要素，它们相互嵌套、相互制约，形成了语言的结构和功能。

4. 创造性：人们可以通过语言创造新的词汇、句子来表达新的概念和思想。

5. 文化性：语言与特定的文化背景紧密相关，反映了人们的文化观念、价值观和社会习俗。

三、语言的层次结构语言具有层次性和结构性，包括语音、词汇、句法和语义四个层次。

1. 语音层次：语音是语言中的基本单位，包括音素和音节。

音素是最小的语音单位，而音节则是由一个或多个音素组成的。

2. 词汇层次：词汇是语言中具有独立意义的最小单位，它们通过组合形成不同的词组和句子。

3. 句法层次：句法是语言中词汇的组织和语序的规则。

句法包括句子的结构、语法关系和句型等要素。

4. 语义层次：语义是研究词汇和句子意义的学科，它关注词汇的定义和概念，句子的意思和推理等内容。

四、语言的变体和联系语言在不同地区和社会群体中会出现一定的差异和变体，这种差异可以分为社会方言、地域方言和个体差异。

1. 社会方言：社会方言是指特定社会群体中使用的语言变体，它与群体的身份、地位等因素相关。

比如，职业方言、年龄方言等。

2. 地域方言：地域方言是指不同地域中使用的语言变体，它与地理位置、文化背景等有关。

I．要点语言和语言学语言：语言的定义及定义的理解。

/ 语言的甄别性特征/语言的功能/语言的起源。

语言学：语言学的定义及定义的理解。

/普通语言学及其研究范围。

/常见的重要区别性概念。

1.什么是语言？如何理解语言的定义语言的定义似乎很简单，其实是一个另人头疼的问题。

很多人认为语言不过是一种交际工具而已。

语言确实是一种交际工具，但是有的时候，假如你触景生情即兴吟诵一首诗，没有交际对象，很明显不能算交际，但是通过语言来完成的。

另外除了语言，还有很多交际工具，例如，旗语，花卉语。

Language is a means of verbal communication.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人跟人互通信息，用发音器官发出来的，成系统的行为方式。

（赵元任）“语言是存在之居所”（海得格尔）“语言是人类最后的家园”（钱冠连）目前国内采用比较多的就是下面的这个定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是用于人类交际的，任意的，有声的符号系统)。

System：语言首先是个系统。

所谓系统就是指语言要素按照一定的语言规则组合而成，可以体现在词，短语和句子等不同层面。

Arbitrary：语言的任意性说明了语言是社会约定俗成的产物。

体现在层面上。

V ocal：指语音相对于拼写系统而言是所有人类语言的第一重要媒介。

口语一定是出现在书面语之前。

Symbols：指语言的词是通过约定俗成与外界的物体、行为、思想相联系。

任意性和符号性是联系在一起的。

Human：指语言是人类独有的。

2．语言的区别性特征指那些把人类语言和其他动物交际系统区别开来的本质性特征。

1）Arbitrariness：指语言的语音和意义之间没有逻辑联系。

Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.language: language in general, not any particular language, e.g. English,Chinese, Arabic, and Latin.1.1.2The Scope of linguisticsA）general linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.basic concepts: language; sentence; wordstheories:descriptions:models:methods applicable in any linguistic study:B) main branches of linguisticsLanguage study focuses on Meaning and Form.i) Form:soundwritten1) PhoneticsThe study of sounds used in linguistic communication.2) PhonologyThe study of the way in which the sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3) MorphologyThe study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words .4) SyntaxThe study of rules which govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.5) Semantics: meaning in languageThe study of meaning is known as semantics.6) Pragmatics: meaning in contextWhen the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.C) MacrolinguisticsLinguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, artificial intelligence, medicine and education etc. are also preoccupied with language.1) SociolinguisticsThe study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society forms the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.2) PsycholinguisticsIt relates the study of language to psychology.e.g. to study language development in children, such as the theories of languageacquisition;3) Applied linguisticsa) the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.b) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems. It usesinformation from sociology, psychology, anthropology and information theory as well as linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas.1.1.3 Linguistics as a ScienceThree adequaciesHow can we appraise the extent of success in scientific study? There are three levels to consider, namely observation, description, and explanation. What a linguist seeks for can be summarized as three adequacies correspondingly.a) observational adequacyA successful research is expected to be adequate in observation at first.It is characterized by correctly specifying what is observed to be phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, semantically, or pragmatically well-formed or ill-formed.b) descriptive adequacyProper description is based on adequate observation, and a piece of scientific work is descriptively adequate if it provides a principled account of the native speaker‟s intuiti ons about the structure of the linguistic phenomenon observed.c) explanatory adequacyExplanatory adequacy is the ultimate goal of any scientific exploration.In linguistics, a theory attains explanatory adequacy just in case it provides a descriptively adequate grammar for every natural language, and does so in terms of a maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The framework of the design features was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Why?a) different languages may have different sounds to represent the same object thatexists in society.b) the same sound may express different meaningsexception: onomatopoeia: based on the natural voices.2)DualityDEFINITION: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.3) ProductivityDEFINITION: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.comparing with animal communication systemse.g. an experiment on bee dance:Bee communication regarding location has a fixed set signals, all of which relate to horizontal distance. The bee cannot manipulate its communicating system to create a “new” message indicating vertical distance.4) DisplacementDEFINITION：Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Animals are under “immediate stimulus control”.Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free.5) Cultural transmissionLanguage cultural transmission means that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.2.2 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2.2.1Language is a systemelements of language are combined according to rules.a) rules of sound systemb) rules of written system1.2.2.2 Language is arbitrary and symbolic1.2.2.3 Language is vocala) the primary medium for all languages is sound.b) writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.c) some language only have sound systems and no writing systems1.2.2.4 Language is human-specific1.2.2.5 communication vs information1.2.3 Knowledge of language: endowed or conventional?TIME-HONORED PROBLEMS•WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE?•WHERE DOES IT COME FROM?Aristotle (384-322 B.C.):Language is arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language.BEHA VIORISMEMPIRICISMOur brain was blank when we were born. Language is a social, empirical entity.B.F. Skinner: the American psychologist and a famous Harvard behaviouristThe famous quotation “language is behaviour ”Verbal behaviour is the same as any other fundamental respect of non-verbal behaviour.The occurrence of behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements:a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour;a response triggered by a stimulus;reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future.Verbal behaviour:the stimulus as what is taught (language input),the response as the learner‟s reaction to the stimulus,the reinforcement as the approval or praise (or discouragement) of the teacher or fellow students.Argument for“poverty of the stimulus”●a) The child‟s linguistic experience (stimulus) is not sufficient to justify theadult grammar.●b) As far as a child is concerned, an utterance containing a mistake is justanother piece of linguistic experience to be treated on a par with error-free utterance. But they still know the correct grammar.●c) A child and a chimpanzee both live in the same language environment, onlythe child can learn the language.Plato (427?-347 B.C.)There is a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas.NATIVISMMENTALISMThere is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides that we speak.Language faculty/(LAD=Language Acquisition Device): Human beings do have an inborn knowledge of language which must be universally correct and acceptable, the location of such innate knowledge just in our genes.Experience of L—LF—Grammar of LChomsky’s epistemology of the knowledge of language●The initial state of human language faculty is called UG(Universal Grammar).●UG(universal grammar): Every speaker knows a set of principles which applyto all languages and also a set of (binary) parameters that can vary from one language to another.principles:all human languages have the subject, verb, and object.reflexible pronoun principle: the reflexible pronoun should take the noun in the same clause as antecedent.parameters:binary parameter:the position of the wh-element in the sentence●Due to the effect of later experience, our brain/mind develops from the initialstate into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a human language.experienceUG----------------PG (Particular Grammar)PG=a.UG1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.3.1Prescriptive vs. descriptivePrescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. Descriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to describes and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “co rrect and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic--by Ferdinand de Saussure.synchronic study: the description of a language at some point of time in history. diachronic study: the description of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1.3.3 Speech and writingSpeech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.The spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.1) speech is prior to writing: (from the point of view of linguistic evolution)2)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.3) Spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised” record of speech.4) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.1.3.4 Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.1) definitionA) langue:a) the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community(a social code);b) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by;c) abstract, it is not the language people actually use.d) relatively stable, it does not change frequently.B) parole:a) the realization of langue in actual use.b) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.c) concrete, it refers to the naturally occurring language events.d) varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2) The significances of the distinction:a) it is convenient in that it delimits an area of enquiry which is manageable: thatarea is langueb) the concept of langue can be said to capture the central and determining aspectof language itself.3) The relation between the langue and parolea) Langue comes from parole.b) Parole is guided by langue.1.3.5 competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky.1) definitionCompetence: the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2) The relation between the competence and performancea) competence is essential and primary; performance is the residual category of secondary phenomena, incidental, and peripheral.b) competence and performance are quite different phenomena and you cannotdirectly infer one from the other.3) The difference between the two pairs of concepts: langue vs parole and competence vs performancei)similarities:a) It represents a similar dichotomy of knowledge and behaviour.b) It represents a similar demarcation of the scope of linguistic enquiry.c) They are both be glossed in terms of abstract knowledgeii) differences:a) the nature of knowledge is conceived of in very different ways.--Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.--Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.b) the different study interest--Langue, the focus of attention will be in what makes each language different.--Competence, the focus of attention will be in what makes languages alike.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1) definition:Modern linguistics: The beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure‟s book Course in General Linguistics in the early 20th century.Traditional grammar: The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language over the ye ars, before the book “Course in General Linguistics” was published.2) differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:a) modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.b)modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the writing.Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, the importance of the written word.c) traditional grammar forces languages into a Latin-based framework, but modernlinguistics does notReading recommendationBeginner-friendly:S. C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 1999; 外语教学与研究出版社2000 （刘润清导读）。

学点语言学赵宝斌语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。

I. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经）and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官）the producer of voice（声音发生器官）and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韵学）1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）：word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节），stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.IV. Morphology（词法）1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程）of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系）They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.3. Morpheme(词素）：the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）：some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）affix（词缀）and stem（词干）.6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封闭性）and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上）indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序）which is semantically（语义上）and often syntactically(句法上）restricted.（限制）11. Collocation(搭配）：the habitual(习惯的）co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法）1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序）arrangement of words in a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）：the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能）：the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语）complements（补语）, etc.4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的）"associative" bond.（相关联系）2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德）for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature ofthis theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定）that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景）in which the speaker utters（说话）it and the response（反应）it calls forth in the hearer."5. functionalism (功能主义）：Functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派）linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩）that meaning could only be interpreted（解释）from its use or function in social life.6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and thenon-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分）analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.VII. Language Variation (语言变化）1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.3. Compounding:(合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.5. Abbreviation or clipping:(缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.6. acronym:(取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰）headword.7. Met analysis:(再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.8. Back-formation:(逆构词）It refers to an abnormal(非正常）type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉）an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明）theco-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合）of some English verbs.10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音）addition,（加音）assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法）and syntax（句法）are listed under this heading.13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大）narrowing,（语义缩小）meaning shift,（意义转化）class shift（词性转换）and folk etymology.（词源变化）14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphitic level.。

《语言学基础知识综合性概述》一、引言语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具，它承载着人类的文化、历史和价值观。

语言学作为一门研究语言的科学，旨在揭示语言的本质、结构、功能和发展规律。

本文将对语言学基础知识进行全面的阐述与分析，涵盖基本概念、核心理论、发展历程、重要实践以及未来趋势等方面，为读者提供一个系统而深入的理解框架。

二、语言学的基本概念1. 语言的定义语言是一种符号系统，它由语音、词汇和语法三个要素组成，用于人类的交际和思维活动。

语言具有任意性、线条性、系统性和社会性等特征。

2. 语言的功能语言具有多种功能，主要包括交际功能、思维功能、文化传承功能和认知功能等。

交际功能是语言最基本的功能，它使人们能够相互交流思想、感情和信息。

思维功能是指语言在人类思维活动中的作用，语言是思维的工具，它帮助人们组织和表达思维。

文化传承功能是指语言作为文化的载体，传承着人类的文化遗产。

认知功能是指语言在人类认知过程中的作用，语言帮助人们认识世界、理解事物和解决问题。

3. 语言的分类语言可以根据不同的标准进行分类。

按照语言的结构特点，语言可以分为孤立语、屈折语、粘着语和复综语等类型。

按照语言的亲属关系，语言可以分为语系、语族和语支等层次。

世界上主要的语系有印欧语系、汉藏语系、阿尔泰语系、闪含语系等。

三、语言学的核心理论1. 结构主义语言学结构主义语言学是 20 世纪上半叶语言学的主流学派，它强调语言是一个由各种要素组成的系统，这些要素之间存在着一定的结构关系。

结构主义语言学的代表人物有索绪尔、布龙菲尔德等。

索绪尔提出了语言和言语、共时和历时、组合关系和聚合关系等重要概念，为现代语言学奠定了基础。

布龙菲尔德则提出了一套完整的描写语言学理论和方法，对语言的结构进行了深入的分析。

2. 转换生成语言学转换生成语言学是 20 世纪 50 年代以来语言学的重要流派，它强调语言是一种人类特有的认知能力，语言的生成和理解是通过一套规则系统来实现的。

英语课程中的语言学基础知识在英语学习过程中，了解语言学的基础知识是非常重要的。

本文将介绍一些英语课程中的语言学基础知识，帮助读者更好地理解和学习英语。

一、语言的定义和特征语言是人类最基本的交流工具，它具有以下几个特征：1. 可以传递信息：语言通过语音、文字等形式传递信息，使人们能够相互理解和沟通。

2. 组成规则性：语言具有一定的语法规则，包括词汇、句子结构等，通过这些规则组织语言的表达。

3. 具有音、义两个层面：语言既有音的层面，即语音学，也有词汇、句法等层面，即语义学。

4. 社会性：语言是社会群体的共同表征，不同社群有不同的语言系统。

二、语音学基础知识语音学研究的是语言的声音部分，包括音素、音节、音变等。

在英语学习中，掌握语音学的基础知识有助于正确发音和理解他人的语音信息。

1. 音素：音素是语言中的最小语音单位，可以区分词义。

英语中有约40个音素，包括元音和辅音。

2. 音节：音节是组成词的基本单位，它包括一个或多个音素。

英语中，音节由元音或元音组合的辅音开头，辅音结尾的形式组成。

3. 重音：重音在英语中具有很重要的作用，它通常落在词的某个音节上，加强了该音节的语音强度和音高。

三、语法学基础知识语法学是语言学中的重要分支，研究的是词汇、句法等语言结构的规则和规律。

掌握基本的语法知识对于理解和使用英语语法非常有帮助。

1. 词汇：词汇是语言中的基本单位，通过词汇可以组成不同的句子和表达。

英语中的词汇分为名词、动词、形容词等不同类别，并具有单复数、时态、语态等语法特征。

2. 句法：句法研究语言中句子的结构和成分之间的关系。

了解句法规则可以帮助我们正确组织句子和理解句子的意义。

3. 语法关系：在句子中，词语之间有很多不同的关系，比如主谓关系、动宾关系、定语从句等，了解这些语法关系对于正确理解句子结构和意义非常重要。

四、语义学基础知识语义学研究语言的意义和词语之间的关系。

在英语学习中，了解语义学基础知识可以帮助学习者更准确地理解和使用英语词汇。

语言学基础知识
语言学是研究语言的科学。

它涉及研究语言的结构、历史、变化和使用方式。

本文将介绍语言学的基础知识。

语言的定义
语言是人类沟通交流的工具。

它通过词汇和语法来表达意思，并借助语音或手势等方式传递信息。

语言分为口头语言和书面语言两种形式。

语言的结构
语言的结构包括音韵学、形态学、句法学和语义学等方面。

- 音韵学研究语音的产生、组织和感知。

- 形态学研究词的构成和变化。

- 句法学研究句子的结构和组织方式。

- 语义学研究词义和句义的意义和关系。

语言的历史和变化
语言具有历史性，随着社会、文化和认知的变化而发展和演变。

语言的历史研究包括语言起源、发展和分化等方面。

语言变化是语言系统内部和外部因素的影响下产生的。

内部因
素包括语音、形态、句法和词汇等方面的变化；外部因素包括社会、文化、语言接触和语言接触等方面的变化。

语言的使用方式
语言是用来进行交际和表达意思的工具。

语言使用涉及交际功能、语用学和话语分析等方面的研究。

- 交际功能研究语言在不同社交场景中的作用和功用。

- 语用学研究语言的使用和理解过程中的意义和权衡。

- 话语分析研究具体的对话和文本中的语言使用方式和效果。

结论
语言学作为一门科学，研究语言的各个方面，从语言的定义、结构、历史和变化到语言的使用方式等都是其研究范围之内。

通过对语言学基础知识的了解，我们可以更好地理解和使用语言。

Linguistics“Lan guage is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2 Design features of language: 语言的本质特征①arbitrariness ②duality③Creativity/Productivity④Displacement ⑤cultural transmission ⑥interchangeability3 语言学的分类.①Phonetics iArticulatory phonetics / Acoustic phonetics / Auditory phoneticsThe classification of ConsonantsPlaces of Manners of articulation: plosive nasal, trill , lateral, fricative, approximant, affricate.Places of articulation: bilabial, , Labiodentals, dental, alveolar, retroflex, palate-alveolar, palatal, velar uvular, glottal.. The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)②Phonology is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.phonemes :a distinctive sound in a language.Allophones :The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme. Minimal pairs word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.像pat和bat能区别不同音位的成对单词叫最小意义对(minimal pair)。

语言学基础知识第一章语音学基础知识语音学是语言学中的一个重要分支，涉及了语音的基本概念和规律。

语音学的研究范围是语音的发音、分布、演变和分类等方面。

1. 语音的基本概念语音是语言中的基本音素，可以分为元音和辅音两类。

元音是由声门开放时，气流自由通过口腔腔面形成的音，例如/a/、/e/、/i/等。

辅音是由声音中气流在口腔腔面受阻而形成的音，例如/p/、/t/、/k/等。

2. 语音的分类语音的分类可以根据发音的方式、发音的部位和声音的调高低三个方面。

根据发音的方式，可以分为清音、浊音、摩擦音、塞音等四种。

根据发音的部位，可以分为唇音、齿音、舌音、软腭音、硬腭音、喉音等六种。

根据声音的调高低，可以分为高、低、中、升调和降调等五种。

3. 语音的演变语音的演变是指人类历史上语音系统的变化。

语音的演变可以分为语言演变和语音演变两种。

语言演变是指一个语言从古老的阶段到现代的阶段的演变。

语音演变是指一个语言在发音上的变化。

第二章词汇学基础知识词汇是一种语言的基本元素，是用来表达思想和意义的词语。

词汇有很多种类，包括独立词、依存词、派生词、合成词等。

1. 词汇的分类词汇可以按照词义、构词方式和语法功能进行分类。

按照词义，可以分为实义词和虚词两种。

实义词是有具体含义的单词，例如“桌子”、“衣服”等。

虚词则是语言中一些无实际含义，起到构词、语法等方面作用的词语，例如“的”、“是”等。

根据构词方式，可以分为派生词、合成词和构词词等。

根据语法功能，可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、连词、介词等。

2. 词汇的记忆和运用词汇的记忆和运用是外语学习中的一大难点。

记忆词汇要注意搭配和应用场合，多做词汇扩展练习并巩固记忆。

在实际应用中，需要根据语境和情境进行运用。

第三章语法学基础知识语法学是语言学中的重要分支，主要研究语言的形式结构和规则。

语法学的研究内容包括词汇和句子两个层面。

1. 词类和语法关系词类是指单词属于哪一种语法类别，包括名词、动词、形容词等。

Chapter 1 Introduction介绍1.语言定义What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. This explains why “iblk” is not a possible sound combination in English, and also why “Been he wounded has” is not a grammatically acceptable sentence in English.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word “pen” and the thing we write with. Different languages have different words for the same object. Words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. All evidence points to the fact that writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper. The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.2. 语言特征Design Features of LanguageDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Charles Hockett (American) in 1960 : (5 of 13)①Arbitrariness 任意性: There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.) On the other hand, language is not entirely arbitrary, such like onomatopoeic words and some compound words.②Productivity 多产性: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.③Duality 双重性: Language is a system, which consists of two levels. The basic level is a structure of sounds, and the higher level is the units of meaning.④Displacement 移位性: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑤Cultural transmission 文化传承性: Language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3.语言功能Function of LanguageThree main functions : the descriptive function, the expressive function and the social function.①The descriptive function: also referred to differently as the cognitive, or referential, or propositional function, is assumed to be the primary function of language.It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.②The expressive function: also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.③The social function: also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Roman Jakobson (Russian-born) :He identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.①Addresser, Emotive 情感功能The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.②Addressee, Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.③Context, Referential 信息功能The addresser conveys a message of information.④Message, Poetic 诗性功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.⑤Contact, Phatic communication 寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.⑥Code.Metalinguistic 元语言，纯理功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. “Let me tell you what the word ‘linguist’ means.”M.A.K. Halliday (British) in the early 1970s :He explored the functions of child language, and found that as a child grew into an adult the7 functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract system of functions.①Ideational 经验功能: The ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer’sexperience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, his feelings and emotions.②Interpersonal 人际功能: The interpersonal function is to establish or maintain socialrelationships between people.③Textual 语篇功能: The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.4.语言学定义What is LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.(Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.)(It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.)5.语言学范围the scope of linguisticsRelatively independent branches within the area of linguistics, and also the core of linguistics:①Phonetics语音学: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication.②Phonology音位学: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.③Morphology形态学: The study of the way in which symbols are arranged and combined to form words.④Syntax 句法学: the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.⑤Semantics语义学: In most general terms language is used to convey meaning. The study of meaning is known as semantics.⑥Pragmatics语用学: Language communication does not occur in a vacuum, it always occurs in a context. The study of meaning in the context of language use is called pragmatics. Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study: sociolinguistics社会语言学psycholinguistics 语言心理学applied linguistics 应用语言学。