Forthcoming in the Cambridge Journal of Economics ABSTRACT Suppliers ’ Associations in the

免费资源丨想问鼎牛剑？3本书帮你搞定最难的入学试题！如果你要问鼎牛剑以及UCL这样的英国顶级学府，就得做好迎考TSA的准备。

TSA全称Thinking Skills Assessment，即“思考能力测试”，是一门考批判逻辑思维的考试。

而这门考试，也是只有过了“全国统考”要求，并收到牛剑的邀请才能参加的，相当于牛剑的入门考试。

（本文附3本TSA思维逻辑书籍+近10年TSA历年真题和答案+ Specimen Test）TSA考试分为：Thinking Skills Assessment 和 Writing Task两个部分。

第一部分主要是考察学生的数字推理、空间推理和批判性思维能力，共有50道选择题，90分钟内完成；第二部分则是问答题，旨在评估考生以清晰、简洁的方式组织观点并在写作中有效沟通的能力。

学生可以从4个题目中选择一题来作答，30分钟内完成。

这个考试是牛津大学（Oxford）大部分文科专业必考的笔试，包括：✓ Economics and Management 经济与管理✓ Experimental Psychology 实验心理学✓ Human Sciences 人类科学✓ Philosophy and Linguistics 哲学和语言学✓ Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) 哲学-政治-经济✓ Psychology and Linguistics 心理学和语言学✓ Psychology and Philosophy 心理学和哲学而剑桥需要TSA考试的专业包括：✓ComputerScience(计算机科学)✓Economics(经济)✓Engineering(工程)✓ History (历史)✓ Human,Social, and Political Sciences(人类，社交和政治科学)✓Land Economy(土地经济)✓Natural Sciences (Physical and Biological) 自然科学（物理和生物）✓ Psychological and Behavioural Sciences （心理和行为科学）而伦敦大学学院（UCL）需要TSA考试的专业包括：✓ EuropeanSocial and Political Studies (欧洲社交和政治研究)✓ EuropeanSocial and Political Studies: Dual Degree BA(欧洲社交和政治研究：双学位)TSA到底难不难？因为是“思维能力评估测试”，所以需要掌握的学术知识在于广泛和思考而不在于深度。

第十二章关系分句限制性与非限制性关系分句分两种：限制性关系从句与非限制性关系从句。

这两种关系分句的划分非常重要，因为它们不仅形式不同，作用也不同。

①Jilian Brown.who lives next door is travelling in Scotland.吉连·布朗，住在隔壁，现在正在苏格兰旅行。

②The girl who lives next door is now travelling in Scotland.住在隔壁的那个女孩子现在正在苏格兰旅行。

③Ann e returned my book to the library by mistake, whichJ bought ata bookstore at Cambridge.安妮误把我的书错还给图书馆了，那本书是我在剑桥一个书店买的。

④This is the book(which／that) I bought at a bookstore at Cambridge.这是我在剑桥一个书店买的书。

首先，在①和③中的非限制性关系分句在书写时用逗号隔开，在口语中有轻微的停顿和前后语调的变化。

在句②和④中的限制性关系分句没有这些特征。

其他形式上的区别还包括代词的选择。

如果一个分句是象④句中那样由that来引导（或者是萋羞运贫词歹，那么这个分句一定是限制性关系分句。

但如果是象③句中那样由which引导（或其他wh-词），那么它可能是限制性也可能是非限制性关系分句。

鬯乡趸拳思王韭堡型关系分句中。

其次，两种关系分句作用不同。

限制性关系分句是名词词组不可分割的一部分，为确定先行项的所指对象提供必不可少的信息。

在句②中女孩的身份决定于她的住址。

句④也一样，其中关系分句为书的所指对象提供必不可少的信息。

另一方面，非限定性关系分句只提供那些对确定我们所谈论的人或物的所指对象来说不需要的附加信息，所以，如果省略了非限定性关系分句，并不影响先行项的所指意义。

JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011left to the attentions of literary critics,who,however,have passed it over in a stony silence for the last several decades.Even the few who have thoughtfully commented on early modern poetic theory have often done so with the aim of showing that their historical actors were not very Aristote-lian at all.2In other words,now that the middle twentieth century’s interest in actively redeploying Aristotle’s literary ideas is long past,the Poetics sits entombed in the intimidating and rapidly aging standard works that survey its sixteenth-century adherents and detractors,nearly always from the rela-tively limited viewpoint of doctrines such as the three unities and catharsis.3 At the same time,this older literature did already hint strongly that early modern poetic theory embodied significantly varied responses to Aristotle, that this dynamicfield constituted a narrative taken within its own terms.But did readers of the Poetics in fact do anything worth noting in the wider story of the early modern Aristotle?In at least one case,the answer is discernibly yes,and not merely because those readers recapitulated the history of the study of Aristotle on a smaller scale.When a certain group of Italian philologists took up the Poetics,they examined it in a way to which Aristotle’s other texts usually were not amenable:as a vital but difficult historical source.In other words—at specific moments,at any rate—they sought in the Poetics neither prescriptive doctrines nor scientific statements supposed to apply to the present day,but specifically historical information, which,however,proved almost incredibly elusive.The most signal histori-(1956;repr.,Rome:Edizioni di storia e letteratura,1969),17–31at23;‘‘Un codice pado-vano di Aristotele postillato da Francesco ed Ermolao Barbaro,’’in Studies,337–53at 338–39;‘‘The Aristotelian Tradition,’’in his Renaissance Thought:The Classic,Scholas-tic,and Humanist Strains(New York:Harper,1961),40;and Eight Philosophers of the Italian Renaissance(Stanford:Stanford University Press,1964),114;E.N.Tigerstedt,‘‘Observations on the Reception of the Aristotelian Poetics in the Latin West,’’Studies in the Renaissance15(1968):7–24.2Luc Deitz,‘‘‘Aristoteles imperator noster...’?J.C.Scaliger and Aristotle on Poetic Theory,’’International Journal of the Classical Tradition2(1995):54–67and Iulius Caesar Scaliger,Poetices libri septem,ed.Luc Deitz and Gregor Vogt-Spira,5vols.(Stutt-gart and Bad Cannstatt:Frommann-Holzboog,1994–2003).Older discussions of anti-Aristotelian poetic theorists:B.Weinberg,‘‘Scaliger versus Aristotle on Poetics,’’Modern Philology39(1942):337–60;and G.Zonta,‘‘Rinascimento aristotelismo e barocco,’’Giornale storico della letteratura italiana54(1934):1–63,185–240.3Bernard Weinberg,A History of Literary Criticism in the Italian Renaissance,2vols. (Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1961);and‘‘Robortello on the Poetics,1548’’(319–48)and‘‘Castelvetro’s Theory of Poetics’’(349–71)in R.S.Crane,ed.,Critics and Criticism:Ancient and Modern(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1952);Baxter Hathaway,The Age of Criticism:The Late Renaissance in Italy(Ithaca:Cornell Univer-sity Press,1962);Joel Elias Spingarn,A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, 2nd ed.(1908;rept.,New York:Columbia University Press,1924).Haugen✦Humanism and Literary Historycal subject raised by the Poetics concerned the birth of tragedy.What was the tragedy’s early form,at what point could one say that the drama had become the tragedy properly speaking,and above all,how was the tragedy performed in Aristotle’s own time?Aristotle himself suggested all of these questions but offered scant guidance for answering them.As an eyewitness to performances of the tragedy,he evidently took for granted that his read-ers knew what those performances were like—an assumption that seems to have been as maddening to sixteenth-century readers as it remains today. This difficulty,and its allure,motivated a humanist literary history that could complete or amplify Aristotle’s meaning through a searching use of alternative sources.Aristotle’s story,in other words,appeared as a kind of heroic fragment,a damaged part of a lost whole like the remnants of ancient statuary that sixteenth-century humanists so eagerly excavated and named.4First origins in general were a favorite humanist subject,for which the many ancient and modern sources ranged from the elder Pliny’s Natural History to Polydore Vergil’s On Discovery(De inventoribus rerum).5But the early history of the drama was at once fascinating to humanists and exceedingly poorly attested:to study it was to leap directly into the‘‘ship-wreck of antiquity,’’the naufragium antiquitatis long lamented by human-ists in general.Nonetheless,a certain sort of humanist could be captivated by such questions,precisely because the evidence was so slender and the need for imaginative reconstruction so manifest.The protagonists of this sixteenth-century discussion included such humanist luminaries as Angelo Poliziano,Francesco Robortello,Piero Vet-tori,and Francesco Patrizi da Cherso.Much was at stake,in retrospect, because of the claims that surrounded the emergence of the earliest operas around1600:the Greek tragedy had been sung from beginning to end, assertedfigures such as Girolamo Mei and Vincenzo Galilei,and the new form of musical drama meant the tragedy’s direct revival.6But in fact,this identification of the opera with the Greek tragedy constituted a position in an already well-known conversation;the Florentine Camerata’s view was 4On sculptural fragments,Leonard Barkan,Unearthing the Past:Archaeology and Aes-thetics in the Making of Renaissance Culture(New Haven:Yale University Press,1999), 120–28,174–87,205–7.This reference was suggested to me by an anonymous reader for the JHI.5Polydore Vergil,On Discovery,tr.Brian P.Copenhaver(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,2002).6Barbara Russano Hanning,Of Poetry and Music’s Power:Humanism and the Creation of Opera(Ann Arbor:UMI Research Press,1980),esp.1–19;Claude Palisca,Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought(New Haven:Yale University Press,1985), 408–28.JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011no arbitrary or spontaneous guess.7The tradition from which the Camera-ta’s discussions arose was distinctive as a mode of scholarship and likewise distinctive as a mode of literary study.In thefirst place,humanist literary history of this kind dealt neither in entire extant texts nor in unbridled, theory-driven polemics.In these respects it stood apart from other kinds of early modern literary study more often discussed today.The past thirty years have taught us greatly about humanist textual criticism and about the humanist exegesis of poetry,bothfields in which novel and clearly identifi-able developments began in the latefifteenth century.8We also,of course, have ample documentation of the rise of neoclassical literary theory out of(and sometimes against)its sources in Aristotle and Horace.9Humanist literary history,however,differed notably from these,as also from the nine-teenth-century German scholarship that shared the humanists’predilection for the fragmentary and the lost.From Poliziano onward,the literary histo-rians were willing to combine Greek and Roman sources in their search for the early drama.Even more disconcertingly to readers of Friedrich Nietz-sche’s Birth of Tragedy(1872),they hesitated to draw a sharp distinction between the comedy and the tragedy at all.Rather,they came with open minds to the question of origins and to the puzzle of how the extant tragedy had been performed.Literary history,in other words,was a well-defined and innovative enterprise that deserves our attention as a part of humanist scholarship.As an encounter with Aristotle,finally,this episode shows how serious scholars approached a decidedly unusual situation:here the philos-opher,far from appearing as copious,massive,and unwieldy,was mani-festly inadequate.While Aristotle demanded to be treated as the primary source for the early drama,if for no other reason than his proximity to the7Cf.Nino Pirrotta,‘‘Trage´die et comedie dans la Camerataflorentina,’’in Musique et poe´sie au XVIe sie`cle(Paris:E´ditions du C.N.R.S.,1954),287–97,esp.295;and‘‘Early Opera and Aria,’’in New Looks at Italian Opera:Essays in Honor of Donald J.Grout, ed.William W.Austin(Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1968),39–107,esp.80–81;and, for a more measured argument,Danilo Aguzzi-Barbagli,‘‘Francesco Patrizi e l’umanes-imo musicale del Cinquecento,’’in L’umanesimo in Istria,eds.V.Branca and S.Graciotti (Florence:Olschki,1983),63–90,esp.67–68,82–84.8A selection of works in English:Anthony Grafton,‘‘On the Scholarship of Poliziano and Its Context,’’Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes40(1977):150–88; and Joseph Scaliger:A Study in the History of Classical Scholarship,2vols.(Oxford: Clarendon Press,1983–93),9–70;Craig Kallendorf,‘‘From Virgil to Vida:The Poeta Theologus in Italian Renaissance Commentary,’’Journal of the History of Ideas56 (1995):41–62;and The Other Virgil:‘Pessimistic’Readings of the Aeneid in Early Mod-ern Culture(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007);William J.Kennedy,Authorizing Petrarch(Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1994).9See the literature in note3above.Haugen✦Humanism and Literary Historyevents,he also needed to be read in imaginative,decisive ways that were nonetheless grounded in sources rather than in undirected speculation.The resulting competition,so to speak,between Aristotle and later sources was managed in different ways by different scholars.In this situation,even the best-qualified historical scholars were obliged to deal with Aristotle by boldly supplementing him;one could not calmly explicate what was not there to start with.We see in the case of the literary historians,then,a moment of departure from Aristotle in order to fulfill his purposes,perhaps even a moment of frustration with the ordinarily verbose philosopher who had suddenly turned mute.That the humanist literary historians were distinctive could be demon-strated on the basis of two sentences alone,namely,the perplexing passage in Aristotle’s Poetics that animated the entire argument of Nietzsche’s Birth of Tragedy and which sixteenth-century scholars were apt to take rather differently.The reason is that this passage posits two things at once:in the first place,a very broad common origin for the tragedy and comedy in extemporaneous performance,but in the second place,clearly defined pre-cursor genres that(as Nietzsche saw it)drove comedy in one direction, tragedy in another.Here is Aristotle:So,at the beginning,tragedy was extemporaneous and so wascomedy;tragedy came from those who led the dithyramb;comedycame from the singers of phallic verses,which even today are stillperformed by choruses in many cities.So tragedy,bit by bit,grewup out of its predecessors,until it reached its true magnitude.(I.4) Nietzsche,as we know,took these alleged precursor forms very seriously indeed,as it was customary to do in the nineteenth century.10But sixteenth-century readers had different interpretive habits.To begin with this puzzling passage itself,the humanists viewed Aristotle’s references to the phallic verse and the dithyramb as vague,not well motivated,and lacking in explanatory power.Julius Caesar Scaliger,in a treatise published in1561, tried valiantly to imagine what Aristotle could really have meant by saying such a thing:Scaliger’s best guess was that these earlier verse forms had been composed in very short lines of verse(such as ieˆpaian,a dithyrambic line with only four syllables),while the mature comedy and tragedy had10Ju¨rgen Leonhardt,Phalloslied und Dithyrambos.Aristoteles u¨ber den Ursprung des griechischen Dramas(Heidelberg:C.Winter,1991).JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011much longer lines of verse.11He thus took a jarringly literal approach to Aristotle’s words‘‘and so the tragedy grew with respect to its predecessors until it reached its present magnitude.’’So,although a few sixteenth-cen-tury scholars did dutifully collect what little was known about the dithy-ramb and the phallic song,as attempts to show at least what Aristotle was referring to,they regarded it very much as an open question how these genres could possibly be relevant.In that case,what did humanist readers see in Aristotle’s cryptic lines about the birth of tragedy?The literary historians focused,quite univer-sally,on the opening part of the passage,where we are told that‘‘at the beginning,tragedy was extemporaneous(autoschediastikeˆ),and so was comedy.’’They saw two implications here.First,that tragedy and comedy were essentially similar;there was no radical difference in their origin and no radical difference in their natures.Secondly,that the real birth of tragedy and comedy should be looked for,so they usually inferred,in the dozens of extemporaneous(or at least unwritten)communal songs that were known to have been sung especially in civic and religious festivals.Scholars with a completist bent,like Julius Caesar Scaliger and Francesco Patrizi,luxuri-ated in the long lists they compiled of abstruse and poorly known song forms like the rhapsody,the threnos,and the hyporchema.In answer to the question about the origins of tragedy and comedy, then,these scholars pointed not to a definite genealogy but to a kind of poetic primordial soup of extemporaneous performance(often glossed as song),which had given rise simply to‘‘the drama,’’in Latin fabula.Mean-while,that assumption about song in early poetry raised the very large sub-ject of music:did tragedy and comedy incorporate song,in the choruses or perhaps throughout?Both of these orientations were arguably influenced by Italian drama of the sixteenth century.That drama often failed to corre-spond well with either comedy or tragedy—we might think of Poliziano’s Orfeo,of the plays of Giovanni Battista Giraldi,or indeed of thefirst thor-ough-composed opera,Rinuccini’s Dafne.And sixteenth-century entertain-ments often included music,especially in the form of intermedi,which featured allegorical characters,dancing,and dumbshows.So Julius Caesar Scaliger went on to suggest,as an explanation for why Aristotle derived comedy from the phallic song,‘‘I think the phallic song was like a mime (mimus),and the mime most likely resembled comedy because they proba-bly acted parts.’’12The scholar speaking here is surely Scaliger the spectator of courtly entertainments.11Julius Caesar Scaliger,Poetics(1561),357.12Scaliger,Poetics,18.Haugen✦Humanism and Literary HistoryBut there was a further reason,this time a scholarly reason,for the literary historians to posit a similarity between tragedy and comedy and to inquire about the place of music in them.It was already at work in Angelo Poliziano’s lectures on Terence and ancient comedy,delivered in Florence in the1480s.13Poliziano started his introductory lecture with a brief discus-sion of Aristotle on the difference between tragedy and comedy—he read the Poetics in a manuscript that he annotated and that remains in Flor-ence—and he later inserted a translation of Aristotle’s passage about trag-edy and comedy being atfirst‘‘extemporaneous’’(extemporalis)and then developing respectively from the dithyramb and phallic song.14But Polizi-ano set those passages of Aristotle into a rich matrix of something different. Specifically,as we might expect for someone giving lectures on Latin com-edy,Poliziano gave his hearers large sections of the introduction to the comedy attributed to the Roman grammarian Donatus,whose huge com-mentary on Terence had been discovered by Giovanni Aurispa in the1430s.15 Where Aristotle was puzzling and brief,Donatus was clear and pleasingly full of detail.In some respects his doctrines differed from Aristotle’s,but two of his major discussions set the tone for the ways in which contempo-raries would read Aristotle himself.First of all,Donatus was not concerned to differentiate sharply between the comedy and the tragedy,either as a question of historical origins or in their eventual form.He started his dis-cussion with a long section called,simply,De fabula,‘‘On the Drama,’’and he proceeded to expound at gratifying length about early popular songs both in the Greek world and then in the Latin world(showing,in effect, that drama also had a spontaneous birth in Italy).Eventually,of course, Donatus did come to focus on comedy,which was precisely what made his commentary so valuable to begin with,because the part of Aristotle’s Poet-ics dealing with comedy was lost.Donatus was likewise the person who raised the subject of music,in a later part of his essay that Poliziano also appropriated in detail.Specifically, Donatus undertook to explain the production credits,or tituli,that were 13Angelo Poliziano,La commedia antica e l’Andria di Terenzio,ed.R.L.Roselli(Flor-ence:Sansoni,1973).14For Poliziano’s notes on the Poetics,Peter Godman,From Poliziano to Machiavelli: Florentine Humanism in the High Renaissance(Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1998),59–64.15Aeli Donati commentum Terenti,ed.Paul Wessner,3vols.(Stuttgart:Teubner,1966); see the essays known to early moderns as‘‘De fabula’’(1:13–22)and‘‘De comoedia’’(1: 22–31).On the discovery,Remigio Sabbadini,‘‘Elio Donato‘In Terentium’scoperto nel secolo XV,’’in Sabbadini’s Storia e critica di testi latini,2nd ed.(Padua:Antenore,1971), 159–60.JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011found in manuscripts and printed versions of Terence’s plays,containing such notations as‘‘The music was composed[modos fecit]by Flaccus,son of Claudius,for evenflutes,left and right.’’16Donatus(and accordingly Poliziano)explained that the‘‘leftflutes’’corresponded to a serious subject, the‘‘rightflutes’’to humorous subjects,and when both left and rightflutes were found in the production credits,this meant that the ensuing drama contained both serious matter and jokes.Here,by the way,was another good reason for Donatus to speak in thefirst instance simply about the origin of fabula:he was not concerned to define the extant genre of comedy in an exclusive way.On the question of precisely what parts of the perform-ance were sung,Donatus was unfortunately vague,but he made it clear that music was a crucial part of the performance.A professional musician, rather than the playwright himself,was responsible for composing the music,and the music remained the same for each performance of the same comedy.The result(and Poliziano repeated this too)was that the audience, simply by hearing the introductory music,could already identify the play even before the prologue was delivered.Finally,seized with a justifiable curiosity about just what this singing was,Poliziano did more research and found tantalizing information in the Latin grammarian Diomedes.From Diomedes,Poliziano learned that a performance of Roman comedy was split between spoken dialogue and solo song,both of them necessarily per-formed by the actors,because there was no chorus(Diomedes added that in a Greek comedy,a chorus would also sing).17In an Italian environment that saw frequent musical settings of ancient poetry,for example Horace’s odes,the idea of a sung drama evidently appeared interesting and plausible, at least for the case of ancient Rome.18In short,then,Poliziano’s lecture on Terence from the1480s already contained the whole framework that sixteenth-century readers brought to Aristotle’s Poetics when they read it as literary history.This included a dis-position to think of‘‘the drama’’or fabula,rather than the comedy or the tragedy exclusively;a highly miscellaneous account of the drama’s origin in16‘‘Modos fecit Flaccus Claudifilius tibiis parib.dextris et sinistris.’’(Part of the titulus to Andria,from the Paris1552edition of Terence,p.53.)For Poliziano’s attention to these tituli,see his collation of the Bembine manuscript,in Riccardo Ribuoli,La collazi-one polizianea del codice bembino di Terenzio(Rome:Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1981),plate1.17Heinrich Keil,ed.,Grammatici latini,7vols.(Leipzig:Teubner,1857–80),1:491.18See J.Riemer,‘‘Zwischen‘gelehrter’und‘freier’Tradition:Horazvertonungen in der fru¨hen Neuzeit,’’in Strenae nataliciae:Neulateinische Studien:Wilhelm Ku¨hlmann zum 60.Geburtstag,ed.H.Wiegand(Heidelberg:Manutius,2006),127–53.Haugen✦Humanism and Literary Historypopular song;and a keen interest in the role of music in ancient perform-ance.It was indeed utterly logical for Poliziano to ventilate these questions in a discussion of the Roman comedy,which was the subject of his major source Donatus.But at the same time,Poliziano’s use of Donatus should probably be seen as an Aristotelian maneuver:it tended to supplement or to reconstruct Aristotle’s scanty surviving words,and this in a context in which Poliziano did not strictly need to mention Aristotle at all.Poliziano’s respect for Aristotle in general was great,as seen through both his attention to individual texts and his personal vision of an all-encompassing,culti-vated,Aristotle-like erudition—even if he did sometimes wrangle violently with Aristotle’s words,as when he attempted to educe the Platonic doctrine of the‘‘poetic frenzy’’(poeticus furor)from Aristotle’s Poetics.19Moreover, Poliziano’s disposition to compare Aristotle with Donatus was characteris-tic of his scholarship in general,although not in the sense that he indiscrimi-nately conflated two such different sources:Poliziano recognized well that antiquity contained discrete historical periods,for example when he defended the literature of the Latin Silver Age,in the persons of Statius and Seneca, against charges of decadence.20Rather,Poliziano habitually used texts from one period to illuminate those of another,as when he explicated Aristotle through later Greek and Latin philosophy or,conversely,when he studied the Greek sources of Latin poetry.21This was also the technique of Polizi-ano’s successors in literary history,who consciously compared Aristotle with later sources in an effort to uncover or reconstruct the obscure truth about the Greek tragedy.Given that Donatus’s essays on comedy and on drama were prefixed to the comedies of Terence,it should be no surprise that subsequent schol-ars writing about Terence—whose plays became a major growth industry for scholarship and commentary in thefirst two thirds of the sixteenth cen-tury—asked the same kinds of questions(although not,of course,because they had read Poliziano’s lectures,which remained in manuscript).Further, to all appearances,these literary-historical discussions around the well-known Terence were responsible for setting the fundamental tone,and set-ting some of the basic questions,when contemporaries began to write the literary history of Greek tragedy.They undertook that project not merely in discursive treatises like J.C.Scaliger’s or Francesco Patrizi’s,but also,19Godman,From Poliziano to Machiavelli,18–19,60–64.20Godman,From Poliziano to Machiavelli,40–45.I owe this point to an anonymous reader for the JHI.21Godman,From Poliziano to Machiavelli,60,87,98;Grafton,Joseph Scaliger,1:32–37.JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011 crucially,in the form of commentaries on Aristotle’s Poetics.In comment-ing on the historical parts of the Poetics,roughly sections2through4,theyregularly amplified Aristotle’s list of precursor poetic forms into a greatlength.They worried over the names and dates of early tragedians not men-tioned by Aristotle(such as Phrynichus and Thespis).They actively pursued the view—which gained support from Aristotle read in a certain way—that the origins of comedy and tragedy were alike.And,most tellingly,they all felt the need to guess what place music might have had in the performance of the Greek tragedy.But this was a subject on which Aristotle’s Poetics was conspicuously silent.Although Aristotle mentioned that‘‘rhythm,har-mony and melody[melos]’’formed parts of the performance,he gave abso-lutely no grounds for deciding what those parts had been.22That contemporaries went looking for other Greek sources to decide the question of music with respect to the Greek tragedy seems eminently likely to be the result of their familiarity with the debates on Terence and the Roman com-edy.Indeed,they very often used parts of the actual preface to Terence by Donatus,with citation or without.We,of course,continuing to operate by the standards of the nineteenth century,probably tend to view this proce-dure as shocking;but the sixteenth-century scholars were quite willing to import questions and import hypotheses from one department of antiquity to another.They hoped that the literary history of Rome might shed light on that of Greece,and vice versa.Here there is room to discuss only the interventions of genuinely histor-ical scholars,who also happen to be the only commentators who said any-thing of interest about the birth of tragedy:thus,writers such as GiorgioValla,Vincenzo Maggi and Bartolomeo Lombardi,Alessandro Piccolomini,and Antonio Riccoboni can justifiably be omitted.23These discussions ofliterary history always unfolded inside of treatises or commentaries thatconcerned themselves with the rest of the Poetics as well,that is,insidediscussions of an aesthetic and prescriptive nature:historical study couldthus coexist with the aggressive drawing of literary lessons meant to beapplied to the sixteenth century itself.Historical study coexisted also,sometimes uneasily,with literary theory and with textual criticism.And we 22Aristotle,Poetics(De arte poetica liber),ed.Rudolf Kassel(Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1965),1449b.23See Giorgio Valla,‘‘De poetica,’’in his De expetendis et fugientibus rebus(Venice, 1501);Vincenzo Maggi and Bartolomeo Lombardi,In Aristotelis librum de poetica (1550;repr.,Munich:W.Fink,1969);A.Piccolomini,Annotationi...nel libro della Poetica d’Aristotele(Venice,1575);A.Riccoboni,Poetica tine conversa (1587;repr.,Munich:W.Fink,1970).will witness the wide range of approaches to Aristotle that recent scholar-ship has taught us to expect—always,however,within a method that involved comparing the philosopher with other historical sources.Francesco Robortello’s1548commentary on the Poetics was thefirst full-scale discussion of that text in the sixteenth century.24His discussion was highly focused on detail and relatively little interested in a broad con-ceptual historiography of the drama.Robortello did,however,endorse something like a primordial-soup theory of dramatic origins,and he did this with fairly little warrant from Aristotle’s text.Robortello began by castigating the standard Latin translation of Aristotle’s key passage,by Alessandro Pazzi,arguing that Pazzi had completely obscured the sponta-neous character of poetry in the earliest times.25As Pazzi rendered it,Aris-totle said that‘‘at the beginning,both tragedy and comedy were crude and somewhat shapeless[rudes...planeque informes],’’but Robortello viewed that translation as shirking the truth.He explained,‘‘The words really mean,‘at the beginning they were extemporaneous.’’’In other words, Robortello inferred that tragedy and comedy had really existed at the ori-gins in an extemporaneous form,and one of his conclusions was that trag-edy was in fact older than dithyrambic song,which he accordingly turned from one of the precursors of tragedy into one of the influences on its ado-lescence.26And Robortello extended his story to poetry at large,arguing that all poetry had begun as short extemporaneous performances that treated a single,small subject:he offered the bucolic eclogue as an exam-ple.27Finally,as Robortello considered the place of music in tragic perform-ance,he not only asserted that only the chorus had sung part of their role; for help in glossing Aristotle’s term melos,he specifically cited Donatus for the information that some part of the tragedy was delivered in song,canti-cum(‘‘so Donatus directs us to call it in comedies’’).28Not every part of Robortello’s accountfit together perfectly;both 24Francesco Robortello,In librum Aristotelis de arte poetica explicationes(1548;repr., Munich:W.Fink,1968).On Robortello’s doctrine in general,see Weinberg,‘‘Robortello on the Poetics.’’25Alessandro Pazzi(Paccius),tr.,Aristotelis Poetica(Venice,1536).Pazzi is not to be confused with Giulio Pace(Pacius),who commented on the complete works of Aristotle in the late sixteenth century.26Robortello,Explicationes,39,40.27Robortello,Explicationes,42–43.28Robortello,Explicationes,124,55;see Aristotle,Poetics1449b.Weinberg’s assertion that Robortello‘‘disdain[ed]...the current notion of tragedy and comedy stemming from Donatus and Diomedes’’(‘‘Robortello on the Poetics,’’320)is cryptic and mani-festly does not refer to this subject.。

江苏省常州市金沙高级中学2021届高三下学期限时训练（一）英语试题第一部分：阅读理解（共两节，满分30分）第一节（共7个小题：每小题2.5分，满分17.5分）AWhat do the random, scribbled(潦草的)drawings crowding the margins(页边空白)of most high school students’ papers mean? When a student is caught doodling(乱画)in class, he will probably be criticized for daydreaming. But doodling while listening can help with remembering details, rather than implying that the mind is wandering, according to a study published in the scientific journal Applied Cognitive Psychology.In an experiment conducted by the Medical Research Council’s Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit in Cambridge,40 subjects were asked to listen to a two-minute tape giving several names of people and places. Half of the participants were asked to shade in shapes on a piece of paper at the same time, without paying attention to neatness, while the rest were given no such instructions. After the tape had finished, all participants in the study were asked to recall the names of people and places. The doodlers recalled on average 7.5 names of people and places, compared to only 5.8 by the non-doodlers.“If someone is doing a boring task, like listening to a dull telephone conversation, they may start to daydream.” said study researcher, Professor Jackie Andrade, of the School of P sychology, University of Plymouth. “Daydreaming distracts them from the task, resulting in poorer performance. A simple task, like doodling, may be enough to stop daydreaming without affecting performance on the main task.”“In psychology, tests of memory or attention will often use a second task to selectively block a particular mental process. If that process is important for the main task, then performance will be weakened. But my research suggests that in everyday life doodling may be something we do because it helps to keep us on track with a boring task, rather than being an unnecessary distraction(分心)that we should try to resist doing.” said Andrade.Dan Ware, a social study teacher, used to consider doodling a distraction from learning, butafter teaching kids with all personality types he learned scribbling away during lectures helps certain students remember more information. “In my first few years of teaching, I thought, ‘Well, this kid isn’t paying attention. He’s daydreaming.’ But I had some real ly powerful experiences with students and came to understand in many cases that was their way of focusing, and those students were probably paying more attention than other students.” Ware said.1. What do we know about the participants involved in the experiment?A. Some were asked to note down the information neatly.B. Some were asked to memorize the names they would hear.C. Some were instructed to listen to the tape with full attention.D. Some were instructed to make random drawings on paper.2. Which of the following will both Jackie Andrade and Dan Ware agree with?A. Doodling helps some people focus.B. Doodling makes a dull task interesting.C. Students who doodle perform poorly.D. Students who doodle lack concentration.3. What is the best title of the text?A. Daydreaming Can Sharpen Study SkillsB. Doodling Can Help Memory RecallC. A Wandering Mind Improves ProductivityD. Distractions Harm Academic PerformanceBShyness is the cause of much unhappiness for a great many people. Shy people are anxious and self-conscious; that is, they are concerned about their own appearance and actions too much. Negative thoughts are constantly occurring in their minds: What kind of impression am I making? Do they like me? Do I sound stupid? Am I wearing unattractive clothes?It is obvious that such uncomfortable feelings must affect people unfavorably. A person’s self-concept is reflected in the way he or she behaves and the way a person behaves affects other people’s reactions. In general, the way p eople think about themselves has a deep effect on all areas of their lives.Shy people, who have low respect, are likely to be passive and easily influenced by others. They need faith that they are doing ＂the right thing＂. Shy people are very sensitive to criticism. It makes them feel inferior(自卑). They also find it difficult to be pleased by praises because they believe they are unworthy of praise. A shy person may respond to a praise with a statement like this one: ＂You’re just saying that to make me feel good. I know it’s not true.＂It is clear that,. while self-awareness is a healthy quality, overdoing it is harmful.Can shyness be completely got rid of, or at least reduced? Fortunately, people can overcomeshyness with determination since shyness goes hand in hand with lack of self-respect. It isimportant for people to accept their weaknesses as well as their strengths. Each one of us has hisor her own characteristics. We are interested in our own personal ways. The better we understandourselves, the easier it becomes to live up to our chances for a rich and successful life.4. The first paragraph is mainly about ____________.A. the cause of shynessB. the effect of shyness on peopleC. the feelings of shy peopleD. the questions in the minds of shy people5. According to the writer, self-awareness is ____________.A. harmful to peopleB. a weak point of peopleC. the cause of unhappinessD. a good characteristic6. What is the shy people’s reaction to praise?A. They are pleased by it. B They feel it is not true.C. They are very sensitive to it.D. They feel they are worthy of it.7. We can learn from the passage that shyness ____________.A. blocks our chances for a successful lifeB. helps us to live up to our full developmentC. enables us to understand ourselves betterD. has nothing to do with lack of self-respect第二节（共5小题，每小题2.5分，满分12.5分）根据短文内容，从短文后的选项中选出能填入空白处的最佳选项，选项中有两项为多余选项。

第17卷　总第101期3本文为笔者主持的国家社科基金项目“著作权的宪法维度”[批号为07CFX037]的部分研究成果。

33李雨峰,法学博士,西南政法大学教授,牛津大学访问学者。

1Jessica L it m an,W ar and Peace,53Journal of the Copyright Society of U.S 101-121(2006).2I d,at 103.3参见李雨峰:《版权扩张:一种合法性的反思》,《现代法学》,2001年第5期;冯晓青:《版权扩张及其缘由透视》,《政法论坛》,2006年第6期。

英文资料参见NeilW einst ock Netanel,Copyright and De mocratic Civil Society,106Yale La w Journal 292-305(1996).4有关资料可参见美国因1998年通过《索尼・伯尼版权期限延长法》而引发的争论,特别是Eldred v .A shcr oft,available at <htt p://www .sup re mecourtus .gov/op ini ons/02pdf/01-618.pdf >5See Peter K .Yu,The Escalating CopyrightW ars,32Hofstra Law Revie w 907-951(2004).6David N i m mer,The End of Copyright,48Vanderbilt La w Revie w 1420(1995).7近年有关公共领域研究的重要文献包括:Jane C .Ginsburg,“Une Chose Publique ”?The author ’s Domain and the Public Domain in Early B ritish,French and US CopyrightLa w,65The Ca mbridge Law Journal 636-670(2006;.Ja mesBoyle (ed .),Public Domain:Collected Papers,in 66La w and Contemporary Pr oble m s 1-483(W inter/Sp ring 2003);P .Bernt Hugenholtz and Lucie Guibault (eds .),The future of the public domain:identifying the commons in infor mati on la w,Kluwer La w I nternati onal,2006;Tyler T .Ochoa,O rigins and meanings of Public Domain,28U.Dayt on La w Review 215(2002);Yochai Benkler,Free as the A ir t o Common U se,74N.Y .U Law Revie w 361-362(1999);Anupam Chander and Madviha Sunder,The Romance of Public Domain,92California La w Revie w 1331(2004).中文资料参见冯晓青:《知识产权法的公共领域理论》,《知识产权》,2007年第3期;李雨峰:《版权、市民社会与国家》,《知识产权》,2006年第3期。

Cambridge Journals Online剑桥期刊在线使用手册孕育于英伦最高学府剑桥大学的剑桥大学出版社成立于1534年，是世界上历史最悠久、规模最大的大学出版社之一。

自从成立以来，剑桥大学出版社一直秉承剑桥大学严谨求实的学术传统，以其卓尔不群的风格和历久弥新的姿态在国际上享有盛誉。

如今，剑桥大学出版社在全球聘用1800多名员工，同时向200多个国家和地区提供图书和期刊，其作者队伍及业务范围遍及全世界。

CUP以专业权威的自然科学和国际领先的人文社科类期刊而闻名于世，2010年共出版236种学术期刊，其中科技类有86种期刊，其中78%被SCI收录；人文社科类有151种期刊，其中64%被SSCI/AHCI收录；医学类有45种期刊，其中65%被SCI收录；工程技术类有39种期刊，有77%被SCI收录。

这些期刊学科跨度广，学术水平高，极力关注各领域的最新研究发展，已成为国内科研和教学的必备资料。

剑桥大学出版社于2007年9月开始为大学用户租用了CERNET的专线，通过专线访问无需支付国际流量费。

1.1 期刊浏览每个页面左侧都有期刊浏览（Browse Journal）栏目，可以以多种方式浏览期刊：1.1.1 按期刊名称浏览点击“By Title（按期刊名称浏览）”，进入期刊名称浏览页面。

您可以点击某个英文字母，浏览名称中以该字母为首的期刊。

1.1.2 按学科类别浏览点击“By Subject（按主题浏览）”，进入主题浏览页面。

您可以选择不同学科主题，浏览相关主题或学科领域的期刊。

1.1.3浏览已订购的期刊点击“Subscribed To（已订购期刊）”，进入已订购期刊浏览页面。

您可以浏览当前所有有权查阅全文的电子期刊清单，包括贵单位已经订购的、正在试用或可以免费使用的全文电子期刊。

1.1.4浏览您最常用的期刊通过“Favourites（最爱的）”，您可以把常用的期刊保存起来，并随时浏览。

您必须先注册为剑桥期刊在线的个人用户，并且登录之后，才能使用此项功能。

Unit1I.Word Studyaffection n.a gentle feeling of love and caringExamples: Every mother has/feels affection toward her children.He is held in great affection.affectionate a. He looks at her with affectionate looks.cf: affectation n.矫饰affirm v.to declare (usually again) positively; strengthen beliefs, ideas, or feelings Examples: affirm one’s judgment/innocence affirm sth. to sb.affirm that it is trueaffirmative a. affirmative reply/nod/reactionapply She is applying for a scholarship. Ointment ['ɔɪntmənt] n. 软膏, 油膏We should apply what we have learned to practice. a/the fly in the ointmentNot all natural laws can apply to human society. 扫兴的人；煞风景的事物Apply some of this ointment to the swollen part, and the pain will soon be gone.Capability n. the natural ability, skill, or power that makes you able to do sth. Examples: He has the capabilities of solving/to solve practical problems.It’s quite above his capabilities.ability :the power to do sth. well acquired naturally or by learningcapacity :ability to hold, contain, or learnfaculty: a special abilityHe has the ability to do the work, but he’s too lazy and won’t do it.The book is within the reading capacity of young readers.The auditorium has a seating capacity of 300 people.He has a faculty for painting.Contribute v. a. to join with others in giving help, money, etc.b. to help to cause or produceExamples: contribute food and clothing for the refugees contribute to the Red Cross Exercises contribute to one’s health. Drinking contributed to his ruin.distribute v. to give things to a large number of people; spread sth. over an area Examples: distribute pictures among children distribute magazines to subscribers distribute manure over a field (manure [mə'nʊə, -'njʊə] n. 肥料;粪便)counsel v. (fml.) to advise n. advice; opinion; suggestion counselor n. adviser; lawyer Examples: counsel care in the forthcoming negotiationHe counseled them giving up/to give up the plan.Distinct a. clearly different or belonging to a different type b. easily seen, understood; plain Examples: Silk is distinct from rayon. They are similar in form but distinct in kind.There is a distinct improvement in his pronunciation rayon['reɪɔn].He is at a distinct a dvantage in the competition n. 人造丝;人造纤维丝n. distinction ad. Distinctlydistinctive a. serving to mark a difference or make distinctExample: Soldiers wear a distinctive uniform.endeavore v. (fml.) to try very hard n. (fml.) effort; attemptExamples: He endeavoreo calm himself down but in vain.His endeavors to persuade her to go with him failed.endowment n. a. a quality or ability that someone has naturallyb. money, property, etc. given to provide an incomeExamples: They are men of great endowments.The Oxford and Cambridge colleges have numerous endowments.endow. a. to possess naturally, be born with b. to give a college, hospital, etc. a large sum of money that will provide it with an incomeExamples: She i s endowed with both beauty and brains.That hospital is privately endowed.Ethical a.connected with principles of what is right and what is wrongExamples: an ethical principle\an ethical basis for educationethnic a. a. of race or the races of mankind b. (colloq.) of a particular cultural group Examples: ethnic clothes/food/music/restaurantsExcessive a. much more than is reasonable or ecessaryExamples: excessive rainfall excessive chargesexcess n. an excess of enthusiasm.That is a city with a population in excess of two million.handle v. a. to touch, lift or turn with the hands b. to operate with the handsc. to manage, control or cope withd. to buy and sellExamples: This box contains delicate china. Please handle with care.This computer is easy to handle. This shop does not handle imported goods.We have to handle the relationship between our two countries carefully.Inherit v. to receive (genetic characters) from one’s parentsExamples: inherit money/estate/title(头衔)She inherited her mother’s good looks and her father’s bad temper.n. inheritance继承遗留物继承权n. heritage（非物质文化）遗产,传统interpret a. to make clear the meaning of (either in words or by artistic performance)b. to consider to be the meaning ofc. to give an immediate oral translation of Examples: interpret a difficult passage in a book We interpreted his silence as a refusal.Will you interpret fo r the foreign visitors?n. interpreter口译工作者;口译译员n. interpretation解释, 说明; 诠释；表演; 演奏inhibition n. (psych.) a feeling of worry or embarrassment that stops you doing or saying what you really want toExample: Wine weakens a person’s inhibitions.inhibit v. to hinder; to restrain inhibit sb. from doing sth.involve v. a. to include as a necessary part or result b. to affectExamples: All reforms involv e certain tasks. He was deeply involved in the scandal The building of the dam involved relocating almost one million people.You have to involve every country in the fight against global warming.a. involved n. involvementobserve v. a. to see or notice; watch carefully b. to say by way of comment c.遵守Examples: The accused was observed trying to force the lock of the door.Some scientists observed that global warming is not necessarily related to human activities. n. observation a. observant善于观察的;观察力敏锐的；严守教规的occur v. a. to happen b. to come into one’s mind suddenly n. occurrence Examples: Over the years many floods have occurred in that area.It occurred to him that there was a better way to do it.I guess it never occurred to him to put aside some money for a rainy day.perceive v. (fml.) to become aware of, esp. throughthe eyes or the mindExamples: Musicians can perceive small differences in sounds.He gradually perceived that language and culture can’t be separated.a. perceptive洞察力强的adv. perceptively n. perceptiveness洞察力强;敏锐;理解力a. perceptible可感觉〔感受〕到的,可理解的,可认识的n. perceptionproject v. a. to plan\b. to cause a shadow, an outline, etc. on a surface\c. to present sb./sth./yourself to other people in a particular way, esp. one that gives a good impression Examples: project a dam/a new canal project a picture on a screenproject the future roles as men or womenshrink v. a. to make or become smaller, esp. through wettingb. to move back; show unwillingness to do sth.Examples: Will this shirt shrink in the wash?\ Car sales have been shrinking recently.A shy man shrinks from meeting strangers.contract v. to make or become smaller or shorter; make or become tighter or narrower Examples: Metals contract as they become cool. (n.合同v.订合同，染上) contract one’s muscles/the brows(眉)/foreheadII.Phrases and Expressionsbe equal to v.to be just as good as; have strength, courage,ability etc. for sth. Examples: Many of our products are equal to the best in the world.It is ridiculous to think one race is not equal to another because it has a different skin color. He is equal to doing this task.dawn on/upon v.to begin to appear; grow clear to the mind Cf:It occurs to sb. that…Examples: The truth began to dawn on him. \It suddenly dawned on me that there was another thing that contributed to their economic success.drag one’s feet v.(figurative usage) to delay deliberatelyExamples:The local authorities are dragging their feet closing these coal mines.I can understand why they are dragging their feet over this reform. The reason is that it will affect their personal interests.for certain ad.certainly; definitely; no doubtExamples: He is probably an accountant. I don’t know for certain.I can’t say for certain how much this car will cost. It must be in the neighborhood of twohundred thousand yuan.freedom/free from no longer having sth. you do not wantfreedom from taxation freedom of press/speechExamples: The most important freedom our people should have is the freedom from hunger.An ideal society is one free from exploitation and oppressionWe look forward to a world founded upon essential human freedoms. The first is freedom of speech and expression—everywhere in the world. The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way—everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want… everywhere in the world. The fourth is freedom from fear… anywhere in the world. “—Franklin D. Roosevelt go through1) to be passed or approved The Bill did not go through.2) to be concluded The deal did not go through.3) to discuss in detail Let’s go through the arguments again.4) to search The police went through the pockets of the suspected thief.5) to complete Let’s go through the exercises.6) to undergo; suffer He seemed to have forgotten all that he had gone through.7) to consume; use up It did not take Albert very long to go through his inheritance.8) to continue firmly to the end Knowing full well the difficulties the work involved, theywere still determined to go through with it.pull through1)to make sth. or sb. through by pullingThe eye of the needle is too small and I can’t pull the thread through.2) to survive a difficult or dangerous situationThat newly liberated country is going to have a rough time, but it will pull through.3) to recover or help to recover from illnessHe was badly injured in the accident, but the doctors made every effort to pull him through. in turnThe candidates were summoned in turn to see the examiner.Theory is based on practice and in turn serves practice.in/with relation to as regards; concerningExamples: I have a lot to say in relation to that affair.The project was outlined with relation to available funds.in a different light in a different wayExamples: After I took that course, I began to see the world in a different light.What he did made us see him in a different light.in the light of after considering (sth.)He decided to make further improvements on the computer’s design in the light of the requirements of customers.shed/throw a new light on to make sth. clearer; provide new information These facts shed a new light on the matter.independent from/of not dependent on or controlled by other persons or things Examples: If you have a car, you are independent from/of trains and buses.That’s an objective law independent from/of man’s will.Cf: Promotion is dependent on/upon one’s record of success.stand back1) to stand to the rear The child stood back at the sight of the ferocious dog.2) to distance oneself mentally in order to understand or judge better Sometimes an administrator must stand back from day-to-day business to grasp the wider pattern of events.3) to withdraw or retreat from making discussions, influencing events, etc.She ran the family and her husband stood back.III.Word BuildingIV. From the textDevelopmental changes Move from adolescence to young adulthood Identity crises Genetic endowment Chance event Later adolescent stage Pursue a college education Enter the work world Handle finances Determine one ’s daily agenda Select the major that they want to pursue Parental approval Establish one ’s sexual identity Relate to the opposite sex Have a romantic relationship with Bounce into my officeExcitement in one ’s voiceDrag one ’s feetGive and receive affectionShow proper respect forRebel againstPut into a dormAffirm personal valuesAcademic lifeA growing experienceThe knowledge presented to sb.New ways of interpreting lifeInternational studentsTelevision newscastIn a different lightPersonal growth and expansionAcquire new ways of assembling and processing informationMy world is expanding and new options are opening for me ,but my father, who was in his sixty, was seeing his world shrink and his options narrow.Be appointed to an important governmental positionEvaluate new ways of gather process and apply knowledge in one ’s lifeFour distinct aspects to psychological separation from parentsDefine one ’s sexual identity in a feminine/muscular roleDevelop new ways to organize and use knowledgePeople from a variety of ethnic backgroundsBecome financially independent from parentsGrow and learn new skills that take years to develop。

Beckmann M J.Spatial Equilibrium in the Dispersed City.In:Y Y Papageorgiou. Mathematical Land Use Theory.MA: Lexington Books,1976, 17-125Bergemann D. & U. Hege. The Financing of Innovation:Learning and Slipping [J].The Rand Joumal of Economicy,2005, 36(4):779-752.Breig H. Banking Landing and Corporate Finance in Major Industrial Countries: Are France and Germany really Similar. Working Paper. Albert Ludwig University.1994Brennan M. J, Miksimovic V. and Zechner J.Vendor Financing. The Journal of Finance.1988,43:1127-1141Briek L. E. & Fung W. K. H, 1984, Taxes and Theory of Trade Debt, The Journal of Finance, 1984,39(4),pp:1169-1176.Brown A. R. R.On Social Structure. The Joural of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.1940,70(1):1-12Carlos Quandt.Identifying Linkages with a Cluster-based Methodology[J].Economic Systems Research.2002,14(2)Claessens S & K. Tzioumis .Measuring Firms' Access to Finance, Mineo, World Bank and Brooking conference paper,2006Coe, Hess, Yeung Dicken & Henderson. Globalizing Regional Development:A Global Production Networks Perspective. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,2004,(29):468-484 Dahlman C. J. "The of Extemality". Journal of Legal Studies.1979. 22.p. 141-162Daniela Fabbri, Anna Maria C.Menichini. Trade Credit, Collateral Liquidation, and Borrowing Constraints. Journal of Financial Economics,2010,96:413-432.Danielson M. G. & Scott J. A.Additional Evidence on the Use of Trade Credit by Small Firms: The Role of Trade Credit Discounts. Mimeo, Fox School of Business and Management. Deiotatti.Trust,Interlinking Transactions and Credit in the Industrial District,Cambridge.Journal of Economics,1994,18(6):529-546Deloof .M. & Jegers M.Trade Credit, Product Quality, and Intragroup Trade: Some European Evidence. Financial Management. 1996,25:33-43Demirguc-Kunt A. & V. Maksimovic.Firms as Financial Interniediaries: Evidence from Trade Credit Data. The World Bank Policy Research Working Paper. 2001,No. 2696 Dollar, Shi W. & Yu. Improving City Competitiveness through the Investment Climate Ranking23 Chinese Cities [R]. Working Paper, World Bank,2003Duranton, Gilles & Diego Puga, "Micro-foundations of Urban Agglomeration Economies",In Vernon Henderson and Jacques-Francois Thisse (eds.) Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics,2004,volume 4. Amsterdam: North-HollandEdward I Altman.Financial ratios,discriminanrt analysis and the prediction of corporate bankruptcy.Journal of Finance,1968,23(4):589.Elliehausen G E & Wolken J D.The demand for trade credit:An investigation of motives for trade credit use by small business[R]. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, 1993:165-183.Emery G. W. An Optimal Financial Response to Variable Demand [J], The Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 1987, Vol. 22, No. 2: 209-225.Fabiani S. & G. Pellegrini，E. Romagnano , L. F. Signorini, "Efficiency and Localization: the Case of Italian Districts",2000, The Competitive Advantage of ladastrial Districts，Germany:Physica-Verlag Herdelberg.Francois Perroux.A note on the notion of growth pole.Applied Economy,1955(1-2):307-320. Frank and Maksimovic, Trade Credit, Collateral, and Adverse Selection [R], Working Paper, University of Maryland, 2005.Frank Murray & Maksimovic Vojislav.Trade Credit, Collateral, and Adverse Selection.Unpublished Manuscript. University of Maryland.1998Fujita M & Krugman P.The New Economic Geography:Past,Present and the Future[J].Journal of Regional Science.2004,83:139-164Fujita M,Mori T.Frontiers of the New Economic Geography.Papers in Regional Science,2005,84(3):377-405Ge Y, Qiu J. Financial Development, Bank Discrimination and Trade Credit [D].Working paper, 2005.Granovetter M. "Economic action and social structure: The problems of embeddedness",American Journal of Sociology, 1985, 91:481一510.Gregory E. Elliehausen & John D. Wolken. The demand for trade credit: an investigation of motives for trade credit use by small businesses. Staff Studies,Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.),1993Greif Avner.Institutions and tehe Path ti the Modem Economy.Cambridge University Press,2006 Hellman, Mnrdcck，Stiglitz.Financial Restraint: Toward a New Paradigm [M]. Oxfcrd Clarendcn Press，1997.Hoover E. M.Location Theory and Shoe and Leather Industries[M].Harvard University Pless,1937 Inessa Love , Lorenzo A. Preve & Virginia Sarria-Allende.Trade Credit and Bank Credit: Evidence from Recent Financial Crises. Journal of Financial Economics,2007,83:453-469 Jaber M. Y. & Osman I. H. Coordinating a two-level supply chain wite delay in payments and profit puters & Industrial Engineering.2006,50:385-400Jain K., Monitoring Costs and trade credit[J],The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 2001, 4187-110.Lamont ,Owen ,Christopher Polk et al.Financial Constraints and Stock Returns.Review of Financial Studies.2001,14:529-554Laumann E. O., Galaskiewica , J.& Marsden, P. V.. Community structure as inter-organizational linkages, Annual Review of Sociology.1978, 4, 455-484.Lee Y.W. & Stowe, J.D. Product Risk, A symmetric Information, and Trade Credit[J],The Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 1993, 28 (2),: 285- 300.Lisa D. Cook. Trade Credit and Bank Finance: Financing Small Firms in Russia.Journal of Business Venturing, 1999(14):493-518.Long C. & X. Zhang,"Cluster-based Industrialization in China:Financing and Performance" , Journal of International Economics，2011，84(1)，un. 112-123.Long M. S. ,Malitz I. B. & Ravid S. A. On Trade Credit, Quality Guarantees, and Product Marketability. Financial Management, 1993,(4):I I7-127Lundvall Bengt-Ake.National Systems of Innovation.London:Printer Publisher,1992Marrot G.Does trade credit redistribution thwart monetary policy?Evidence from Italy [J], Applied Economics, 1997, Vol. 29: 1619-1629.Marshall,A. Principles of Economics[M]. London: Macmillan,1920.Mcmillan J. & Woodruff C., Interfilm Relationship and Informal Credit in Vietnam [J], TheQuarterly Journal of Economics, 1999, Vol. 114, No.4: 1285-1320.Meltzer A. H. Mercantile Credit, Monetary Policy, and Size of Firms [J], The Review of Economic and Statistics, 1960, 42: 429- 437.Mian S., and Smith C. W. Accounts Receivable Management Policy:Theory and Evidence [J], Journal of Finance, 1992, 47: 169-200.Miilardo R. M.Theoretical and methodological issuers in the identification of the social networks spouses[J].Marrigae Fam,1989,51:165-174Mitchell, J. C. Social Networks in Urban Settings: The Concept and Use of Social Network[M].Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1969North, D.Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance.Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1990.North Douglass C & Robert P Thomas.The Rise of the Western World:A New Economic History.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1973，19-45O. E. Williamson, Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Antitrust Implications, New York: The Free Press, 1975.O. E. Williamson. J. Michael Montias' The Structure of Economic Systems,Bell Journal of Economics, The RAND Corporation,1977, 8(2):620-623.O tatti D. "Trust，Interlinking Transactions and Credit in the Industrial District"Cambridge Journal of Economics ，1994,118 ( 6 ) , pp. 529-546.Park S.O&A. Markusen .Generalizing New Industrial Districts: A Theoretical Agenda and an Application from a Non-Western Economy . Environment and Planning A.1995,27(1):90- 102.Ronald Coase. The Problem of Social Cost. The Journal of Law and Economics.1960,3:1-44 Russo P. F.& P. Rossi，"Credit Constraints in Italian Industrial Districts" , Applied Economics，2001,133(11)，pp. 1469-1477Saxenian A.Regional Route 128.Cambridge Advantage:Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and MA:Harvard University Press,1994,3-23Schumpeter.The Theory of Economic Devvelopment[M].Havard University Press,Cambridge,1934Schwartz R A. An economic model of trade credit[J].The ,Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis,1974(9):643-657.Simona Mateut, Spiros Bougheas & Paul Mizen. Trade Credit, Bankn Lending and Monetary Policy Transmission.European University Institute Working Paper,2003(2)Smith J. K. Trade Credit and Informational Asymmetry [J], The Journal of Finance, 1987, Vol. 42, No. 4:863-872.Weber Alfred.Theory of the Location of Industries.Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1909,50-92Williamson.The institutional economics:taking stock,looking ahead.Jounal of Economic literrature,2000.XXXVIII:593-613.X. Yang, J. Borland.A Microeconomic Mechanism for Economic Growth.Journal of Political Economy.1991,99(3):460-482.X. Yang , Y. K. Ng, Theory of the Firm and Structure of Residual Rights. Journal of Economy Behavior and Organization.1995,26(1):107-128.Yamamoto.Agglomeration and growth with Innovation in Inermediate Goods. Sector.Regional Science and Urban Economics,2003,33:335-360。

大学英语四级考试全真预测试卷二Model Test TwoPart I Writing (30 minutes)Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic: WILL PHONES KILL LETTER WRITING? You should write at least 120 words according to the outline given below in Chinese:1. 年轻人越来越趋向于打电话2. 信件是否会被电话取缔3. 我的观点Part II Reading Comprehension (Skimming and Scanning) (15 minutes)Directions: In this part, you will have 15 minutes to go over the passage quickly and answer the questions on Answer Sheet 1.For questions 1-7, markY (for YES) if the statement agrees with the information given in the passage;N (for NO) if the statement contradicts the information given in the passage;NG (for NOT GIVEN) if the information is not given in the passage.For questions 8-10, complete the sentences with the information given in the passage.Holy Squid! Photos Offer First Glimpse of Live Deep-Sea GiantLike something straight out of a Jules Verne novel, an enormous tentacle creature looms out of the inky blackness of the deep Pacific waters.But this isn't science fiction. A set of extraordinary images captured by Japanese scientists mark the first-ever record of a live giant squid (Architeuthis) in the wild.The animal—which measures roughly 25 feet (8 meters) long—was photographed 2,950 feet (900 meters) beneath the North Pacific Ocean. Japanese scientists attracted the squid toward cameras attached to a baited fishing line.The scientists say they snapped more than 500 images of the massive cephalopod before it broke free after snagging itself on a hook. They also recovered one of the giant squid's two longest tentacles, which severed during its struggle.The photo sequence, taken off Japan's Ogasawara Islands in September 2004, shows the squid homing in on the baited line and enveloping it in "a ball of tentacles."Tsunemi Kubodera of the National Science Museum in Tokyo and Kyoichi Mori of the Ogasawara Whale Watching Association report their observations this week in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B."Architeuthis appears to be a much more active predator than previously suspected, using its elongated feeding tentacles to strike and tangle prey," the researchers write.They add that the squid was found feeding at depths where no light penetrates even during the day.Giant BreakthroughDespite people's fascination with this deep-sea behemoth, the giant squid's life and habits have remained largely a mystery. The little information known has been mostly based on dead and dying specimens that were caught by commercial fishing boats or washed ashore.The mysterious creature has inspired countless sea monster tales and has been the subject of various scientific expeditions.Since the mid 1990s there have been a number of research trips in search of giant squid. Cameras attached to deep-diving subs or sperm whales have been used to try to capture the elusive animals on film, but without success.The Japanese researchers used sperm whales as guides to help them pinpoint likely giant squid haunts. Over the years whalers have reported finding a high number of large squid beaks in the mammals' stomachs, pegging sperm whales as primary predators of large squid.The images are generating considerable excitement among squid experts."I think it's wonderful that we've finally got a picture of a living giant squid," said Richard Ellis, a research associate at the American Museum of Natural History in New York and author of The Search for the Giant Squid."I thought it would only be a matter of time before someone got images of Architeuthis," he added."After all, it's not an endangered species, not even all that rare, and it's one of the largest of all invertebrates. So the Japanese film finaly breaks through and renders the statement 'nobody has ever seen a living giant squid' inoperative."Squid expert Martin Collins of the British Antarctic Survey based in Cambridge, England, says the new images are a "fantastic" achievement.The marine biologist says he was skeptical that a dedicated giant squid hunt would succeed. He thought the first wild sighting would probably come by accident."Fair play to these guys who've made the effort, gone out there and looked in what they thought was a good area, and found it," he said.Hunting for CluesCollins is especially interested in clues the images might provide to the way giant squid swim and hunt in the deep ocean."Seeing the animals on film gives you a tremendous insight into how they live down there," he said. "It shows they are pretty active animals, and that answers a big question that's been out there for some time."Collins says there were two competing schools of thought among giant squid experts."One was the idea that [giant squid] were fairly inactive and just drifted around, dangling their tentacles below them like fishing lures to catch what came by," he said."The other theory was that they were actually quite active. This new evidence supports this, suggesting they are active predators which can move reasonably quickly.""The efforts the squid went to untangle itself [from the baited fishing line] also shows they are capable of quite strong and rapid movement," he added.The study team reports that the severed tentacle repeatedly gripped the boat deck and crew after it was hauled aboard. The squid's tentacles are armed with suckers, each ringed with tiny teeth to help snare prey.Measuring 18 feet (5.5 meters) long, analysis of the tentacle confirmed it came from a giant squid and allowed the researchers to estimate the total length of the animal.But the researchers caution that their data assume the tentacle was severed at it base. If not, the squid may have been considerably larger. The longest giant squid on record measured 59 feet (18 meters), including its two elongated tentacles.Shedding Light on Giant SquidGiant squid, along with their close cousins colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis), have the largest eyes of any animal."Giant squid do have particularly large eyes, which would suggest vision is important to them. Having a large eye isn't unusual in deep-sea animals-you see it quite often in fish."The fact that the animal caught on film was swimming in total darkness suggests the species detects prey using alternative light sources. "The only light down there is likely to be light produced by other animals," said Collins of the British Antarctic Survey.The Japanese team thinks that research techniques similar to their own could be used to bring about more close encounters with giant squid. Ellis of the American Museum of Natural History agrees."I'm sure we can learn a lot from an analysis of these images," he said. "And now that we have an idea of where to look for [the squid], we will undoubtedly get more pictures."1. The passage talks mainly about the studying of a live giant squid by American scientists.2. The giant squid was photographed 2,950 feet beneath the North Pacific Ocean.3. The observations by Tsunemi Kubodera and Kyoichi Mori was reported in the journal Proceedings of Royal Society B.4. The Japanese film is a breakthrough in the study of the giant squid's life and habits.5. There are three competing schools of thought among giant squid experts.6. The giant squid are capable of quite strong and rapid movement.7. The longest giant squid on record measured 18 feet.8. Giant squid, along with their close cousins colossal squid, have the largest ________________.9. The giant squid swimming in total darkness detects prey using ________________.10. The Japanese team thinks that research techniques similar to their own could be used to bring about more ________________.Part III Listening Comprehension (35 minutes)Section ADirections: In this section, you will hear 8 short conversations and 2 long conversations. At the end of each conversation, one or more questions will be asked about what was said. Both the conversation and the questions will be spoken only once. After each question there will be a pause. During the pause, you must read the fourchoices marked [A], [B], [C] and [D], and decide which is the best answer. Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre.11. [A] He'll be speaking at the end of the meeting. [C]He suddenly decided not to speak.[B] He was supposed to speak last night instead. [D] He already spoke very briefly tonight.12. [A] It's too high. [C] It's cheap indeed.[B] It's acceptable. [D] The woman should have bargained for it.13. [A] At two o'clock. [C] At four o'clock.[B] At three o'clock. [D] At five o'clock.14. [A] Shop assistant and customer. [C] Store keeper and customer.[B] Post clerk and customer. [D] Waitress and customer.15. [A] His girlfriend complained of his going to the party without her.[B] He was together with his girlfriend yesterday.[C] He has been busy dating his girlfriend these days.[D] He brought his girlfriend to the party.16. [A] She regretted having bought the second-hand car.[B] It is unnecessary to rent another house.[C] They should sell their second-hand car and buy a new one.[D] They can afford a second-hand car.17. [A] She loves the film too. [C] She asks the man to repeat his words.[B] She doesn't think much of the film. [D] It's not as good as she expected.18. [A] Go out with his wife. [C] Stay at home with his wife.[B] Work for extra hours. [D] Go out with his boss.Questions 19 to 22 are based on the conversation you have just heard.19. [A] It's hereditary. [C] He combs his hair too much.[B] The shampoo he used caused it. [D] He is old enough to lose hair.20. [A] Use some special shampoo.[B] Wear a wig.[C] Don't try to comb hair over the bald or thin patch.[D] Go to the doctor for advice.21. [A] Over the radio. [C] At the man's house.[B] At a doctor's office. [D] At a drug store.22. [A] It suits him. [C] It looks old.[B] It looks ridiculous [D] It's getting worse.Questions 23 to 25 are based on the conversation you have just heard.23. [A] Once a week. [C] Five every month.[B] Three every month. [D] Two every month.24. [A] When there are more than twelve people. [C] When there are fifteen people.[B] When there are five people. [D] When there are more than fifteen people.25. [A] Call the office. [C] Pay the money.[B] Sign your name on the notice board in advance. [D] There is no need to reserve a place.Section BDirections: In this section, you will hear 3 short passages. At the end of each passage, you will hear some questions. Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked [A],[B],[C] and [D]. Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the center.Passage OneQuestions 26 to 29 are based on the passage you have just heard.26. [A] Because it isn't closed.[B] Because the students have to pass all examinations before entering it.[C] Because there is no examination before they are accepted as students.[D] Because its door is open.27. [A] At the airport. [C] Taking the air.[B] By plane. [D] On radio and TV.28. [A] Four. [C] Three.[B] Eight. [D] Five.29. [A] In four or five years. [C] In three or four years.[B] In one year. [D] In 36 weeks.Passage TwoQuestions 30 to 32 are based on the passage you have just heard.30. [A] A new way to take notes. [C] The five steps in the reading process.[B] A short name for survey reading method. [D] Different ways to study for examinations.31. [A] That one should think about the ideas while reading the words.[B] That one should always take notes.[C] That one should read only the title and important words.[D] That one should read sequences of words.32. [A] Read. [C] Review.[B] Recite. [D] Reread.Passage ThreeQuestions 33 to 35 are based on the passage you have just heard.33. [A] Vacations. [C] Overcrowded classrooms.[B] Wages. [D] Paid sick leaves.34. [A] They want the teachers to resign.[B] They want the teachers to return to work.[C] They are very sympathetic toward the strike.[D] They are refusing to comment on the situation.35. [A] Parent Board. [C] Teachers' Union.[B] District Court. [D] School Committee.Section CDirections: In this section, you will hear a passage three times. When the passage is read for the first time, you should listen carefully for its general idea. When the passage is read for the second time, you are required to fill in the blanks numbered from 36 to 43 with the exact words you have just heard. For blanks numbered from 44 to 46 you are required to fill in the missing information. For these blank, you can either use the exact words you have just heard or write down the main points in your own words. Finally, when the passage is read for the third time, you should check what you have written.There are 17 kinds of penguins in the world. All of them live in the southern (36) ________. Only a few (37) ________ live on the continent of Antarctica at the bottom of the world. The emperor penguins are the largest. They are about 100 (38) ________ tall and weigh about 30 kilograms. Their special (39) ________ of mating makes them different from all other penguins.For thousands of years the emperor penguins have lived on the (40) ________ Continent of Antarctica. These black and white birds live in large groups or colonies. There are about 40 emperor penguin colonies on Antarctica. In total there are about 400,000 birds.These birds spend the summer swimming in the ocean in (41) ________ of food such as fish and (42)________. Penguins are not able to fly, but they are (43) ________ swimmers. (44)________________________________________. But when summer ends, so does this easy time spent by the water. (45) ________________________________________.(46) ________________________________________. They must find an area with some shelter from the freezing winds.Part IV Reading Comprehension (Reading in Depth) (25 minutes)Section ADirections: In this part there is a short passage with 5 questions or incomplete statements. Read the passage carefully. Then answer the questions or complete the staements in the fewest possible words. Write your answers in the spaces provided on Answer Sheet 2.Culture shock is so named because of the effect it has on people when they enter a new culture. Experts have been interested in these effects and have agreed on five basic stages of culture shock. These stages are general and should only be used as a reference. Not every individual will go through each stage, and one stage may last longer than another for different individuals.The hardest thing for most travelers to deal with is the emotional "roller coaster" they seem to be riding. One moment they feel very positive toward the new culture, and the next moment very negative. It seems common that international visitors and immigrants vacillate (犹豫不定)between loving and hating a new country. Feelings of separation and alienation can be intensified if they do not have a sense of fitting in or belonging.Fatigue is another problem people face when entering a new culture. There can be a sense of a greater need for sleep. This is due not only to physical tiredness, but also to mental fatigue. This mental fatigue comes from straining to comprehend the language, and coping with new situations.The impact of culture shock can vary from person to person. There can be significant differences because some people may be better prepared to enter a new culture. Four factors which play into these are personality, language ability, length of stay, and the emotional support received.It is logical to think that when people are deprived of their familiar surroundings they will feel disoriented. One solution some have found is to bring a few small reminders of home. Pictures, wall hangings, favorite utensils, and keepsakes(纪念品)are all good candidates to make things feel more familiar. Another helpful activity is to establish little routines that become familiar over time. Even better is fitting things that were part of the regular routine back in the home country into the routine established in the new culture. This will make people feel moreat home.47. According to the 1st paragraph, experts have interests in ________________.48. Emotional "roller coaster" refers to ________________.49. When entering a new culture, the problems people face are ________________.50. Coping with new situations may result in ________________.51. According to the author, the more effective way to solve "cultural shock" is ________________.Section BDirections: There are 2 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked [A], [B], [C] and [C]. You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the center.Passage OneQuestions 52 to 56 are based on the following passage.Sixteen years ago, Eileen Doyle's husband, an engineer, took his four children up for an early morning cup of tea, packed a small case and was never seen or heard of again. Eileen was astonished and in a state of despair. They had been a happy family and, as far as she knew, there had been nothing wrong with their marriage.Every day of the year, a small group of men and women quietly pack a few belongings and without so much as a note or a good-bye close the front door for the last time, leaving their debts, their worries and their confused families behind them.Last year, more than 1,200 men and nearly as many women were reported missing from home—the highest in 15 years. Many did return home within a year, but others rejected the past completely and are now living a new life somewhere under a different identity.To those left behind this form of desertion is a terrible blow to their pride and self-confidence. Even the finality of death might be preferable. At least it does not imply rejection or failure. Worse than that, people can be left with an unfinished marriage, not knowing whether they will have to wait seven years before they are free to start a fresh life.Clinical psychologist Paul Brown believes most departures of this kind to be well planned rather than impulsive. "It's typical of the kind of personality which seems able to ignore other people's pain and difficulties. Running away, like killing yourself, is a highly aggressive act. By creating an absence the people left behind feel guilty, upset and empty."The Salvation Army's Investigation Department has a 70 percent success rate in tracking missing people down. According to Lt. Co. Bramwell Pratt, head of the department, men and women run away for very different reasons though lack of communication is often the biggest motive. "The things that disturb a man's personality areproblems like being tied up in debt or serious worries about work. And some women make impossible demands on their husbands. Women usually leave for more obvious reasons but fear is at the root of it. Men are more often prepared to give their marriage another try than women, but we are aware that, for some wives, it would be a total impossibility to return after the way they've been treated."52. When her husband left home, Eileen Doyle ________ .[A] could not forgive him for taking the children [C] could not understand why[B] had been expecting it to happen for some time [D] blamed herself for what had happened53. Most people who leave their families behind them ________.[A] do so without warning [C] come back immediately[B] do so because of their debts [D] change their names54. The man or woman left behind usually ________.[A] admits responsibility for the situation[B] wishes the person who has left were dead[C] feels embarrassed and useless[D] will have no legal marriage life for seven years55. Paul Brown regards leaving home in such circumstances as ________.[A] an act of despair [C] the result of a sudden decision[B] an act of selfishness [D] the result of the enormous sense of guilt56. The Salvation Army believes that _________.[A] most men run away because of the impossible demands of their wives[B] men's reasons are more understandable than women's[C] some women never give their men another chance[D] women are often afraid to start marriage againPassage TwoQuestions 57 to 61 are based in the following passage.The English have the reputation of being very different from all other nationalities. It is claimed that living on an island separated from the rest of Europe has much to do with it. Whatever the reasons, it may be fairly stated that the Englishman has developed some attitudes and habits distinguishing him from other nationalities.Broadly speaking, the Englishman is a quiet, shy, and reserved person among people he knows well. Before strangers he often seems inhibited, even embarrassed. You have only to witness a railway compartment any morning or evening to see the truth. Serious-looking businessmen and women sit reading their newspapers or dozing(打盹)in a corner, and no one speaks. An English wit once suggested to overseas visitors, "On entering a railway compartment shake hands with all the passengers." Needless to say, he was not being serious. There is anunwritten but clearly understood code of behavior, which, if broken, makes the person immediately the object of suspicion.It is well known that the English seldom show openly extremes of enthusiasm, emotion etc. Of course, an Englishman feels no less than any other nationality. Imagine a man commenting on the great beauty of a young girl. A man of more emotional temperament might describe her as "a marvelous jewel", while the Englishman will flatly state "Um, she's all right." An Englishman may recommend a highly successful and enjoyable film to friends by commenting, "It's not bad." The overseas visitors must not be disappointed by this apparent lack of interest. They must realize that "all right", "not bad" are very often used with the sense of "first class", "excellent". This special use of language is particularly common in English.57. One explanation for the different character of English people is that ________.[A] they are geographically isolated from the European continent[B] they have nothing to do with the other Europeans[C] they like to keep quiet among their acquaintances[D] they tend to be reserved by nature58. The word "inhibited" (Line 2, Para. 2) in this passage probably means ________ .[A] unable to have good manners [C] able to act properly[B] unable to express and relax freely [D] able to talk freely59. According to the passage, on entering a railway compartment, an overseas visitor is expected to ________ .[A] inquire about the code of behavior in the train [C] shake hands with the person he knows[B] shake hands with all the passengers [D] behave like an Englishman60. The English way of commenting on something or somebody suggests that ________.[A] the English are modest in most circumstances[B] the English feel no less than any other nationality[C] the English tend to display less emotion than they feel[D] the English don't take a strong interest in making comment61. What does the passage mainly discuss?[A] The differences between the English and the other Europeans.[B] The different character of the Englishman and its reason.[C] The reasons for English people's shyness.[D] The code of behavior of the nationalities in Europe.Part V Cloze (15 minutes)Directions: There are 20 blanks in the following passage. For each blank there are four choices marked [A], [B], [C] and [D] on the right side of the paper. You should choose the ONE that best fits into the passage. Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the center.To be a good teacher, you need some of the gifts of a good actor: you must be able to 62 the attention and interest of your students: you must be a 63 speaker, with a good, strong, 64 voice which is fully under your control: and you must be able to 65 what you are teaching in order to make its meaning clear. 66 a good teacher and you will see that he does not sit still 67 his class: he stands the whole time when he is teaching; he walks about, using his 68 , hands and fingers to help him in his explanations, and his face to express feelings. Listen to him, and you will 69 the loudness, the quality and the musical note of his voice always 70 according to what he is 71 about. The fact that a good teacher has some of the gifts of a good actor doesn't 72 that he will indeed be able to act 73 on the stage, for there are very important 74 between the teacher's work and the actor's. The actor has to speak words which he has learnt by heart' he has to repeat exactly the 75 words each time he plays a certain part; 76 his movements and the ways in which he uses his voice are usually 77 beforehand. What he has to do is to make all these carefully learnt words and actions seem 78 on the stage.A good teacher 79 in quite a different way. His students take an active part in his 80 : they ask and answer questions; they obey orders; and if they don't understand something, they will say so. The teacher therefore has to suit his act to the needs of his students. He cannot learn his part by heart, but must 81 it as he goes along.62. [A] pay [B] hold [C] give [D] know63. [A] clear [B] slow [C] quick [D] loud64. [A] frightening [B] exciting [C] fearing [D] pleasing66. [A] Listen [B] Watch [C] Look [D] Observe67. [A] for [B] behind [C] before [D] with68. [A] tongue [B] words [C] sound [D] arms69. [A] hear [B] see [C] think [D] guess70. [A] making [B] changing [C] expressing [D] giving71. [A] talking [B] thinking [C] hearing [D] saying72. [A] tell [B] express [C] show [D] mean73. [A] good [B] badly [C] well [D] actively74. [A] things [B] differences [C] points [D] jobs75. [A] different [B] same [C] above [D] following76. [A] just [B] never [C] ever [D] even77. [A] read [B] known [C] fixed [D] written78. [A] natural [B] real [C] false [D] clear79. [A] is [B] has [C] works [D] teaches81. [A] invent [B] discover [C] teach [D] continuePart VI Translation (5 minutes)Directions: Complete the sentences on Answer Sheet 2 by translating into English the Chinese given in brackets.82. We offer a range of beverage, ________________________(从矿泉水到酒精饮料都有).83. There is a drinks reception on in Boston ________________________(为欢迎所有与会者).84. If you eat cookies or other fattening snacks between meals, ________________________(你会变胖的)!85. Too often we believe what accounts for other's success is some special secret or a lucky break,________________________(但成功却很少如此神秘).86. Any kind of exercise will do well to the heart, ________________________ (只要它能加速心跳).。

The Value of Life andthe Rise in Health SpendingRobert E.HallHoover Institution and Department of Economics,Stanford University and NBERE-mail:rehall@/˜rehallandCharles I.Jones*Department of Economics,U.C.Berkeley and NBERE-mail:chad@/˜chadApril7,2006—Version5.0Quarterly Journal of Economics,forthcoming.Over the past half century,Americans spent a rising share of total economicresources on health and enjoyed substantially longer lives as a result.Debateon health policy often focuses on limiting the growth of health spending.Weinvestigate an issue central to this debate:Is the growth of health spending a ra-tional response to changing economic conditions—notably the growth of incomeper person?We develop a model based on standard economic assumptions andargue that this is indeed the case.Standard preferences—of the kind used widelyin economics to study consumption,asset pricing,and labor supply—imply thathealth spending is a superior good with an income elasticity well above one.Aspeople get richer and consumption rises,the marginal utility of consumption fallsrapidly.Spending on health to extend life allows individuals to purchase addi-tional periods of utility.The marginal utility of life extension does not decline.As a result,the optimal composition of total spending shifts toward health,andthe health share grows along with income.In projections based on the quantita-tive analysis of our model,the optimal health share of spending seems likely toexceed30percent by the middle of the century.*We are grateful to David Cutler,Amy Finkelstein,Victor Fuchs,Alan Garber,Michael Grossman,Emmett Keeler,Ron Lee,Joseph Newhouse,Tomas Philipson,David Romer, Robert Topel,the editors and referees,and participants at numerous seminars and NBER12HALL AND JONES1.INTRODUCTIONThe United States devotes a rising share of its total resources to health care. The share was5.2percent in1950,9.4percent in1975,and15.4percent in 2000.Over the same period,health has improved.Life expectancy at birth was68.2years in1950,72.6years in1975,and76.9years in2000.Why has this health share been rising,and what is the likely time path of the health share for the rest of the century?We present a framework for answering these questions.In the model,the key decision is the division of total resources between health care and non-health consumption.Utility depends on quantity of life—life expectancy—and quality of life—consumption.People value health spending because it allows them to live longer and to enjoy better lives.In our approach,standard preferences—of the kind economists use to study issues ranging from consumption to asset pricing to labor supply—are able to explain the rising share of health spending.As consumption increases,the marginal utility of consumption falls quickly.In contrast,extending life does not run into the same kind of diminishing returns.As we get older and richer, which is more valuable:a third car,yet another television,more clothing—or an extra year of life?There are diminishing returns to consumption in any given period and a key way we increase our lifetime utility is by adding extra periods of life.Standard preferences imply that health is a superior good with an income elasticity well above one.As people grow richer,consumption rises but they devote an increasing share of resources to health care.Our quantitative analysis suggests these effects can be large:projections in our model typicallymeetings for helpful comments.Jones thanks the Center for Economic Demography and Aging at Berkeley forfinancial support.Matlab programs that generate the numerical results in this paper are available at Jones’s website.THE V ALUE OF LIFE AND HEALTH SPENDING3lead to health shares that exceed30percent of GDP by the middle of the century.Many of the important questions related to health involve the institutional arrangements that govern itsfinancing—especially Medicare and employer-provided health insurance.One approach would be to introduce these insti-tutions into our model and to examine the allocation of resources that results. We take an alternative approach.We examine the allocation of resources that maximizes social welfare in our model.We abstract from the compli-cated institutions that shape spending in the United States and ask a more basic question:from a social welfare standpoint,how much should the nation spend on health care,and what is the time path of optimal health spending? The recent health literature has emphasized the importance of technolog-ical change as an explanation for the rising health share—for example,see Newhouse(1992).According to this explanation,the invention of new and expensive medical technologies causes health spending to rise over time.Al-though the development of new technologies unquestionably plays a role in the rise of health spending,the technological explanation is incomplete for at least two reasons.First,expensive health technologies do not need to be used just because they are invented.Although distortions in health insurance in the United States might result in over-use of expensive new technologies,health shares of GDP have risen in virtually every advanced country in the world,despite wide variation in systems for allocating health care(Jones2003).We inves-tigate whether the social payoff associated with the use of new technologies is in line with the cost.Second,the invention of the new technologies is itself endogenous:Why is the U.S.investing so much in order to invent these ex-pensive technologies?By focusing explicitly on the social value of extending life and how this value changes over time,we shed light on these questions.4HALL AND JONESWe begin by documenting the facts about aggregate health spending and life expectancy,the two key variables in our model.We then present a simple stylized model that makes some strong assumptions but that delivers our basic results.From this foundation,we consider a richer and more realistic frame-work and develop a full dynamic model of health spending.The remainder of the paper estimates the parameters of the model and discusses a number of projections of future health spending derived from the model.Our research is closely related to a number of empirical and theoretical papers.Our work is a theoretical counterpart to the recent empirical arguments of David Cutler and others that high levels and growth rates of health spending may be economically justified(Cutler,McClellan,Newhouse and Remler 1998,Cutler and McClellan2001,Cutler2004).On the theoretical side, our approach is closest in spirit to Grossman(1972)and Ehrlich and Chuma (1990),who consider the optimal choice of consumption and health spending in the presence of a quality-quantity tradeoff.Our work is also related to a large literature on the value of life and the willingness of people to pay to reduce mortality risk.Classic references include Schelling(1968)and Usher(1973).Arthur(1981),Shepard and Zeckhauser(1984),Murphy and Topel(2003),and Ehrlich and Yin(2004)are more recent examples that include simulations of the willingness to pay to reduce mortality risk and calculations of the value of life.Nordhaus(2003)and Becker,Philipson and Soares(2005)conclude that increases in longevity have been roughly as important to welfare as increases in non-health consumption,both for the United States and for the world as a whole.Barro and Barro(1996)develop a model where health investments reduce the depreciation rate of schooling and health capital;health spending as a fraction of income can then rise through standard transition dynamics.We build on this literature in two ways.First and foremost,the focus of our paper is on understanding the determinants of the aggregate health share.TheTHE V ALUE OF LIFE AND HEALTH SPENDING5existing theoretical literature generally focuses on individual-level spending and willingness to pay to reduce mortality.Second,we consider a broader class of preferences for longevity and consumption.Many earlier papers specialize for their numerical results to constant relative risk aversion utility, with an elasticity of marginal utility between zero and one.This restriction occurs because these papers do not consider a constant term inflow utility.As we show below,careful attention to the constant is crucial to understanding the rising health share.In particular,when a constant is included,a standard utility function with an elasticity of marginal utility well above one is admissible. This property is the key to the rising health share in the model.2.BASIC FACTSWe will be concerned with the allocation of total resources to health and other uses.We believe that the most appropriate measure of total resources is consumption plus government purchases of goods and services.That is, we treat investment and net imports as intermediate products.Similarly,we measure spending on health as the delivery of health services to the public and do not include investment in medical facilities.Thus we differ conceptually (but hardly at all quantitatively)from other measures that include investment in both the numerator and denominator.When we speak of consumption of goods and services,we include government purchases of non-health goods and services.Figure1shows the fraction of total spending devoted to health care,ac-cording to the U.S.National Income and Product Accounts.The numerator is consumption of health services plus government purchases of health ser-vices and the denominator is consumption plus total government purchases of goods and services.The fraction has a sharp upward trend,but growth is irregular.In particular,the fraction grew rapidly in the early1990s andflat-6HALL AND JONESFIGURE1.The Health Share in the United StatesNote:The numerator of the health share is consumption of health services plus government purchases of health services and the denominator is consumption plus total government purchases of goods and services.For further information on sources,see Section5.THE V ALUE OF LIFE AND HEALTH SPENDING7FIGURE2.Life Expectancy in the United StatesNote:Life expectancy at birth data are from Table12of National Vital StatisticsReport V olume51,Number3“United States Life Tables,2000",December19,2002.Center for Disease Control.tened in the late1990s.Not shown in thefigure is the resumption of growth after2000.Figure2shows life expectancy at birth for the United States.Following the tradition in demography,this life expectancy measure is not expected remaining years of life(which depends on unknown future mortality rates), but is life expectancy for a hypothetical individual who faces the cross-section of mortality rates from a given year.Life expectancy has grown about1.7 years per decade.It shows no sign of slowing over the50years reported in thefigure.In thefirst half of the20th century,however,life expectancy grew at about twice this rate,so a longer times series would show some curvature.8HALL AND JONES3.BASIC MODELWe begin with a model based on the simple but unrealistic assumption that mortality is the same in all age groups.We also assume that preferences are unchanging over time,and income and productivity are constant.This model sets the stage for our full model where we incorporate age-specific mortality and productivity growth.As we will show in Section4,the stark assumptions we make in this section lead the full dynamic model to collapse to the simple static problem considered here.The economy consists of a collection of people of different ages who are otherwise identical,allowing us to focus on a representative person.Let x denote the person’s health status.The mortality rate of an individual is the inverse of her health status,1/x.Since people of all ages face this same mortality rate,x is also equal to life expectancy.For simplicity at this stage, we assume zero time preference.Expected lifetime utility for the representative individual isU(c,x)= ∞0e−(1/x)t u(c)dt=xu(c).(1) That is,lifetime utility is the present value of her per-period utility u(c)dis-counted for mortality at rate1/x.In this stationary environment,consumption is constant so that expected utility is the number of years an individual ex-pects to live multiplied by per-period utility.We assume for now that period utility depends only on consumption;in the next section,we will introduce a quality-of-life term associated with health.Here and throughout the paper, we normalize utility after death at zero.Rosen(1988)pointed out the following important implication of a specifi-cation of utility involving life expectancy:When lifetime utility is per-period utility,u,multiplied by life expectancy,the level of u matters a great deal.In many other settings,adding a constant to u has no effect on consumer choice. Here,adding a constant raises the value the consumer places on longevityTHE V ALUE OF LIFE AND HEALTH SPENDING9relative to consumption of goods.Negative utility also creates an anomaly—indifference curves have the wrong curvature and thefirst-order conditions do not maximize utility.As long as u is positive,preferences are well behaved.1 The representative individual receives a constantflow of resources y that can be spent on consumption or health:c+h=y.(2)The economy has no physical capital or foreign trade that permits shifting resources from one period to another.Finally,a health production function governs the individual’s state of health:x=f(h).(3)The social planner chooses consumption and health spending to maximize the utility of the individual in(1)subject to the resource constraint(2)and the production function for health status(3).That is,the optimal allocation solvesmaxc,hf(h)u(c)s.t.c+h=y.(4) The optimal allocation equates the ratio of health spending to consumption to the ratio of the elasticities of the health production function and theflow utility function.With s≡h/y,the optimum iss∗1−s∗=h∗c∗=ηhηc,(5)1Rosen also discussed the following issue:If the elasticity of utility rises above one for low values of consumption—as it can for the preferences we estimate in this paper—mortality becomes a good rather than a bad.A consumer would achieve a higher expected utility by accepting higher mortality and the correspondingly higher level of later consumption.Thus one cannot take expected utility for a given mortality rate as an indicator of the welfare of an individual who can choose a lower rate.This issue does not arise in our work,because we consider explicit optimization over the mortality rate.An opportunity for improvement of the type Rosen identified would mean that we had not maximized expected utility.10HALL AND JONESwhereηh≡f (h)h x,andηc≡u (c)c u.Now suppose we ignore the fact that income and life expectancy are taken as constant in this static model and instead consider what happens if income grows.The short-cut of using a static model to answer a dynamic question anticipates thefindings of our full dynamic model quite well.The response of the health share to rising income depends on the movements of the two elasticities in equation(5).The crux of our argument is that the consumption elasticity falls relative to the health elasticity as income rises, causing the health share to rise.Health is a superior good because satiation occurs more rapidly in non-health consumption.Why isηc decreasing in consumption?In most branches of applied eco-nomics,only marginal utility matters.For questions of life and death,how-ever,this is not the case.We have normalized the utility associated with death at zero in our framework,and how much a person will pay to live an extra year hinges on the level of utility associated with life.In our application, adding a constant to theflow of utility u(c)has a material effect—it permits the elasticity of utility to vary with consumption.Thus our approach is to take the standard constant-elastic specification for marginal utility but to add a constant to the level of utility.In this way,we stay close to the approach of many branches of applied economics that make good use of a utility function with constant elasticity for marginal utility.In finance,it has constant relative risk aversion.In dynamic macroeconomics,it has constant elasticity of intertemporal substitution.In the economics of the household,it has constant elasticity of substitution between pairs of goods. What matters for the choice of health spending,however,is not just the elasticity of marginal utility,but also the elasticity of theflow utility func-tion itself.With the constant term added to a utility function with constant-elastic marginal utility,the utility elasticity declines with consumption forTHE V ALUE OF LIFE AND HEALTH SPENDING11conventional parameter values.The resulting specification is then capable of explaining the rising share of health spending.With this motivation,we specifyflow utility as:u(c)=b+c1−γ1−γ,(6)whereγis the constant elasticity of marginal utility.Based on evidence discussed later in the paper,we considerγ>1to be likely.In this case,the second term is negative,so the base level of utility,b,needs to be positive enough to ensure thatflow utility is positive over the relevant values of c.The flow of utility u(c)is always less than b,so the elasticityηc is decreasing in consumption.More generally,any bounded utility function u(c)will deliver a declining elasticity,at least eventually,as will the unbounded u(c)=α+βlog c.Thus the key to our explanation of the rising health share—a marginal utility of consumption that falls sufficiently quickly—is obtained by adding a constant to a standard class of utility functions.An alternative interpretation of thefirst-order condition is also informative. Let L(c,x)≡U(c,x)/u (c)denote the value of a life in units of output. Then,the optimal allocation of resources can also be characterized ass∗=ηh·L(c∗,x∗)/x∗y.(7)The optimal health share is proportional to the value of a year of life L/x divided by per-capita income.If theflow of utility is given as in equation(6), it is straightforward to show that the value of a year of life satisfiesL(c,x)x=bcγ−cγ−1.(8) Forγ>1,the growth rate of the value of a life year approachesγtimes the growth rate of consumption from above.Therefore,the value of a year of life will grow faster than consumption(and income)ifγis larger than1.12HALL AND JONESAccording to equation(7),this is one of the key ingredients needed for themodel to generate a rising health share.A rapidly-declining marginal utility of consumption leads to a rising healthshare provided the health production elasticityηh does not itself fall toorapidly.For example,if the marginal product of health spending in extendinglife were to fall to zero—say it was technologically impossible to live be-yond the age of100—then health spending would cease to rise at that point.Whether or not the health share rises over time is then an empirical question:there is a race between diminishing marginal utility of consumption and thediminishing returns to the production of health.As we discuss later,for thekind of health production functions that match the data,the production elastic-ity declines very gradually,and the declining marginal utility of consumptiondoes indeed dominate,producing a rising health share.Finally,we can also generalize the utility function to U(c,x)in place of xu(c),so that lifetime satisfaction is not necessarily proportional to the lengthof the lifetime.The solution for this case is s∗/(1−s∗)=ηhηx/ηc,where ηx≡U x x/U is the elasticity of utility with respect to life expectancy.Our result,then,is that the health share rises when the consumption elasticity fallsfaster than the product of the production and life expectancy elasticities.Asjust one example U(c,x)=xαu(c)delivers a constantηx even with sharplydiminishing returns to life expectancy(that is,αclose to zero),so our mainresults are unchanged in this case.The simple model develops intuition,but it falls short on a number ofdimensions.Most importantly,the model assumes constant total resourcesand constant health productivity.This means it is inappropriate to use thismodel to study how a growing income leads to a rising health share,thecomparative static results not withstanding.Still,the basic intuition for arising health share emerges clearly.The health share rises over time as incomegrows if the marginal utility of consumption falls sufficiently rapidly relativeTHE V ALUE OF LIFE AND HEALTH SPENDING13to the joy of living an extra year and the ability of health spending to generate that extra year.4.THE FULL DYNAMIC MODELWe turn now to the full dynamic model,allowing age-specific mortality and the associated heterogeneity,as well as growth in total resources and productivity growth in the health sector.This model also incorporates a quality-of-life component associated with health spending.An individual of age a in period t has an age-specific state of health,x a,t. As in the basic model,the mortality rate for an individual is the inverse of her health status.Therefore,1−1/x a,t is the per-period survival probability of an individual with health x a,t.An individual’s state of health is produced by spending on health h a,t:x a,t=f(h a,t;a,t).(9)In this production function,health status depends on both age and time.Forces outside the model that vary with age and time may also influence health status; examples include technological change and education.The starting point for our specification of preferences is theflow utility of the individual,u(c a,t,x a,t).In addition to depending on consumption,flow utility depends on health status,x a,t.Spending on health therefore affects utility in two ways,by increasing the quantity of life through a mortality reduction and by increasing the quality of life.We assume this utility function takes the following form:u(c a,t,x a,t)=b+c1−γa,t1−γ+αx1−σa,t1−σ,(10)whereγ,α,andσare all positive.Thefirst term is the baseline level of util-ity whose importance we stressed earlier.2The second term is the standard 2Previous versions of this paper considered the possibility that this intercept varied by age and time.In some of our estimation,we treated these b a,t terms as residuals that rationalized14HALL AND JONESconstant-elastic specification for consumption.We assume further that health status and consumption are additively separable in utility and that quality of life is a constant-elastic function of health status.Additive separability is of course a strong assumption.It implies that the marginal utility of consump-tion does not vary with health status and ultimately delivers the result that consumption itself will optimally be invariant to health status.We could relax this assumption in our framework and still obtain our main results.However, even the direction of the effect is unclear:Is the marginal utility of consump-tion higher or lower for sick people?One can easily think of reasons why it might be lower.On the other hand,the marginal utility of having a personal assistant or of staying in a nice hotel with lots of amenities might actually be higher for people with a lower health status.3Our separability assumption can be viewed as a natural intermediate case.In this environment,we consider the allocation of resources that would be chosen by a social planner who places equal weights on each person alive at a point in time and who discounts futureflows of utility at rateβ.Let N a,t denote the number of people of age a alive at time t.Then social welfare is∞ t=0∞ a=0N a,tβt u(c a,t,x a,t).(11) The optimal allocation of resources is a choice of consumption and health spending at each age that maximizes social welfare subject to the production function for health in(9)and subject to a resource constraint we will specify momentarily.It is convenient to express this problem in the form of a Bellman equation. Let V t(N t)denote the social planner’s value function when the age distribu-tion of the population is the vector N t≡(N1,t,N2,t,...,N a,t,...).Then the the observed health spending data as optimal.See Hall and Jones(2004)for more on this approach.3We thank a referee for this observation.THE V ALUE OF LIFE AND HEALTH SPENDING15 Bellman equation for the planner’s problem isV t(N t)=max{h a,t,c a,t}∞ a=0N a,t u(c a,t,x a,t)+βV t+1(N t+1)(12) subject to∞ a=0N a,t(y t−c a,t−h a,t)=0,(13)N a+1,t+1= 1−1x a,t N a,t,(14)N0,t=N0,(15)x a,t=f(h a,t;a,t).(16)y t+1=e g y y t,(17) Thefirst constraint is the economy-wide resource constraint.Note that we assume that people of all ages contribute the sameflow of resources,y t.The second is the law of motion for the population.We assume a large enough population so that the number of people aged a+1next period can be taken equal to the number aged a today multiplied by the survival probability.The third constraint specifies that births are exogenous and constant at N0.The final two constraints are the production function for health and the law of motion for resources,which grow exogenously at rate g y.Letλt denote the Lagrange multiplier on the resource constraint.The optimal allocation satisfies the followingfirst order conditions for all a:u c(c a,t,x a,t)=λt,(18)β∂V t+1∂N a+1,t+1·f (h a,t)x2a,t+u x(c a,t,x a,t)f (h a,t)=λt,(19)where we use f (h a,t)to represent∂f(h a,t;a,t)/∂h a,t.That is,the marginal utility of consumption and the marginal utility of health spending are equated16HALL AND JONESacross people and to each other at all times.This condition together with the additive separability offlow utility implies that people of all ages have the same consumption c t at each point in time,but they have different health expenditures h a,t depending on age.Let v a,t≡∂V t∂N a,t denote the change in social welfare associated with having an additional person of age a alive.That is,v a,t is the social value of life at age a in units of bining the twofirst-order conditions,we get:βv a+1,t+1u c +u x x2a,tu c=x2a,tf(h a,t),(20)The optimal allocation sets health spending at each age to equate the marginal benefit of saving a life to its marginal cost.The marginal benefit is the sum of two terms.Thefirst is the social value of lifeβv a+1,t+1/u c.The second is the additional quality of life enjoyed by people as a result of the increase in health status.The marginal cost of saving a life is dh/dm,where dh is the increase in resources devoted to health care and dm is the reduction in the mortality rate. For example,if reducing the mortality rate by.001costs$2000,then saving a statistical life requires1/.001=1000people to undertake this change,at a total cost of$2million.Our model contains health status x as an intermediatevariable,so it is useful to write the marginal cost as dhdm =dh/dxdm/dx.Since healthstatus is defined as inverse mortality,m=1/x so that dm=dx/x2.In the previous example,we required1/dm people to reduce their mortality rate by dm to save a life.Equivalently,setting dx=1,we require x2people to increase their health status by one unit in order to save a statistical life.Since the cost of increasing x is dh/dx=1/f (h),the marginal cost of saving a life is therefore x2/f (h).THE V ALUE OF LIFE AND HEALTH SPENDING17By taking the derivative of the value function,wefind that the social value of life satisfies the recursive equation:v a,t=u(c t,x a,t)+β 1−1x a,t v a+1,t+1+λt(y t−c t−h a,t).(21) The additional social welfare associated with having an extra person alive at age a is the sum of three terms.Thefirst is the level offlow utility enjoyed by that person.The second is the expected social welfare associated with having a person of age a+1alive next period,where the expectation employs the survival probability1−1/x a,t.Finally,the last term is the net social resource contribution from a person of age a,her production less her consumption and health spending.The literature on competing risks of mortality suggests that a decline in mortality from one cause may increase the optimal level of spending on other causes,as discussed by Dow,Philipson and Sala-i-Martin(1999).This prop-erty holds in our model as well.Declines in future mortality will increase the value of life,v a,t,raising the marginal benefit of health spending at age a.4.1.Relation to the Static ModelIt is worth pausing for a moment to relate this full dynamic model to the simple static framework.With constant income y,a time-and age-invariant health production function f(h),β=1,and aflow utility function that depends only on consumption,the Bellman equation for a representative agent can be written asu(c)+(1−1/f(h))V(y)s.t.c+h=y.(22) V(y)=maxc,hGiven the stationarity of this environment,it is straightforward to see that the value function isV(y)=maxf(h)u(c)s.t.c+h=y,(23)c,h。

JSC——call for papersJournal of Cambridge Studies (JCS) is a quarterly academic publication with a focus on social sciences relating to China (ISSN: 1747-5384). It is currently published by the Association of Cambridge Studies, a scholarly society for China Studies at the University of Cambridge. Established in 2006 with a sole focus on educational research, JCS has experienced fast developments during the past few years with coverage of research topics rapidly extending to other fields such as economics, law, political research, sociology, cultural, linguistic and literature studies.The primary aim of Journal of Cambridge Studies is to promote the understanding of China through the dissemination of high-impact research in relevant social science subject areas. Both contemporary and historical perspectives are considered important to JCS. JCS always encourages interdisciplinary studies and promotes talks between scholars from different geographical areas.General Guidelines for Manuscripts• Language: English• Title should be descriptive and informative to the subject yet concise (no more than 30 words) • A uthor name(s) to be indicated below the paper title, with full author details given, e.g. title(s), affiliation(s), and address including email addresses.• Abstract , with a word limit of 350 words, should occupy the first page with key words given below the abstract text.• Body text should start from the second page• Page margin: (top: 1 cm, bottom: 1cm , left: 1.5 cm , right: 1.5 cm)• Body text setting: 9px, Times New Roman, 14pt line spacing• Page size: 15.2cm (width) / 22.8cm (height)• Reference formatting instruction need make reference to downloadable papers published recently at /Special notes:Submission email address has been altered to:jcsatuk@E-mail questions or comments to jcsatuk@For other information, please see details at /。

㊀2024年第1期No.1㊀2024四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)Journal of Sichuan University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition )总第250期Sum No.250ɦ历史学研究ɦ马修·帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变陈志坚摘㊀要:13世纪中后期,英格兰本笃修士马修㊃帕里斯及其后继者在圣奥尔本斯修道院创作了一系列行程地图㊂这些地图原是编年史抄本序章中的一部分,不仅包括自伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的分段路线图,还包含作为此行程出发地与目的地 不列颠与巴勒斯坦的区域地图㊂长期以来,研究者多以传统的宗教进路来解读这些行程地图,视其为一种精神的朝圣之旅,认为作者旨在为那些不能亲临圣地的修士开启一次通往天上耶路撒冷的富有想象力的旅程㊂然而,以抄本古文字学与古抄本学方法考察这些行程地图可发现,它们不仅在外观上呈现出与传统基督教地图迥然不同的特征,还在很大程度上呼应了金雀花王朝统治者扩张领土以建立帝国的野心与欲求㊂不仅如此,基于新近复兴的古典地理学知识,这些行程地图的实用性㊁精确性与科学性也在一定程度上得到增强㊂关键词:马修㊃帕里斯;世界之布;行程地图;中世纪;世界观中图分类号:K561.32㊀㊀文献标志码:A㊀㊀文章编号:1006-0766(2024)01-0129-14作者简介:陈志坚,首都师范大学历史学院教授(北京㊀100089)①㊀Simon Lloyd and Rebecca Reader, Paris,Matthew (c.1200-1259),Historian,Benedictine Monk,and Polymath, in H.C.G.Matthew and Brian Harrison,eds.,Oxford Dictionary of National Biography :From the Earliest Times to the Year 2000,vol.42,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2004,p.622.②㊀Richard Vaughan, The Handwriting of Matthew Pairs, Transactions of the Cambridge Bibliographical Society ,vol.1,no.5(1953),p.389;Richard Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1958,pp.236-243;Suzanne Lewis,The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora ,Berkeley:University of California Press,1987,pp.321-323;Evelyn Edson,Mapping Time and Space :How Medieval Mapmakers Viewed Their World ,London:The BritishLibrary,1997,pp.118-120.13世纪的英格兰本笃修士马修㊃帕里斯(Matthew Paris)是一位历史学家,其本职工作是为其所属的圣奥尔本斯修道院(St Albans Abbey)创作一部编年史,即为后人所熟知的‘大编年史“(Chronica Maiora )㊂除此之外,马修还是一名地图制作者,他先后绘制了4种包含伦敦至阿普利亚(Apulia)的路线图(以下简称 路线图 )以及巴勒斯坦区域地图㊁不列颠区域地图在内的行程地图(以下简称 行程地图 )㊂马修的这些地图 具有重要意义,这并不是因为它们所具有的时代影响力,而是因为它们的独创性,马修正在尝试他那个时代不为人知的制图理念,而且这些制图理念在当时还没有被普遍理解 ㊂①在马修生活的年代,体现基督教宗教理念的T -O 地图居于主导地位,势头正盛㊂与之相比,马修的地图在基本方向㊁实用性与精确性方面呈现出极大的创新性㊂从某种意义上来说,马修是一名早熟的制图者,其地图所呈现的先进制图理念一直处于领先地位,直到中世纪末期波特兰海图(portolan chart)的诞生㊂自吉尔森于1928年将马修绘制的4种不列颠地图制版刊行以来,学者对于这些不列颠地图以及与之密切相关的行程地图给予了广泛关注㊂研究者首先对于行程地图的创作者及创作时间进行初步探讨并普遍认可抄本古文字学家理查德㊃沃恩通过分析马修的字体得出的结论,即认为 这些行程地图均是圣奥尔本斯修道院修士马修及其后继者创作的 ㊂②马修不仅是一位出色的编年史家,还是一921四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)总第250期位杰出的抄本缩微图画家,他在绘制抄本缩微图㊁地图㊁人物画像时擅长用稀释颜料对深色墨水勾勒的草图进行着色以制造一种水洗的效果,从而开创了一种 着色绘画 (tinted drawings)的风格㊂正因如此,在后来的艺术史中,这一类型的彩色绘画往往被称为 圣奥尔本斯流派 (School of St Albans)或 马修㊃帕里斯流派 (School of Matthew Paris)㊂有学者以绘画风格为标准对行程地图进行研究,也印证了沃恩的上述结论㊂①另外,行程地图的来源也从一个侧面佐证了上述观点 它们大都来自马修及其后继者所编纂的编年史抄本之中,部分来自圣奥尔本斯修道院官方文献汇编或者马修最好的合作伙伴兼衣钵继承人沃灵福德的约翰(John of Wallingford)的札记簿㊂②然而,在上述一致的观点之外,学者在很多问题上仍存疑问㊂例如,行程地图中包含的小单元,如路线图㊁不列颠区域地图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图,是独立的存在,抑或是一个有机的整体?马修及其后继者绘制这些行程地图的意义何在?它们又反映了制图者的何种观念?早期研究者倾向于否认路线图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图与不列颠地图之间的联系,认为它们只是因为抄本装帧而被偶然并置,彼此之间并无必然联系㊂例如,沃恩以及更早的研究者比兹利就持这种观点㊂③不仅如此,早期研究者还倾向于认为,行程地图与编年史插图具有同样的功能,是作者为了阐释㊁说明编年史文本而制作,目的是将编年史中提到的城市㊁城镇㊁河流㊁山脉等等风物具象化㊁空间化,从而帮助阅读者更好地理解编年史㊂持这一观点的主要有苏珊娜㊃刘易斯与伊芙琳㊃埃德森㊂④进入21世纪以来,研究者有了两类新发现㊂其一,学者逐渐认识到,路线图与区域地图并非编年史的附属物,编年史中所提及的很多地名如耶路撒冷㊁阿卡与开罗等,与地图上的地名并无一一对应关系㊂换言之,绘制地图并非为了向读者展示上述地名所在的位置,在很大程度上,路线图㊁区域地图与编年史是一种平行关系㊂⑤其二,学者通过进一步研究发现了路线图与区域地图之间的联系㊂例如,在阿普利亚地图的左上角,马修标记了如下文字: 此为通过阿普利亚去往阿克的路线㊂ 再如,在不列颠地图中也隐藏着伦敦与多佛之间的路线图,这在很大程度上可被视为路线图中的英格兰部分㊂再如,在西西里岛的最末端一个叫特拉帕尼(Trapes)的地方,马修标注道: 理查德伯爵从圣地返回时曾经过这里㊂ ⑥这些发现让绝大多数学者相信,路线图与区域地图之间存在联系,并构成一个有机的整体㊂以此为基础,学者开始构建这些路线图与区域地图的整体性意义㊂丹尼尔㊃康诺利提出了 想象的朝圣 的概念,认为路线图㊁巴勒斯坦地图与不列颠地图构成了一套完整的行程地图,从而为那些不能离开圣奥尔本斯修道院远行的修士打造了一次精神的朝圣之旅㊂康诺利还指出,这种行程地图与修道院回廊中所绘制的朝圣图有异曲同工之妙,但前者效果更佳,因为修士在阅读中自然会用手去翻动书叶,然后目光跟着路线图上下移动,口中默念着地图中的说明文字㊂到达阿普利亚所在叶面时,修士还可通过操作可折叠的侧翼,想象着后续的海上路线㊂如此一来,修士的手㊁眼㊁心㊁口等身体部位将会深度参与这一想象的朝圣之旅,从而在更大程度上营造出身临其境的031①②③④⑤⑥M.R.James, The Drawings of Matthew Paris, The Walpole Society ,vol.14(1925-1926),pp.1-26.有证据表明,沃灵福德的约翰曾对一幅从马修那里获得的不列颠地图增补了系列内容,参见Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,p.243;也有学者指出,Royal 抄本中的不列颠地图D 很有可能是马修的后继者为了呼应爱德华一世对苏格兰的领土主张而制作,参见Daniel K.Connolly, Copying Maps by Matthew Paris:Itinerary Fit for A King, in Palmira Brummett,ed.,The Book of Travels :Genre ,Ethnology ,and Pilgrimage ,1250-1700,Leiden:Brill,2009,pp.196-199.Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,p.247;C.R.Beazley,The Dawn of Modern Geography :A History of Exploration and Geographical Science from the Close of the Ninth to the Middle of the Thirteenth Century c .900-1260,vol.2,London:Henry Frowde,Amen Corner,1901,p.588.Lewis,The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora ,pp.324-325;Edson,Mapping Time and Space ,pp.123-124.P.D.A.Harvey,Medieval Maps of the Holy Land ,London:The British Library,2012,pp.74-75.Katharine Breen, Returning Home from Jerusalem:Matthew Paris ̓s First Map of Britain in Its Manuscript Context, Representations ,vol.89,no.1(Winter 2005),pp.73,77.陈志坚:马修㊃帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变2024年第1期氛围㊂①凯瑟琳㊃布林则更进一步,将往往被置于最后的不列颠区域地图理解为朝圣行程的返程部分,从而构建了一个更加完整的朝圣行程㊂②尽管在中世纪基督教制图观念占主导地位的大背景下,以精神朝圣的思路理解行程地图颇有阐释力,但仍无法完整地解释其中的一些元素,特别是相对于主流的基督教制图观念而言颇具创新性的部分,诸如:路线图以南为上,不列颠地图以北为上的朝向;路线图中精确标注里程的条状直线;对南意大利的关注程度远远胜过罗马;在巴勒斯坦地图中,对阿克城墙㊁城堡等军事防御设施描述的详细程度远远胜过耶路撒冷;4种不列颠区域地图自身存在的差异及流变等㊂近年来,有学者已意识到这些问题,并开始尝试在宗教观念之外的政治㊁历史语境中解读行程地图㊂如维多利亚㊃莫尔斯注意到地图的政治用途在13世纪的英国得到长足发展,并认为马修的路线图与区域地图在一定程度上展示了地图作为统治和知识象征的力量,或许正是在此意义上,西西里和阿克分别在南意大利与巴勒斯坦区域地图中被重点强调㊂③丹尼尔㊃伯克霍尔茨追溯了亨利三世与爱德华一世对地图的兴趣,并认为他们很有可能利用地图体现其对领土与权力的野心㊂④康诺利的最新研究表明,Royal 抄本中的不列颠地图D 实际上呼应了爱德华一世对苏格兰领土的主张㊂⑤由此可见,近年来学者的研究虽然开启了一个全新的研究路径,但相关研究成果或失之于简,仅是一个初步的判断;或无意做整体性探讨,仅涉及问题的一个方面㊂笔者拟以抄本古文字学(paleography)与古抄本学(codicology)方法考察马修绘制的行程地图,以期在梳理传统基督教制图观念的基础上揭示其全新的制图理念,并尝试评估金雀花王朝的政治诉求于此过程中所扮演的角色㊂一㊁马修㊃帕里斯其人及其行程地图马修㊃帕里斯,亦称巴黎人马修(Matthew the Parisian),出生于1200年左右,并于1217年进入圣奥尔本斯修道院成为一名本笃会修士㊂圣奥尔本斯修道院于公元793年由麦西亚国王奥法(Offa)捐资修建,到马修生活的年代,也已存在400余年㊂该修道院不仅具有悠久的历史,更以其撰史传统而闻名,这在很大程度上得益于其与王室的密切关系㊂1236年,马修继承了该修道院编年史家温多弗的罗杰(Roger of Wendover)的衣钵,就此开始了其撰史生涯㊂在马修领衔撰史期间,修道院与王室的关系变得更为密切㊂不仅国王亨利三世经常到访修道院,马修也经常被邀请参加宫廷重要活动㊂据记载,亨利三世曾于1244至1257年间先后8次到访修道院,每次都捐赠大量布帛㊁财物㊂1251年,亨利三世到访时送给修道院3块丝绸布料,并且还特意询问马修他已向修道院捐赠了多少块丝绸布料,以及修道院是否已遵照他的命令,在这些丝绸布料上都写上 英王亨利三世捐 字样㊂国王得到的答案是31块,而且没有其他国王捐过如此之多㊂不仅如此,马修还与亨利三世保持着良好的个人关系,常常出入宫廷,有资格与国王共桌就餐㊁亲密交谈,甚至可以当面向国王抱怨其遭遇的不公㊂另外,国王还是马修的赞助人,曾亲自委托他撰写‘忏悔者爱德华生平“一书㊂1247年,在威斯敏斯特大厅举行的一场盛大仪式上,亨利三世发现了马修,特地让他坐在自己身边,并要求他记录当日发生之事㊂随后,国王还邀请马修共进晚餐㊂1257年,马修在国王的宫廷里逗留了一周,在此131①②③④⑤Daniel K.Connolly, Imagined Pilgrimage in the Itinerary Maps of Matthew Paris, The Art Bulletin ,vol.81,no.4(1999),pp.598-599;Daniel K.Connolly,The Maps of Matthew Paris :Medieval Journeys through Space ,Time and Liturgy ,Woodbridge:The Boydell Press,2009,pp.1-2.Breen, Returning Home from Jerusalem, pp.63,87.Victoria Morse, The Role of Maps in Later Medieval Society:Twelfth to Fourteenth Century, in David Woodward,ed.,The History of Cartography ,vol .3,Cartography in the European Renaissance ,Part 1,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,2007,pp.35,39,41-42.Daniel Birkholz,The King ̓s Two Maps :Cartography and Culture in Thirteenth-Century England ,New York &London:Routledge,2004,pp.12-13.Connolly, Copying Maps by Matthew Paris, pp.196-199.四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)总第250期期间与国王形影不离,无论国王 在餐桌边,在宫殿里,还是在房间里 ,由此,他从国王那里获得了大量信息㊂①遵循着圣奥尔本斯修道院的撰史传统,并基于不断从宫廷中获得的第一手资料,马修写出了大量历史著作㊂在马修撰写的史著中,‘大编年史“与‘英吉利人史“(Historia Anglorum )最负盛名㊂从著述体例上讲,前者属于普遍史,涵盖自创世至1259年的世界历史,是马修在温多弗的罗杰所著编年史‘历史之花“(Flores Historiarum )的基础之上编纂而成的㊂后者则属于专门史,侧重讲述英吉利人的历史,其绝大部分史料来源于‘大编年史“,实际上是‘大编年史“中与英吉利人相关史料的汇编本㊂除此之外,马修后来还在‘英吉利人史“的基础上推出一个更加简略的版本,名为‘英吉利人史简编“(Abbreuiatio Compendiosa Chronicorum Anglie )㊂本文所涉及的行程地图便主要来自这几部著作的序章部分㊂但不幸的是,这些著作均未能以其原始的形制完整地流传下来,而是在不断被拆分㊁重组㊁装帧的过程中形成了新的抄本,并由不同的图书馆收藏㊂同样地,行程地图在此过程中亦难免被拆分㊁重组的命运,并最终以零散的状态分处于几个新抄本中㊂马修的‘大编年史“是一部三卷本史书,现分处于三个不同的抄本中㊂其第一卷涵盖自创世至1188年的历史,可见于剑桥大学基督圣体学院所藏引证号为Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 026的抄本之中(以下简称MS 026抄本)㊂该抄本的序章部分涵盖一套相对完整的行程地图(以下简称行程地图1),包括自伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的路线图以及巴勒斯坦区域地图,但缺少不列颠区域地图㊂②其第二卷涵盖自1189至1253年的历史,可见于剑桥大学基督圣体学院所藏引证号为Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 016的抄本之中(以下简称MS 016抄本)㊂该抄本中的行程地图(以下简称行程地图2)包含不完整的自伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的路线图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图以及一幅不列颠区域地图(以下简称地图B)㊂③其中,路线图仅残留自蓬特雷莫利(Pontremoli)至南意大利阿普利亚的部分㊂不仅如此,所有这些地图在MS 016抄本中均以半叶的形式存在㊂④其第三卷涵盖1254至1259年的历史,可见于大英图书馆所藏引证号为Royal MS 14C.VII 的抄本中(以下简称Royal 抄本)㊂该抄本序章部分包含一套完整的行程地图(以下简称行程地图3),包括伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的路线图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图以及不列颠区域地图(以下简称地图D)㊂除了‘大编年史“第三卷,Royal 抄本中还包含马修的‘英吉利人史“㊂⑤二者在很大程度上共享抄本前面的序章部分㊂除此之外,在一部名为‘增补册“(Liber Additamentorum )的圣奥尔本斯修道院自用文献中,还存有一套不完整的行程地图(以下简称行程地图4),它仅包含自伦敦至那不勒斯的路线图,可见于大英图书馆藏引证号为Cotton MS Nero D.I 的抄本(以下简称Nero 抄本)㊂⑥行程地图4虽然在风格上与行程地图1㊁2㊁3类似,但在形式和内容方面均相对简略,没有采用常规的一叶两栏形制,而是一叶三栏且忽略所有支线行程,仅绘制主线行程,很有可能是马修在正式绘制行程地图1㊁2㊁3之前的构思草图,后来作为备用资料被收录进修道院自用文献‘增补册“中,与修道院创始人‘奥法生平“(Vitae duorum Offarum )㊁‘历任修道院长生平“(Gesta Abbatum )等文献并列㊂不仅如此,马231①②③④⑤⑥David Carpenter,Henry III :The Rise to Power and Personal Rule ,1207-1258,New Haven and London:Yale University Press,2020,pp.171,454,521,541,551,615,715,521,399,403.Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 026,fols.ir -ivv.1928年,吉尔森(J.P.Gilson)汇集了马修绘制的与其行程地图相关的4张不列颠地图,并将其制成彩色图版出版㊂在该书中,吉尔森将4张地图简称为:地图A㊁地图B㊁地图C㊁地图D,笔者在本文中沿用这一约定俗成的简称㊂参见J.P.Gilson,ed.,Four Maps of Great Britain Designed by Matthew Paris about A.D.1250,Produced from Three Manuscripts in the British Museum and One at Corpus Christi College ,Cambridge ,London:Printed by Order of the Trustees,Sold at the British Museum and by Bernard Quaritch,Ltd,1928,p.3.2003年,基督圣体学院图书馆又对MS 016号抄本进行了重新装帧㊂此时,该抄本又被分为上下两册,抄本前面的序章部分单独装订成册,并被命名为MS 016I,后面的正文部分单独成册,并被命名为MS 016II㊂正文中所述行程地图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图及不列颠地图部分,参见Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 016I,fols.iiir -ivv.Royal MS 14C.VII,fols.157r -231r,2r -5v,8v -156v,British Library,London.Cotton MS Nero D.I,fols.183v -184r,British Library,London.陈志坚:马修㊃帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变2024年第1期修绘制的另外两种不列颠地图明显也与行程地图密切相关,但由于种种原因已被单独装订在其他抄本中:其一,在马修以其‘英吉利人史“为基础缩编而成的‘英吉利人史简编“的序章部分,存在一幅马修绘制的不列颠地图(以下简称地图A),可见于大英图书馆所藏引证号为Cotton MS Claudius D.VI 的抄本中(以下简称Claudius 抄本)㊂①该地图与布鲁图斯(Brutus)至亨利三世的系列国王画像,以及自阿尔弗雷德大帝至亨利三世国王世系图等重要文件并列,共同构成抄本的序章部分;其二,在马修后继者沃灵福德的约翰曾拥有的一本札记簿中,亦存在一幅不列颠地图(以下简称地图C),可见于大英图书馆所藏引证号为Cotton MS Julius D.VII 的抄本中(以下简称Julius 抄本)㊂②该地图明显是由马修绘制,但从其所用色彩及内容看,仍属于较为初级的草图㊂沃灵福德的约翰肯定是从某种途径获得了这张地图并对其进行了一系列改造,包括继续在地图上标注地名,以及在地图背面空白处书写文字㊂最后,他还将该地图两次折叠后与其札记簿装帧在一起㊂该札记簿的核心内容是沃灵福德的约翰摘抄的系列编年史史料,主要摘自马修的‘大编年史“,在一定程度上反映了他向马修学习撰写编年史的实践㊂③二㊁世界之布:中世纪基督教主流制图观念中世纪的地图一般被称作 Mappamundi ㊂其中, mappa 一词在中世纪拉丁语中意为 桌布 或 餐巾 ,可意译为 地图 ;④而 mundi 则是 mundus 一词的拉丁文属格单数形式,意思是 世界的 (of the world)㊂如此一来,具有 世界地图 之意的 Mappamundi 一词其实可直译为 世界之布 ㊂这个词语在古典时代晚期的拉丁语中从来没有被使用过,彼时用来描述地图的词汇一般是 forma (图形)㊁ figura (图像)㊁ orbispictus (区域图)或者 orbisterrarumdescriptio (区域地理描述)㊂尽管在中世纪,世界之布的称谓是最常见的,但在谈及地图时,人们亦有一些其他的表达形式,如 inmaginesmundi (世界的图像)㊁ pictura (图像)㊁ descriptio (描述)㊁ tabula (图表),甚或赫里福德地图中使用的 estoire (历史)㊂⑤但在上述词汇中, 世界之布 词义最为稳定,自8世纪至中世纪末期一直被用来指代以基督教观念描绘世界的图像或文字㊂迄今为止,计有1100余幅这样的地图幸存了下来,其中大部分可见于中世纪的抄本之中,也有独立存在且尺寸相当大的地图,很可能是作为教堂或修道院的挂图使用,例如外形类似房屋山墙的赫里福德地图(Hereford Map),其最长㊁最宽处分别是1.59米和1.34米,是现存最大的 世界之布 ㊂⑥虽名为地图,但 世界之布 并不像今天的地图一样客观地反映空间的比例与尺寸,亦不能为人们出行提供精确的信息,而是一种集合了时间㊁空间㊁事件㊁概念㊁色彩㊁文本㊁意象等元素的复杂集合体,集中反映了基督教有关 神学㊁宇宙学㊁哲学㊁政治学㊁历史学㊁动物学㊁人种学 等知识的理念,是基督教徒眼中的世界形象㊂⑦一般而言,这些地图具有以下特点:它们不仅比例严重失调,以东为上,还呈现出T -O 的特殊形态;整个版面不仅充斥着自创世之日至末日审判的所有重要的圣经事件,还杂以各式各样的奇幻动物和恐怖种族;作为圣地的耶路撒冷一般被安放在地图中心位置,而末日审判的意象则往往被置于地图顶端,这表明 顶部 (新耶路撒冷)而非 中心 (地331①②③④⑤⑥⑦Cotton MS Claudius D.VI,f.12v,British Library,London.Cotton MS Julius D.VII,fols.50v -53r,British Library,London.Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,p.243.Jerry Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,New York:Viking Penguin,2013,pp.94-95.David Woodward, Medieval Mappaemundi, in J.B.Harley and David Woodward,eds.,The History of Cartography ,vol .1:Cartography in Prehistoric ,Ancient ,and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean ,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1987,p.287.The Hereford Mappa Mundi Trustee Company Ltd,Hereford.Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,p.95.四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)总第250期上耶路撒冷)才是中世纪朝圣者最终的目的地,也是手持 世界之布 的信徒目光最终驻留的地方;①世界之布不仅是空间的展开,还涉及时间,在地图上自东向西(自上而下)包含着一个从创世到救赎的完整叙事;世界之布虽以基督教神学世界观为核心,但也包含一定程度的古典知识,这是早期教父与古典天文㊁自然㊁地理知识成就达成妥协的结果㊂由此,在以下部分笔者将以T -O 形态㊁以东为上㊁中心与朝圣㊁象征主义意象㊁ 历史 叙事㊁奇幻动物与恐怖种族为重点,以赫里福德地图㊁埃布斯托地图(The Ebstorf Map)㊁②诗篇地图(The Psalter Map)㊁③梭利地图(The Sawley Map)④等中世纪地图为主要案例,撮述 世界之布 的典型特征㊂其一,T -O 形态㊂T -O 形态地图是中世纪最为经典的地图样式,其整体外观呈圆形,看起来像一个巨大的字母O,由此标识出地图的边界,其外围环绕着海洋㊂圆形内部的三大水系整体上呈现为一个巨大的大写字母T 形态,从而将圆形大陆分成三大块㊂T 字母横笔画左侧㊁右侧及竖笔画部分分别代表顿河㊁尼罗河和地中海㊂⑤在由字母O 与T 建构的空间之中,上方的半圆是亚洲,下方位于T 字母竖笔画左右两边的区域则是欧洲和非洲,这三大洲又分别代表诺亚(Noah)的三个儿子闪(Shem)㊁雅弗(Japheth)㊁含(Ham)及其后代最初定居的区域㊂⑥实际上,T -O 地图本身亦是古典文化与中世纪基督教观念相互妥协的产物㊂在古典晚期向中世纪过渡的关键期,部分早期教父如德尔图良(Tertullian)㊁圣西普里安(St Cyprian)和圣安布罗斯(St Ambrose)等都极端敌视古代的学术成就,而与此同时也有一部分早期教父如奥古斯丁(St Augustine)㊁圣哲罗姆(St Jerome)以及圣伊西多尔(Isidore of Seville)等则主张吸收与借鉴古典学术成就㊂例如奥古斯丁就认为, 如果缺乏对天㊁地㊁世界等要素的相关知识,我们就无法更好地理解圣经 ,他还声称, 为了更好地理解神的造物,在研习圣经的时间和历史时,也须了解空间与地理 ㊂圣哲罗姆遵从奥古斯丁的建议,在翻译圣经之余还撰写了一部名为‘地点之书“(Liber locorum )的著作,并在书中给出了巴勒斯坦和亚洲的区域地图㊂⑦圣伊西多尔则在借鉴古典历史学家萨卢斯特(Sallustius)关于三大洲的相关记载的基础上,首次提出了T -O 地图的构想,其著作‘论事物的本质“(De natura rerum )与‘关于词源学的二十卷书“(Etymologiarum sive originum libri XX )被认为是最早包含T -O 地图意象的作品㊂⑧因早期的T -O 地图在本质上只是一种简要的示意图,仅标注三大洲名称或诺亚三个儿子的名字,很少有其他地名,所以其在T -O 地图的整体分类法中也常常被称作是概要性三部分T -O 地图(Schematic Tripartite)㊂8至11世纪,T -O 地图继续吸收来自马克罗比乌斯(Macrobius)和奥罗修斯(Orosius)等古典学者作品中的知识,发展出了非概要性三部分T -O 地图(Nonschematic Tripartite)㊂这一新子类虽仍将有人居住的大陆分成三部分,但并不严格按照T -O 模式绘制,而是按照各部分的历史及其起源进一步细化与划分各自的区域㊂它们通常强调地中海,并倾向于将海岸线绘制成参差不齐的效果㊂⑨总之,T -O 地图是古典知识与中世纪基督教世界观不断融合的结果,早期教父吸收了古典时代学者将有人居住的世界分成三部分的描述,并将其与创世纪中的世界起源观念结合起来,奠定了中世431①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨包慧怡:‘感官地图上的灵魂朝圣之旅 中古英语长诗 珍珠⓪的空间结构“,‘外国文学评论“2007年第2期㊂Kloster Ebstorf,Ebstorf,Germandy (destroyed in 1943,20th replica).Additional MS 28681,f.9r,British Library,London.有时亦称 美茵茨的亨利地图 (Henry of Map),参见Cambridge,Corpus Chisti College,MS 66,p.2.Catherine Delano-Smith, The Intelligent Pilgrim:Maps and Medieval Pilgrimage to the Holy Land, in Rosamund Allen,ed.,Eastward Bound :Travel and Travellers ,1050-1550,Manchester:Manchester University Press,2004,pp.110-111;Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,p.105.Saint Bede,On Genesis ,trans.Calvin B.Kendall,Liverpool:Liverpool University Press,2008,p.24;Naomi Reed Kline,Maps of Medieval Thought :The Hereford Paradigm ,Woodbridge:Boydell Press,2003,p.13.Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,pp.102-103.Burgerbibliothek,cod.417,f.88v,Bern;Kline,Maps of Medieval Thought ,p.13.Woodward, Medieval Mappaemundi, in Harley and Woodward,eds.,The History of Cartography ,vol .1,pp.343,347.。

Relevant References on the Development, Implementation and Evaluation of School–based assessment in the HKCE English Language Examination in Hong Kong Journal articlesCarless, D. (2005). Prospects for the implementation of assessment for learning. Assessment in Education, 12(1), 39-54.Cheung, D. (2001). School-based assessment in public examinations: Identifying the concerns of teachers. Education Journal, 29 (2), 107-123.http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/33/3300732.pdfDavison, C. (2004). The contradictory culture of classroom-based assessment: ESL teacher assessment practices in Australian and Hong Kong secondary schools. Language Testing, 20(3), 304-333.Davison, C (in press, 2006).Views from the chalkface: School-based assessment in Hong Kong. Language Assessment Quarterly, 3(4).Davison, C & Hamp-Lyons, L. (forthcoming, 2007). You mean we are theassessors now? Changing ESL teacher assessment practices in Hong Longsecondary schools. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 20ppBooks and monographsCarless, D. (Ed.) (2007). How assessment supports learning: Learning-oriented assessment in action. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Davison, C (Ed.) (2006). Enhancing effective English language assessment in secondary schools: Integrating theory and practice. Quality Education Fund/Facultyof Education, The University of Hong Kong.Research reportsDavison, C. & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2005). Research and development for professional development courses for teachers in preparation for the school-based assessment component of the 2007 HKCE English Language Examination, Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Unpublished final report.Davison, C. & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2005). Summative oral school-based assessment in secondary ESL in Hong Kong, Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Unpublished progress report.Davison, C. & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2006). Professional development for teachers in preparation for school-based assessment in the 2007 HKCE English Language Examination, Part 1 & 2. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Unpublished report.Davison, C. & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2006). Professional Development for Teachers in Preparation for School-based Assessment in the 2007 HKCE English Language Examination — UPDATE, /newsletter/03-2006mar/rr-1.htmHamp-Lyons, L. & Davison, C. (2005). Longitudinal study on the implementation of the school-based assessment component of the 2007 HKCE English Language Examination. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Unpublished report.Hamp-Lyons, L. & Davison, C. (2005). Field test report on the development and implementation of the SBA component of HKCEE English Language, 2007. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Unpublished report.Hamp-Lyons, L., Evans, A. & Ho, W. L. (2006). Student-oriented criteria for the school-based assessment in the 2007 HKCE English Language Examination. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Unpublished report.DissertationsLam, Y. W., H. (2006). A class of local secondary four students’ learning attitudes and perceptions towards the school-based assessment in the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination English syllabus. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong. Unpublished dissertation.http://library.hku.hk:80/record=b3666581Lee, Y.C, E. (1998). Assessing and fostering senior secondary school students’ conceptions and understanding of learning through authentic assessment. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong. Unpublished dissertation.http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B31960327Tang, M. S. (1996). An action research on the introduction of the use of authentic tasks in assessment to support a new integrated curriculum. Hong Kong: Universityof Hong Kong. Unpublished dissertation.http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B31958850Wong, S. W. (2000). How different types of discussion tasks in HKCEE affect students’ performance. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong. Unpublished dissertation.http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B31962002Yau, K.M. (2004). Teachers’ perceptions of assessment for learning: A study of secondary school teachers in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong. Unpublished dissertation.http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B30280710Yung, H.W. B. (2000). Teachers’ beliefs and their teaching of practical work in a school-based assessment scheme. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong. Unpublished dissertation.http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B31241335In progressGao, M. M. (forthcoming). Tba. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong.Li, R. (forthcoming).Feedback in the HKCEE SBA. Unpublished EdD dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong.Yu, Y. (forthcoming). The Impact of School-based Assessment on Hong Kong Secondary Schools: A Case Study. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong.Teacher Support MaterialsHong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (2005) Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination: Regulations & Syllabuses 2007. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority.Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (2006). 2007 HKCEE Chinese Language and English Language Standards-referenced Reporting. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority. (Brochures for parents).Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (2006). Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination: Chinese Language and English Language. Information for Parents on School-based Assessment (SBA). Hong Kong: Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority. (Brochures for parents).Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (2006). 2008 Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination English Language: Handbook for the School-based Assessment Component. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority.SBA Consultancy Team (2005, revised edition, 2006). 2007 HKCE English Language Examination: Introduction to the School-based Assessment Component (Training Package). Hong Kong: Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority/Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. (An introductory DVD and a booklet introducing the components of SBA, and two CD-Roms containing the criteria and standards for the new assessment).SBA Consultancy Team (in press, 2006). Effective school-based assessment in English language teaching in Hong Kong secondary schools (DVD). Quality Education Fund/Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong.The Curriculum Development Council and the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2006). New Senior Secondary Curriculum and Assessment Guides,.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_5185/eng_lang_e_c1-3.pdfPublished Conference PapersAcademic Forum on English Language Testing in Asia (8th: 2005: Hong Kong, China). Assessment for learning: Proceedings of the 8th Academic Forum on English Language Testing in Asia: 25-26 November 2005, Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority.http://library.hku.hk:80/record=b3167830Davison, C. Aligning high-stakes assessment with curriculum reform: School-basedassessment in Hong Kong. Proceedings of the8th Academic Forum on English Language Testing in Asia (AFELTA). Hong Kong, pp. 36-58.Hill, P. W. & Wan, Tak-wing. (2006) Assessment Reforms in Hong KongPaper presented at the 32nd IAEA Conference, Singapore..sg/conference/download/papers/Assessment%20reform s%20in%20Hong%20Kong.pdfInternational Conference PresentationsDavison, C. (2004). Changing tests for teachers: School-based assessment in Hong Kong. International Language Testing Research Colloquium, March 2004.Davison, C. (2004). Changing cultures, enculturating change: School-based assessment in Hong Kong. International Language in Education Conference, December 2004.Davison, C. (2005). Caught between rhetoric and reality: Formative assessment and "Assessment for learning " in Hong Kong. Research Academic Session, Annual Convention, International TESOL, San Antonio, March 2005.Davison, C. (2005). Aligning high-stakes assessment with curriculumreform: School-based assessment in Hong Kong. Keynote address to the 8th Academic Forum on English Language Testing in Asia (AFELTA). Hong Kong, November 2005.Davison, C. & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2006). Teacher’s use of assessment criteria. Joint American Association of Applied Linguistics and Canadian Applied Linguistics Conference, Montreal, Canada, June 2006.Davison, C., Hamp-Lyons, L. & Gan, Z. (2006). Creating natural interaction in oral school-based English language assessments in Hong Kong. British Association of Applied Linguistics and Irish Association of Applied Linguistics Conference, Cork, Ireland, September 2006.Hamp-Lyons, L. & Davison, C. (2006). Assessment innovation and professional development: Essential links. Paper presented at the conference of the European Association of Language Testing and Assessment, Krakow, Poland, May 2006. Local Conference PresentationsYeung, P. M. (2005). School-based assessment and Learning Oriented Assessment. Conference (LOAC): Using Assessment to Improve Learning . The Hong Kong Institution of Education. 10th June, 2005..hk/loap/loac/stephenyeung.pdfConference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in SecondarySchools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong: http://web.hku.hk/~sbapro/april22.htmlCarless, D. (2006). SBA and the challenge of integrating formative and summative assessment. Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Cheung, O. (2006). SBA: A burden or new opportunities for teachers and students? Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Davison, C. (2006) Towards more effective assessment in Hong Kong secondary schools: Findings from the chalkface. Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Gan, Z. D. (2006). What makes a good group interaction in the HKCE English language SBA? Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Hamp-Lyons, L. (2006). Feedback, correction and assessment: Their role in learning. Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Hill, P. (2006). The case for SBA as a component of public assessment in Hong Kong secondary schools. Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Lavender, H., O’Brien, F. & Kwong, J. (2006). Planning to integrate SBA with regular classroom teaching. Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Lee, C. (2006). What can schools do to support the development of SBA (in the broad sense, formative and summative) across English language teaching? Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Lim, J. (2006). Assessment for learning: Getting response from students by creating a reader-response rich classroom. Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Lockwood, J., Lavender, H., O’Brien, F. & Kwong, J. (2006). What does the secondary English teacher need to know to implement SBA? Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Wardlaw, C. (2006). Present and future standards of English in HK. Conference on Enhancing Effective English Language Assessment in Secondary Schools: Integrating Theory and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, April 2006.Seminar PresentationsInaugural Seminar Series on English Language School-Based Assessment: Integrating Research and Practice, University of Hong Kong:http://web.hku.hk/~sbapro/seminar1.htmlCarless, D. (2006). Implementing assessment change in Hong Kong: Issues and strategies. Inaugural Seminar Series on English Language School-Based Assessment: Integrating Research and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, February 16, 2006.Davison, C. (2005). Changing tests for teachers: English language school-based assessment in Hong Kong. Inaugural Seminar Series on English LanguageSchool-Based Assessment: Integrating Research and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, December 19, 2005.Davison, D. & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2006). Different interpretations, different uses: Assessment criteria and school-based assessment reform in Hong Kong English. Inaugural Seminar Series on English Language School-Based Assessment: Integrating Research and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, May 9, 2006.Hamp-Lyons, L. (2006). Fairness as an issue in school-based assessment. Inaugural Seminar Series on English Language School-Based Assessment: Integrating Research and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Jan 9, 2006.Lee, C., Ho, L., Wong, T. & Harfitt, G. (2006). The story so far: Issues and concerns arising in the HKCE English SBA in S4–S5. Inaugural Seminar Series on English Language School-Based Assessment: Integrating Research and Practice, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, March 9, 2006.Other Seminar PresentationsCheng, L. Y. (forth coming 2007). Classroom Assessment: Interrelationship between assessment and instruction. Seminar in school-based assessment seminar series, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, March 27, 2007.http://web.hku.hk/~sbapro/cheng.htmlFinch, A. (2006). Formative school-based assessment activities for secondary English: An overview. Seminar in school-based assessment seminar series, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, November 22, 2006.http://web.hku.hk/~sbapro/andrew.html#bottomFinch, A. (2006). Promoting attitude change through student-based assessment. Seminar in school-based assessment seminar series, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, November 21, 2006.http://web.hku.hk/~sbapro/andrew.html#bottomFinch, A. (2006). Self/peer assessment: Stress-free consciousness-raising and reflection. Seminar in school-based assessment seminar series, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, November 23, 2006.http://web.hku.hk/~sbapro/andrew.html#bottomLantolf, J. (forth coming 2007). Title: To be announced. Seminar in school-based assessment seminar series, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.http://web.hku.hk/~sbapro/lantolf.htmlNunan, D. (2004). School-based assessment: what, how and why. Longman: Pearson Education Asia Limited, Hong Kong, December 11, 2004./eng/teach/events41.asp/longman/20041211/default.htm#Ross, S. (2006). Constructing learner-centered assessment: Designs, systems, and outcomes. Seminar in school-based assessment seminar series, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, September 21, 2006.http://web.hku.hk/~sbapro/steven.html#bottomNewspaper articles(news articles without a hyperlink can be found via WiseNews from the HKU library>Electronic Resources>, http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/ER/detail/2125211 Assessment methods for HKCEE. (2004). Retrieved Jan 26, 2007 from.hk/gia/general/200405/19/0519135.htmAssessment in schools ‘too much for teachers’. (2005, September 29). China Daily (Hong Kong News).Choose texts right, first step to Success: Get ready for SBA. (2006, August 14). Ming Pao Daily News.Classroom assessments are the talk of the town. (2005, November 12). South China Morning Post.Consultation and news interview featured, "Understanding of school-based assessment, using criterion-referenced, teacher-made test and examination papers, and hints to alleviate stresses faced by senior secondary students in Hong Kong", The Hong Kong S.A.R., China. (1999). Retrieved Jan 26, 2007 from.hk/~ssgifted/media7.htmEMB announces comprehensive support measures for teachers. (2006). Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of The People's Republic of China - Government Information Centre. Press Release. Retrieved Jan 27, 2007 from.hk/gia/general/200602/27/P200602270230.htmEMB welcomes modifications to SBA in Chinese Language and English Language. (2006). Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of The People's Republic of China - Government Information Centre. Press Release. Retrieved Jan 27, 2007 from.hk/gia/general/200604/11/P200604110173.htmGet Ready for SBA! (2006, September 14). Ming Pao Daily News.Hong Kong Economic Times.HKU Launches School-based Assessment Package for Newly-reformed English Language Examination. (2005). Retrieved Jan 27, 2007 fromhttp://www.hku.hk/press/news_detail_5284.htmlHong Kong’s Future. (1999). Retrieved Jan 27, 2007 from/hkfuture/index.asp6.htmlHong Kong Professional Teachers' Union. School-based Assessment: Another EMB Flop? (2006). Retrieved Jan 27, 2007 from.hk/ptu/director/pubdep/ptunews/500/ptunews.htmLanguage assessments may be deferred to ease burden. (2006, January 14). China Daily Hong Kong Edition.New exam “to ease appraisal fears”. (2005, May 30). The Standard.New exams aimed at ending educators’ assessment fears. (2005, May 20). The Standard.Proportion of school-based assessments to be reduced. (2006, July 8). South China Morning Post.Reforms to stretch the stress of exams. (2005, May 28). South China Morning Post. School assessment plan under review. (2006, January 14). South China Morning Post. School-based assessment delayed. (2007, January 13). South China Morning Post. School-based assessment timeline modified. (2006). Retrieved Jan 27, 2007 from .hk/en/category/atschool/060411/html/060411en02004.htm School-based tests “going too quickly”. (2005, October 1). South China Morning Post.Teachers groping in the dark on reform. (2006, January 14). South China Morning Post.Other media releases香港: 香港電台電視部, 1998. 改變考試評核制度是否公平?RTHK. (1998). Is it fair to change the assessment system?Ng Tak-kay (Chairman, Hok yau Club), Yip Kam-shing (Professor, Department of Applied Social Science, Hong Kong Polytechnic University), Choi Chee-cheong (Secretary, Hong Kong Examination Authority), Tam Kwok-hung (Vice-chairman, Education Convergence) discusses whether school-based assessment should be included in the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) and Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination (HKAL),.hk/record=b1774045Chan, K.K.& Cheung, F. (2007) School-based assessment: Changing the assessment culture. The Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority: 28 January 2007, .hk/doc/334/sba_e_20070128.htmSBA projects at HKU (Work in progress)http://web.hku.hk/~sbapro/projects.htmlAndrews, S., Davison, C., Hamp-Lyons, L., Cheng, L. Y., et al. (project in progress). An impact study of a high-stakes ESL assessment innovation in Hong Kong secondary schools. Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong.Davies, G.. (project in progress). An investigation into how English language teachers construct feedback to students during feedback conferences. Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong.Davison, C., Andrews S., & Hamp-Lyons, L., et al. (project in progress). The use of summative oral school-based assessment for formative purposes in secondary ESL in Hong Kong. Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong.Davison, C. & Hamp-Lyons, L. (project in progress). Research and development for professional development courses for teachers in preparation for the school-based assessment component of the 2007-2010 HKCE English Language Examination, Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority..Davison, C., Hamp-Lyons, L., & Andrews, S, et al. (f orth coming 2007). Aligning Assessment with Curriculum Reform in Junior Secondary English Language Teaching. Quality Education Fund. Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Unpublished report (1st progress report).Gan, Z. (project in progress). Discourse analysis and group oral assessment: A case study of English language students in Hong Kong. Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong.Gan, Z, & Davison, C. (project in progress). Performance in the group oral assessment: The roles of language proficiency, willingness to communicate, and personality. Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong.Hamp-Lyons, L. & Davison, C. (forth coming 2007). Longitudinal study on the implementation of the school-based assessment component of the 2007 HKCE English Language Examination. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Unpublished report (2nd progress report).Tavares, N. (project in progress).The teacher’s role as mediator in assessment for learning: A case study of local EFL teachers’ use of mediational strategies in evaluating and promoting learning during student presentations in the HKCEE school-based assessment. Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong.。

专题05 阅读理解之说明文距离高考还有一段时间，不少有经验的老师都会提醒考生，愈是临近高考，能否咬紧牙关、学会自我调节，态度是否主动积极，安排是否科学合理，能不能保持良好的心态、以饱满的情绪迎接挑战，其效果往往大不一样。

以下是本人从事10多年教学经验总结出的以下学习资料，希望可以帮助大家提高答题的正确率，希望对你有所帮助，有志者事竟成！养成良好的答题习惯，是决定高考英语成败的决定性因素之一。

做题前，要认真阅读题目要求、题干和选项，并对答案内容作出合理预测;答题时，切忌跟着感觉走，最好按照题目序号来做，不会的或存在疑问的，要做好标记，要善于发现，找到题目的题眼所在，规范答题，书写工整;答题完毕时，要认真检查，查漏补缺，纠正错误。

总之，在最后的复习阶段，学生们不要加大练习量。

在这个时候，学生要尽快找到适合自己的答题方式，最重要的是以平常心去面对考试。

英语最后的复习要树立信心，考试的时候遇到难题要想“别人也难”，遇到容易的则要想“细心审题”。

越到最后，考生越要回归基础，单词最好再梳理一遍，这样有利于提高阅读理解的效率。

另附高考复习方法和考前30天冲刺复习方法。

难度：★★★★☆建议用时：40分钟得分：2022年新高考I卷之B篇Like most of us, I try to be mindful of food that goes to waste. The arugula (芝麻菜)was to make a nice green salad, rounding out a roast chicken dinner. But I ended up working late. Then friends called with a dinner invitation.I stuck the chicken in the freezer. But as days passed, the arugula went bad. Even worse, I had unthinkingly bought way too much; I could have made six salads with what I threw out.In a world where nearly 800 million people a year go hungry, “food waste goes against the moral grain,” as Elizabeth Royte writes in this month’s cover story. It’s jaw-dropping how much perfectly good food is thrown away — from “ugly” (but quite eatable) vegetables rejected by grocers to large amounts of uneaten dishes thrown into restaurant garbage cans.Producing food that no one eats wastes the water, fuel, and other resources used to grow it. That makes food waste an environmental problem. In fact, Royte writes, “if food waste were a country, it would be the third largest producer of greenhouse gases in the world.”If that’s hard to understand, let’s keep it as simple as the arugula at the back of my refrigerator. Mike Curtin sees my arugula story all the time — but for him, it's more like 12 bones of donated strawberries nearing their last days. Curtin is CEO of DC Central Kitchen in Washington, D.C., which recovers food and turns it into healthy meals. Lastyear it recovered more than 807,500 pounds of food by taking donations and collecting blemished (有瑕疵的) produce that otherwise would have rotted in fields. And the strawberries? Volunteers will wash, cut, and freeze or dry them for use in meals down the road.Such methods seem obvious, yet so often we just don’t think. “Everyone can play a part in reducing waste, whether by not purchasing more food than necessary in your weekly shopping or by asking restaurants to not include the side dish you won’t eat,” Curtin says.24. What does the author want to show by telling the arugula story?A. We pay little attention to food waste.B. We waste food unintentionally at times.C. We waste more vegetables than meat.D. We have good reasons for wasting food.25. What is a consequence of food waste according to the test?A. Moral decline.B. Environmental harm.C. Energy shortage.D. Worldwide starvation.26. What does Curtin’s company do?A. It produces kitchen equipment.B. It turns rotten arugula into clean fuel.C. It helps local farmers grow fruits.D. It makes meals out of unwanted food.27. What does Curtin suggest people do?A. Buy only what is needed.B. Reduce food consumption.C. Go shopping once a week.D. Eat in restaurants less often.2022年新高考I卷之C篇The elderly residents (居民) in care homes in London are being given hens to look after to stop them feeling lonely.The project was dreamed up by a local charity (慈善组织) to reduce loneliness and improve elderly people’s wellbeing, It is also being used to help patients suffering dementia, a serious illness of the mind. Staff in care homes have reported a reduction in the use of medicine where hens are in use.Among those taking part in the project is 80-year-old Ruth Xavier. She said: “I used to keep hens when I was younger and had to prepare their breakfast each morning before I went to school. ”“I like the project a lot. I am down there in my wheelchair in the morning letting the hens out and down there again at night to see they’ve gone to bed.”“It’s good to have a different focus. People have been bringing their children in to see the hens and residents come and sit outside to watch them. I’m enjoying the creative activities, and it feels great to have done something useful.”There are now 700 elderly people looking after hens in 20 care homes in the North East, and the charity has been given financial support to roll it out countrywide.Wendy Wilson, extra care manager at 60 Penfold Street, one of the first to embark on the project, said: “Residents really welcome the idea of the project and the creative sessions. We are looking forward to the benefits and fun the project can bring to people here.”Lynn Lewis, director of Notting Hill Pathways, said: “We are happy to be taking part in the project. It will really help connect our residents through a shared interest and creative activities.”28. What is the purpose of the project?A. To ensure harmony in care homes.B. To provide part-time jobs for the aged.C. To raise money for medical research.D. To promote the elderly people’s welfare.29. How has the project affected Ruth Xavier?A. She has learned new life skills.B. She has gained a sense of achievement.C. She has recovered her memory.D. She has developed a strong personality.30. What do the underlined words “embark on” mean in paragraph 7?A. Improve.B. Oppose.C. Begin.D. Evaluate.31. What can we learn about the project from the last two paragraphs?A. It is well received.B. It needs to be more creative.C. It is highly profitable.D. It takes ages to see the results.（2023·浙江·校联考模拟预测）It is easy to be doubtful about announcements of drugs that claim to slow the progress of Alzheimers, the most common form of dementia (痴呆). A new drug called Lecanemab, however, may be the real deal. Results of a clinical trial, conducted by its makers, Eisai, of Tokyo, and Biogen, of Cambridge Massachusetts, have just been announced in the New England Journal of Medicine(November; 2022). After18 months, it had slowed the progress of symptoms by a quarter.The trial involved 1795 participants who were in the early stages of the illness. Half received the drug. The others, a placebo(安慰剂). It showed two things. One was the modest but measurable slowing of progression. The other was that an explanation of Alzheimers called the Amyloid Hypothesis(淀粉样蛋白假说) seems correct.Amyloid is a protein which accumulates in parts of the brains of those with Alzheimers, which is an established sign of the illness. Lecanemab, containing a special antibody, is found to be able to attach itself to amyloid and then attracts immune-system cells to clear the protein away (and measurably did so in those receiving the drug).That suggests amyloid does indeed directly create problems associated with dementia and that Lecanemab can slow down the development of the disease.This is a small first step. Some experts question whether the test used to show an improvement in symptoms is clinically meaningful because amyloid can be detected only with the help of a piece of expensive equipment, which is not something that can easily be turned into a routine program. Moreover, Lecanemab also caused swelling and bleeding of the brain in a number of participants. Now that the new drug has been shown to work, it can be followed up with further tests. Hope for more good news soon.1．What can be learned from the first two paragraphs?A．The public shows confidence in new drugs for Alzheimers.B．All participants didn’t receive the new drug.C．The new drug had an obvious effect on the participants.D．It took 18 months to make the new drug.2．The author explains the effectiveness of the new drug by _______.A．illustrating how the drug interacts with amyloid in bodyB．describing how immune-system works in detailC．making comparisons between two groups of participantsD．quoting the comments of other scientists3．Which of the following is a drawback of the new drug?A．It can’t be accessed easily in daily treatment.B．It can cause some side-effects.C．It costs too much for ordinary families.D．It needs to be further tested before its launch.4．What does the author think of Lecanemab?A．Reliable.B．GroundbreakingC．Promising D．Risky.（2023·安徽淮北·统考一模）A college professor at my university years ago shocked his class with a frog. He showed off a wood frog that was still alive but frozen solid. Then suddenly, he threw it against a wall and it broke into pieces. Everyone took a quick deep breath. Moments later, he explained that he hadn’t actually thrown the frog. For dramatic effect he had switched the frog for a large piece of ice. But the goal was to illustrate a point: That a wood frog does in fact freeze as solid as ice to survive the winter. Then it thaws again in the spring.The wood frog is one of the most frequently studied animals on Earth that freezes. First, it’s liquid, it’s hopping around, then ice comes on it from the outside. Its skin gets frozen a little bit, its eyes glaze over, its brain freezes, and ice pushes blood to the frog’s heart before eventually that, too, is rock solid. This transition requires major changes in biochemistry. Ice slowly forms around the outside of organs and cells. At the same time, the frog’s liver pumps out incredible amounts of glucose — a sugary liquid that acts like antifreeze for vital organs — that flows everywhere including the insides of cells to keep them from dying.But true supercooling in nature — and especially with human organs — comes with risks, says Shannon Tessier, an assistant professor at Harvard Medical School who studies how suspended animation in nature can translate to human organ transplants.Wood frogs and other animals that survive extreme conditions in nature have many applications in medicine, especially in the world of organ transplants, Tessier says. A human heart, for example, can only exist outside the body for about four hours. “So we’re trying to use the principles from wood frogs with high amounts of glucose and freeze a whole heart or other organ, keep it in suspended animation, safely awake it, and transplant it.”5．Why did the college professor take a frog to the class?A．To show off his amazing pet.B．To switch a piece of ice with it.C．To tell students some frog facts.D．To conduct a special experiment.6．What does the underlined word “thaws” mean in paragraph 1?A．Freezes itself.B．Comes to life.C．Becomes warm.D．Turns back into water.7．What protects the frozen frog from dying?A．Its icy cell.B．Its vital organ.C．Its warm blood.D．Its sugary liquid.8．Who will probably benefit from the frog’s principles according to Shannon Tessier?A．The one who has to take a heart transplant operation.B．The one who is applying for the Harvard Medical School.C．The one who works on the development of a new medicine.D．The one who plans to experience extreme conditions in nature.（2023·广东深圳·统考一模）When put to tests, bees have long proved that they’ve got a lot more to offer than pollinating (授粉) , making honey and being loyal to a queen. The hard-working insects can change their behavior when things seem difficult, and now some scientists find there is proof that they also like to play.Scientists from Queen Mary University of London performed an experiment, in which they set up a container that allowed bees to travel from their nest to a feeding area. But along the way, the bees could choose to pass through a separate section with some small wooden balls. Over 18 days, the scientists watched as the bees “went out of their way to roll wooden balls repeatedly, despite no apparent incentive (刺激)to do so. ”Earlier studies have shown that the black and yellow bugs are willing to learn new tricks in exchange for food or other rewards. In this case, to get rid of external factors, scientists made sure the bees had adapted to their new home and that their environment was stress-free.The finding suggests that like humans, insects also interact with objects as a form of play. Also similar to people, younger bees seem to be more playful than adult bees. “This research provides a strong indication that insect minds are far more complicated than we imagine. There are lots of animals who play just for the purpose of enjoyment, but most examples come from young mammals (哺乳动物) and birds,” said Lars Chittka, a professor of sensory and behavioral ecology at Queen Mary University of London, who led the study.The study’s first author, Samadi Galpay, who is a PhD student at Queen Mary University of London, states that it is more evident that bees may be capable of experiencing feelings. “They may actually experience some kind of positive emotional states, even if basic, like other larger animals do. This finding has effects on our understanding of the sense and welfare of insects, which, consequently, encourages us to respect and protect wildlife on Earth ever more,” she says.9．What is the new finding about bees?A．They are fond of having fun.B．They are faithful to the queen.C．They are adaptable to changes.D．They are skilled at rolling balls.10．How did scientists remove external influences in the experiment?A．By teaching bees new tricks.B．By rewarding bees with food.C．By making bees feel at home.D．By building new homes for bees.11．What are Lars Chittka’s words mainly about?A．The forms of bees’ interaction.B．The complexity of bees’ minds.C．The examples of mammals’ play.D．The purpose of mammals’ enjoyment.12．What does Samadi Galpay say about the study result?A．It backs up prior understanding of insects.B．It reveals reasons for bees’ positive feelings.C．It drives research on animals’ emotional state.D．It contributes to wildlife conservation on Earth.高考质量提升是一项系统工程，涉及到多个方面、各个维度，关键是要抓住重点、以点带面、全面突破，收到事半功倍的效果。

1. IAP Membership of the Institution is an endorsement of your professional competence by your peers in the industry. It can advance your career and boost your business. It gives employers and clients the confidence that they are dealing with an accredited professional. They can call on the support of other members with a wide range of skills. The Institution itself provides a range of practical services to assist members in finding work, overcoming problems and developing their careers. The Institution is Britain’s leading professional organization for people who work in the development, installation and testing of business systems and computer software. People join us principally for the prestige and privilege of associating with some of the leading professionals in this sector of the industry. They also appreciate the many practical benefits that IAP membership can provide. The Institution has a rich and fascinating history, with its roots stretching back into the early 1970s with a group of computing enthusiasts meeting as the University Computer Association in Cambridge. IMIS is known for its focus on the practical issues involved in the application and management of information and communication technologies. Its vision is to see information systems management recognized as one of the key professions influencing the future of our world. These issues are now moving into the forefront of public awareness and debate, demonstrating the importance of the work of the Institute and its members2．He balance between these two may be a matter of opinion. One the one hand, professional bodies act to protect the public by maintaining and enforcing standards of training and ethics in their profession. On the other hand, they may also act like a cartel or a labor union for the members of the profession, though this description is commonly rejected by the body concerned. Membership of a professional body does not necessarily mean that a person possesses qualifications in the subject area, nor that they are legally able to practice their profession — although in some countries and professions, membership of a professional body is required for somebody to legally practice.Membership of a professional engineering institution that has been licensed by the Engineering Council is a first visible step towards securing your professional standing. As your career progresses you should aspire to become professionally qualified with one of the 36 licensed institutions and obtain registration with the Engineering Council as an Incorporated Engineer or Chartered Engineer .3. We also applaud professional development and aid our members with valuable support in this area, through access to a wide range of information and training materials, all of which qualify for credit in the flexible IMIS Continuous ProfessionalDevelopmental Purpose, Vision & Mission The Institution of Analysts and Programmers has a very clear purpose, an inspiring vision for its future and a solid understanding of its mission. IMIS Setting and maintaining professional standards We promote professional standards in many ways. These include all members agreeing to our Code of Ethics. This Code, signed by all members, sets out our guidelines and policy governing the ethical and professional practice of information systems management. It is constantly updated to reflect new developments in the application and management of technologies.4. Harvard Manage Mentor .IMIS Journal .CPD .Discussion Forums .Online Book Store Membership of the Institution is an endorsement of your professional competence by your peers in the industry. It can advance your career and boost your business. It gives employers and clients the confidence that they are dealing with an accredited professional.In addition, members have access to a range of benefits and services designed to keep them informed, support them in their careers, and provide access to cost savings on professional goods and services. Membership of IMIS brings career benefits through professional accreditation and association with the Institute's widely recognized work on promoting the profession within industry. Many of our services are delivered through the website, providing members with the convenience and flexibility of access with the click of a mouse. All our services are password protected5 BCS maintains an agreement with the ISM whereby BCS recognizes the requirements for membership of the Institute as being equivalent to those for its Associate and Member grades. Under the agreement ISM authorizes BCS to nominate its members for corresponding ISM membership grades. In order to benefit from the terms of the agreement, download the short application form and return to the address given on the form. You will need to quote your BCS membership number.6.The Institution itself provides a range of practical services to assist members in finding work, overcoming problems and developing their careers. The Institution of Analysts and Programmers has a very clear purpose, an inspiring vision for its future and a solid understanding of its mission. These include all members agreeing to our Code of Ethics. This Code, signed by all members, sets out our guidelines and policy governing the ethical and professional practice of information systems management. We also applaud professional development and aid our members with valuable support in this area, through access to a wide range of information and training materials, all of which qualify for credit in the flexible IMIS programmed. Members can use the IAP coat of arms on letter headings and business documents, and add IAP membership to their qualifications. They can call on the support of other members with a wide range of skills.7 The institution codifies the standards required by the professional and, in general, governments delegate the regulation of the profession to those bodies. Lawyers, for example, have the Law Society, which "is the governing body for Scottish solicitors. The Society promotes the interests of the solicitors' profession and those of the public in relation to the profession." Doctors have the General Medical Council, which exists to "to protect, promote and maintain the health and safety of the public by ensuring proper standards in the practice of medicine. ―In both cases governments have recognized that the professionals, with their knowledge of the field, are best placed to police that field. Computing, on the other hand, is not yet at the stage where it is self-governing. In this section we will examine some of the bodies that exist and that are attempting to move computing onto a professional level..8. professional institutions within computing Structure of the computing profession IMIS is an accrediting body that runs its own Examination Syllabus leading towards the IMIS qualification. There are currently over 12,000 IMIS students and accredited members in over 50 countries. The IMISqualification is structured to provide recognition for all levels of achievement. Combined with the IMIS Syllabus and Continuous Professional Development programmed.9. Take a viewpoint of –have a code of conduct which they can use as guidance within their job, body of knowledge available to members to assist them, development and status through membership exams, answers could cover BP means Bullet Point from the Unit Spec Our quarterly magazine, the IMIS Journal, keeps our members abreast of the latest IMIS news and industry research, plus covering the latest buzz in the IS sector with its informative features. The Journal also includes specific college and student news, keeping you up to date whatever stage you are at in your career.10To facilitate the advancement and spreading of knowledge within the said professions; To improve standards of conduct and competence within the said professions and provide a means for measuring professional competence; To assist members to indemnify themselves against claims in respect of liabilities incurred by them in the exercise of their profession, and to protect the mutual interests of members; To provide services and all kinds of assistance to members in the pursuit of, or in any matter relating to, their professional career or work; To assist members who are seeking employment; To provide opportunities for contact between members; Roles of professional institutions within computing Characteristics of professional institutions within computing Areas of influence of professional institutions within computing Relationship of job functions to professional institutions To provide an organization to assist men and women, having the necessary education, ability and experience, to advance in the professions related tosystems analysis or software development, and to secure public recognition of their professional status;。

December, 2002ANDREI SHLEIFERHOME ADDRESS AND TELEPHONE:OFFICE ADDRESS AND TELEPHONE:38 Bracebridge Road Department of EconomicsNewton, Massachusetts 02459Harvard University617/969-5347M9 Littauer CenterCambridge, Massachusetts 02138617/495-5046 (Fax: 617/496-1708)Date of Birth:February 20, 1961Citizenship:U.S.A.Undergraduate Studies:Harvard, A.B., Math, 1982.Graduate Studies:MIT, Ph.D., May, 1986.Thesis Title: “The Business Cycle and the StockMarket”EMPLOYMENT:Whipple V. N. Jones Professor of Economics, Harvard University, 2002 to present.Professor of Economics, Harvard University, 1991 - 2002.Professor of Finance and Business Economics, Graduate School of Business, The University of Chicago, 1989 - 1990.Assistant Professor of Finance and Business Economics, Graduate School ofBusiness, The University of Chicago, 1987 - 1989.Assistant Professor of Economics, Princeton University, 1986 - 1987.OTHER AFFILIATIONS:Faculty Research Fellow and Research Associate, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1986 - .Associate and Advisory Editor, Journal of Financial Economics, 1988 - 2002.Associate Editor, Journal of Finance, 1988 - 1991.Editor, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1989 to 1999.Advisor, Government of Russia, 1991 to 1997.Principal, LSV Asset Management, 1994 - .Editor, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2003 - .ANDREI SHLEIFER2December, 2002AWARDS, FELLOWSHIPS, AND GRANTS:National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship, 1983-1986.CRSP Distinguished Visiting Scholar, Graduate School of Business, The University of Chicago, March-June, 1986.Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship, 1990.National Science Foundation Grants, 1988-1989, 1990-1991, 1994-1996, 1998-2000, 2001 - 2003. Presidential Young Investigator Award, 1989-1994.Bradley Foundation Grant, 1989, 1990, 1991-1992.Russell Sage Foundation Grant (with R. Vishny), 1988, 1991.Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Grant (with L. Summers), 1986, 1988-1990.Fellow, Econometric Society, 1993.Roger F. Murray Award of the Q-Group, 1994, and the Smith-Breeden Prize of the Journal of Finance for Distinguished paper, 1995, given to “Contrarian Investment, Extrapolation, and Risk.”Member, U.S.-Israel Joint Economic Development Group, 1995 - 1997.Association of American Publishers, Honorable Mention in Economics for “Privatizing Russia,” 1996. Clarendon Lecturer, 1996.Schumpeter Lecturer to the European Economic Association, 1996.IAP Distinguished Speaker, MIT, 1999.John Bates Clark Medal, American Economic Association, 1999.Brattle Prize of the Journal of Finance for Distinguished paper, 1999, given to “Corporate Ownership Around the World.”Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2000.Jensen Prize for Corporate Finance and Organizations of the Journal of Financial Economics, 2000, Second Prize given to “Investor Protection and Corporate Governance.”David Horowitz Lectures, Israel, 2002.Barone Adesi Kryzanowski Distinguished Lecture, Northern Finance Association, 2002.BOOKS:Privatizing Russia, (with M. Boycko and R. Vishny), MIT Press, 1995.The Grabbing Hand, (with R. Vishny), Harvard University Press, 1998. Translated into Slovak as Kradmá Ruka, Kalligram, 2000.Without a Map: Political Tactics and Economic Reform in Russia, (with D. Treisman), MIT Press, 2000.Clarendon Lectures: Inefficient Markets, Oxford University Press, 2000. Japanese translation, Toyo Keisai, Tokyo, 2001. Arabic, Chinese, and Italian translations, forthcoming.ARTICLES:“A Theory of Yardstick Competition.” Rand Journal of Economics, Autumn, 1985.“The Strategic Bequest Motive” (with D. Bernheim and L. Summers). Journal of Political Economy, December, 1985.“Large Shareholders and Corporate Control” (with R. Vishny). Journal of Political Economy, June, 1986. Reprinted in Michael J. Brennan, ed., The Theory of Corporate Finance. Brookfield, Vermont: Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1996.“Do Demand Curves for Stocks Slope Down?” Journal of Finance, July, 1986.“Greenmail, White Knights, and Shareholders' Interest” (with R. Vishny). Rand Journal of Economics, Autumn, 1986.“Implementation Cycles” Journal of Political Economy, December, 1986. Reprinted in N. Gregory Mankiw and David Romer, eds., New Keynesian Economics. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991.“Management Buyouts as a Response to Market Pressure” (with R. Vishny). In Alan J. Auerbach, editor, Mergers and Acquisitions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.“Value Maximization and the Acquisition Process” (with R. Vishny). Journal of Economic Perspectives, Winter, 1988. Reprinted in Russian in Ekonomika I Matematicheskiye Metody, Vol. 27, No. 4, 1991.“Breach of Trust in Hostile Takeovers” (with L. Summers). In Alan J. Auerbach, editor, Corporate Takeovers: Causes and Consequences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Reprinted in R. Romano, ed., Foundations of Corporate Law, Oxford University Press, 1993.“Characteristics of Targets of Hostile and Friendly Takeovers” (with R. Morck and R. Vishny). In Alan J. Auerbach, editor, Corporate Takeovers: Causes and Consequences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.“Management Ownership and Market Valuation: An Empirical Analysis” (with R. Morck and R. Vishny). Journal of Financial Economics, March, 1988.“The Efficiency of Investment in the Presence of Aggregate Demand Spillovers” (with R. Vishny). Journal of Political Economy, December, 1988.“Income Distribution, Market Size and Industrialization” (with K. Murphy and R. Vishny). Quarterly Journal of Economics, August, 1989.“Costs of Financial Distress, Delayed Calls of Convertible Bonds, and the Role of Investment Banks”(with D. Jaffee). Journal of Business: Merton Miller Conference, January, 1990.“Industrialization and the Big Push” (with K. Murphy and R. Vishny). Journal of Political Economy, October, 1989.“Alternative Mechanisms for Corporate Control” (with R. Morck and R. Vishny). American Economic Review, September, 1989.“The Size and Incidence of the Losses from Noise Trading” (with B. De Long, L. Summers, and R. Waldmann). Journal of Finance, July, 1989.“Building Blocks of Market Clearing Business Cycle Models” (with K. Murphy and R. Vishny). NBER Macroeconomics Annual, 1989.“Positive Feedback Investment Strategies and Destabilizing Rational Speculation” (with B. De Long, L. Summers, and R. Waldmann). Journal of Finance, June, 1990.“The Noise Trader Approach to Finance” (with L. Summers). Journal of Economic Perspectives, Spring, 1990.“Managerial Entrenchment: The Case of Manager-Specific Investments” (with R. Vishny). Journal of Financial Economics, November, 1989.“Do Managerial Objectives Drive Bad Acquisitions?” (with R. Morck and R. Vishny). Journal of Finance, March, 1990. Reprinted in Empirical Corporate Finance, The International Library of Critical Writings in Financial Economics, Richard Roll (series editor) and Michael J. Brennan (editor), forthcoming, 2000.“Noise Trader Risk in Financial Markets” (with B. De Long, L. Summers and R. Waldmann). Journal of Political Economy, August, 1990. Reprinted in Richard H. Thaler, ed., Advances in Behavioral Finance, Russell Sage Foundation, 1993.“Hostile Takeovers in the 1980s: The Return to Corporate Specialization” (with S. Bhagat andR. Vishny). Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics, 1990. Reprinted in R. Romano, ed., Foundations of Corporate Law, Oxford University Press, 1993.“Equilibrium Short Horizons of Investors and Firms” (with R. Vishny). American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, May, 1990. Reprinted in Richard H. Thaler, ed., Advances in Behavioral Finance, Russell Sage Foundation, 1993.“The Allocation of Talent: Implications for Growth” (with K. M. Murphy and R. Vishny). Quarterly Journal of Economics, May, 1991.“The Takeover Wave of the 1980s” (with R. Vishny). Science, August 17, 1990. Reprinted in Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, Fall, 1991. Reprinted in D. Chew, ed., Studies in International Corporate Finance and Corporate Governance Systems, Oxford University Press, 1997.“Closed End Mutual Funds” (with C. Lee and R. Thaler). Journal of Economic Perspectives, Fall, 1990.“The Survival of Noise Traders in Financial Markets” (with B. De Long, L. Summers, andR. Waldmann). Journal of Business, January, 1991.“The Stock Market and Investment: Is the Market a Sideshow?” (with R. Morck and R. Vishny). Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1990:2.“Investor Sentiment and the Closed-End Fund Puzzle” (with C. Lee and R. Thaler). Journal of Finance, March, 1991. Reprinted in R. Thaler, ed., Quasi-Rational Economics, Russell Sage Foundation, 1991 and in Richard H. Thaler, ed., Advances in Behavioral Finance, Russell Sage Foundation, 1993.“Reversions of Excess Pension Assets after Takeovers” (with J. Pontiff and M. Weisbach). Rand Journal of Economics, Winter, 1990.“The Bubble of 1929: Evidence from Closed-End Funds” (with B. De Long). Journal of Economic History, September, 1991. Reprinted in Eugene N. White, ed., Stock Market Crashes and Speculative Manias, The International Library of macroeconomic and Financial History, Vol. 13, An Elger Reference Collection, 1996.“Window Dressing by Pension Fund Managers” (with J. Lakonishok, R. Thaler, and R. Vishny). American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, May, 1991.“The Transition to a Market Economy: Pitfalls of Partial Reform” (with K. Murphy and R. Vishny). Quarterly Journal of Economics, August, 1992.“Takeovers in the '60s and the '80s: Evidence and Implications” (with R. Vishny). Strategic Management Journal, December, 1991. Reprinted in Richard Rumelt, Dan Schendel, and David Teece (editors), Fundamental Research Issues in Strategy. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1992.“Reversing the Soviet Economic Collapse” (with R. Vishny). Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1991:2.“Liquidation Values and Debt Capacity: A Market Equilibrium Approach” (with R. Vishny). Journal of Finance, September, 1992. Reprinted in Michael J. Brennan, ed., The Theory of Corporate Finance. Brookfield, Vermont: Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1996.“The Structure and Performance of the Money Management Industry” (with J. Lakonishok and R. Vishny). Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics, 1992.“The Impact of Institutional Trading on Stock Prices” (with J. Lakonishok and R. Vishny). Journal of Financial Economics, Volume 32, No. 1, 1992.“Closed-End Fund Discounts: A Yardstick of Small Investor Sentiment” (with J. B. De Long). Journal of Portfolio Management, Winter, 1992.“Pervasive Shortages under Socialism” (with R. Vishny). The Rand Journal of Economics, Vol. 23, No. 2, Summer 1992, pp. 237-246.“Growth in Cities” (with E. Glaeser, H. Kallal, and J. Scheinkman). Journal of Political Economy, December, 1992.“Corruption” (with R. Vishny). Quarterly Journal of Economics, August, 1993. Reprinted in Gianluca Fiorentini and Stefano Zamagni, eds., The Economics of Corruption and Illegal Markets. Brookfield, Vermont: Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 2000. Reprinted in Robert Williams, ed., The Politics of Corruption. Brookfield, Vermont: Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 2000.“Yes, Discounts on Closed-End Funds Are a Sentiment Index” (with N. Chopra, C. Lee, and R. Thaler). Journal of Finance, June, 1993.“Why Is Rent-Seeking so Costly to Growth?” (with K. Murphy and R. Vishny). American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, May, 1993.“Needed Mechanisms for Corporate Governance and Finance in Eastern Europe” (with E. S. Phelps, R. Frydman, and A. Rapaczynski). Economics of Transition 1(2), 1993.“Princes or Merchants? City Growth before the Industrial Revolution” (with J. B. De Long). Journal of Law and Economics, October 1993.“Privatizing Russia” (with M. Boycko and R. Vishny). Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, No. 2, 1993.“Privatization in Russia: First Steps” (with R. Vishny). In O. J. Blanchard, K. R. Froot, and J. D. Sachs, editors, The Transition in Eastern Europe, Volume 2: Restructuring. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1994.“Voucher Privatization” (with M. Boycko and R. Vishny). Journal of Financial Economics, April 1994.“What Do Firms Do with Cash Windfalls?” (with O. J. Blanchard and F. Lopez-de-Silanes). Journal of Financial Economics 36, 1994. Reprinted in Empirical Corporate Finance, The International Library of Critical Writings in Financial Economics, Richard Roll (series editor) and Michael J. Brennan (editor), forthcoming, 2000.“Contrarian Investment, Extrapolation, and Risk” (with J. Lakonishok and R. Vishny). Journal of Finance XLIX (5), December 1994. Reprinted in Behavioral Finance, The International Library of Critical Writings in Financial Economics, Richard Roll (series editor) and Harold M. Shefrin (editor), forthcoming, 2000.“Politics of Market Socialism” (with R. Vishny). Journal of Economic Perspectives, Spring 1994.“Politicians and Firms” (with R. Vishny). Quarterly Journal of Economics, November 1994.“Next Steps in Privatization: Six Major Challenges” (with M. Boycko). Russia: Creating Private Enterprises and Efficient Markets, eds. Ira W. Lieberman and John Nellis. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1994.“Establishing Property Rights.” World Bank: Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Development Economics, April 1994.“Economic Growth in a Cross-Section of Cities” (with E. Glaeser and J. Scheinkman). Journal of Monetary Economics, August 1995.“A Theory of Privatization” (with M. Boycko and R. Vishny). Economic Journal, March 1996. Reprinted in Privatisation and Corporate Performance, The International Library of Critical Writings in Financial Economics, Mark Blaug (series editor) and David Parker (editor), forthcoming, 2000.“How Does Privatization Work: Evidence from the Russian Shops” (with N. Barberis, M. Boycko, and N. Tsukanova). Journal of Political Economy, August 1996.“Corporate Governance in Russia: An Initial Look” (with J. Blasi). In R. Frydman, C. W. Gray and A. Rapaczynski, ed., Corporate Governance in Central Europe and Russia: Volume 2. Insiders and the State, Budapest: Central European University Press, 1996.“Management Ownership and Russian Privatization” (with D. Vasiliev). In R. Frydman, C. W. Gray and A. Rapaczynski, ed., Corporate Governance in Central Europe and Russia: Volume 2. Insiders and the State, Budapest: Central European University Press, 1996.“Toward A Theory of Legal Reform” (with J. Hay and R.W. Vishny). European Economic Review, May, 1996.“Second Best Economic Advice to a Divided Government” (with M. Boycko and R.W. Vishny). European Economic Review, May, 1996.“Quality and Trade” (with K. Murphy), Journal of Development Economics, June, 1997.“The Limits of Arbitrage” (with R. Vishny), Journal of Finance, March, 1997. Reprinted in Behavioral Finance, The International Library of Critical Writings in Financial Economics, Richard Roll (series editor) and Harold M. Shefrin (editor), forthcoming, 2000.“Good News for Value Stocks: Further Evidence on Market Efficiency” (with R. La Porta, J. Lakonishok, and R. Vishny), Journal of Finance, June, 1997.“A Survey of Corporate Governance” (with R.W. Vishny), Nobel Symposium on Law and Finance, August, 1995, Journal of Finance, June, 1997. Reprinted in Kevin Keasey, Steven Thompson and Michael Wright, eds., Corporate Governance. Brookfield, Vermont: Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1999.“The Invisible Hand and the Grabbing Hand” (with T. Frye), American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, May, 1997.“Schumpeter Lecture: Government in Transition,” European Economic Review, May, 1997.“Origins of Bad Policies: Control, Corruption and Confusion,” Rivista di Politica Economica, June, 1996.“Trust in Large Organizations” (with R. La Porta, F. Lopez-de-Silanes, and R. Vishny), American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, May,1997. Reprinted in P. Dasgupta and I. Serageldin, eds. Social Capital: A Multifaceted Perspective, Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1999.“Privatization in the United States” (with F. Lopez-de-Silanes and R. Vishny), Rand Journal of Economics, Autumn, 1997.“The Proper Scope of Government: Theory and an Application to Prisons” (with O. Hart and R.W. Vishny), Quarterly Journal of Economics, November, 1997.“Legal Determinants of External Finance” (with R. La Porta, F. Lopez-de-Silanes, and R. Vishny), Journal of Finance, July, 1997. Reprinted in Empirical Corporate Finance, The International Library of Critical Writings in Financial Economics, Richard Roll (series editor) and Michael J. Brennan (editor), forthcoming, 2000.“The Unofficial Economy in Transition” (with S. Johnson and D. Kaufmann), Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, No. 2, 1997.“Agenda for Russian Reforms,” Economics of Transition, April, 1997.“Private Enforcement of Public Laws: a Theory of Legal Reform” (with J. Hay), American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, May, 1998.“A Model of Investor Sentiment” (with N. Barberis and R. Vishny), Journal of Financial Economics, September, 1998.“State versus Private Ownership,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Fall, 1998. Reprinted in Liberal Thought, The Association for Liberal Thinking, Ankara, Turkey, 2001.“Law and Finance” (with R. La Porta, F. Lopez-de-Silanes, and R. Vishny), Journal of Political Economy, December, 1998. Reprinted in J. Schwalbach ed., Corporate Governance; Essays in Honor of Horst Albach, Publications of the Society for Economics and Management at Humboldt-University Berlin, Berlin, Springer, 2001.“The Quality of Government” (with R. La Porta, F. Lopez-de-Silanes, and R. Vishny), Journal of Law, Economics and Organization, April, 1999.“Corporate Ownership Around the World” (with R. La Porta and F. Lopez-de-Silanes), Journal of Finance, April, 1999.“Agency Problems and Dividend Policies Around the World” (with R. La Porta, F. Lopez-de-Silanes, and R. Vishny), Journal of Finance, February, 2000.“Investor Protection and Corporate Governance” (with R. La Porta, F. Lopez-de-Silanes, and R. Vishny), Journal of Financial Economics, October, 2000.“Tunneling” (with S. Johnson, R. La Porta, and F. Lopez-de-Silanes), American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, May, 2000.“Coase versus the Coasians” (with E. Glaeser and S. Johnson), Quarterly Journal of Economics, August, 2001. Reprinted in Comparative Economic and Social Systems, Beijing, China, 2001.“Not-for-Profit Entrepreneurs” (with E. Glaeser), Journal of Public Economics, July, 2001.“Federalism With and Without Political Centralization. China versus Russia” (with O. Blanchard), in Transition Economies: How Much Progress? IMF Staff Papers , 2001.“A Reason for Quantity Regulation” (with E. Glaeser), American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, May, 2001.“Government Ownership of Banks” (with R. La Porta and F. Lopez-de-Silanes), Journal of Finance, February, 2002.“The Regulation of Entry” (with S. Djankov, R. La Porta, and F. Lopez-de-Silanes), Quarterly Journal of Economics, February 2002.“Investor Protection and Corporate Valuation” (with R. La Porta, F. Lopez-de-Silanes, and R. Vishny), Journal of Finance, June, 2002.“Technology, Information Production, and Market Efficiency” (with G. D’Avolio and E. Gildor), in Economic Policy For The Information Economy, A Symposium Sponsored By The Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, 2002.“Investor Protection and Equity Markets” (with D. Wolfenzon), Journal of Financial Economics, October,2002.“Legal Origins” (with E. Glaeser), Quarterly Journal of Economics, November, 2002.“Style Investing” (with N. Barberis), forthcoming, Journal of Financial Economics, 2003.“The Injustice of Inequality” (with E. Glaeser and J. Scheinkman), forthcoming, Journal of Monetary Economics: Carnegie-Rochester Series on Public Policy, 2003.“Family Firms” (with M. Burkhart and F. Panunzi), forthcoming, Journal of Finance, 2003.“Who Owns the Media?” (with S. Djankov, C. McLiesh, and T. Nenova), forthcoming, Journal of Law and Economics, 2003.“The Practice of Justice,” (with S. Djankov, R. La Porta, and F. Lopez-de-Silanes), forthcoming, Quarterly Journal of Economics, May, 2003.“The Rise of the Regulatory State” (with E. Glaeser), forthcoming, Journal of Economic Literature, June, 2003.“Stock Market Driven Acquisitions” (with R. Vishny), forthcoming, Journal of Financial Economics, 2003.“Will The Sovereign Debt Market Survive?” forthcoming, American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, May, 2003.“The New Comparative Economics” (with S. Djankov, E. Glaeser, R. La Porta, and F. Lopez-de-Silanes), forthcoming, Journal of Comparative Economics, 2003.UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPTS:“The Regulation of Labor” (with J. Botero, S. Djankov, R. La Porta, and F. Lopez-de-Silanes), November 2002.“What Works in Securities Laws?” (with R. La Porta, F. López-de-Silanes), October, 2002.“Media Bias” (with S. Mullainathan), September, 2002.“The Curley Effect” (with E. Glaeser), revised, May, 2002.“Comovement” (with N. Barberis and J. Wurgler), revised, March 2002.“Guarantees of Freedom” (with R. La Porta, F. López-de-Silanes, and C. Pop-Eleches), revised, January, 2002.“What Do Money Managers Do?” (with J. Lakonishok and R. Vishny), February, 1997.“The Waste of Time and Talent under Socialism” (with R. Vishny), June, 1992.“Increasing Returns, Durables, and Economic Fluctuations” (with K. Murphy and R. Vishny), October, 1988.。

你如何考上剑桥的英语作文How to Get into CambridgeCambridge University is one of the most prestigious institutions in the world, and getting admitted is no easy feat. However, with determination, hard work, and the right strategies, it is achievable.First and foremost, academic excellence is crucial. You need to have outstanding grades in your high school or undergraduate studies. This means mntning a high GPA and excelling in subjects that are relevant to your intended course of study at Cambridge. Consistently performing well in exams and assignments shows your ability to handle the rigorous academic demands of the university.In addition to good grades, strong standardized test scores are also essential. For example, if you are applying from a non-UK educational system, achieving top scores in tests like the SAT or ACT, and in language proficiency exams such as IELTS or TOEFL, can significantly enhance your chances.Extracurricular activities play an important role as well. Cambridge looks for well-rounded individuals who are not only academically brilliant but also actively involved in various fields outside the classroom. Participate in clubs, sports, munity service, or leadership roles to demonstrate your diverse skills and passions.Researching your chosen course thoroughly is a must. Understand the requirements, curriculum, and the kind of projects and research opportunities avlable. Tlor your application to show how your interests and goals align with the program.Furthermore, a pelling personal statement is your chance to stand out. Share your motivations, experiences, and why you are passionate about studying at Cambridge. Be genuine and highlight your unique qualities and achievements.Finally, seek guidance and advice from teachers, mentors, and alumni who have gone through the admission process. Their insights and tips can be invaluable in helping you navigate the application journey.Remember, getting into Cambridge requires dedication, mitment, and a long-term effort. But with the right approach and a belief in your abilities, you can turn your dream into a reality.。

George BooleBoolean algebra is named for its inventor, English mathematician George Boole, born in 1815. His father, a tradesman, began teaching him mathematics at an early age. But Boole was initially more interested in classical literature, languages, and religion-- interests he maintained throughout his life. By the time he was 20, he had taught himself French, German, and Italian. He was well versed in the writings of Aristotle, Spinoza, Cicero, and Dante, and wrote several philosophical papers himself.At 16 he took a position as a teaching assistant in a private school to help support his family. His work there plus a second teaching job left him little time to study. A few years later, he opened a school and began to learn higher mathematics on his own. In spite of his lack of formal training, his first scholarly paper was published in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal when he was just 24. In 1849, he was appointed professor of mathematics at Queen's College in Cork, Ireland. He became chair of mathematics and spent the rest of his career there. Boole went on the publish over 50 papers and several major works before he died in 1864, at the peak of his career.Boole's The Mathematical Analysis of Logic was published in 1847. It would eventually form the basis for the development of digital computers. In the book, Boole set forth the formal axioms of logic (much like the axioms of geometry) on which the field of symbolic logic is built. Boole drew on the symbols and operations of algebra in creating his system of logic. He associated the value 1 with the universal set (the set representing everything in the universe) and the value 0 with the empty set, and restricted his system to these quantities. He then defined operations that are analogous to subtraction, addition, and multiplication.In 1854, Boole published An Investigation of the Laws of Thought, on Which Are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities. This book described theorems built on his axioms of logic and extended the algebra to show how probabilities could be computed in a logical system. Five years later, Boole published Treatise on Differential Equations, followed by Treaties on the Calculus of Finite Differences. The latter is one of the cornerstones of numerical analysis, which deals with the accuracy of computations.Boole received little recognition and few honors for his work. Given the importance of Boolean algebra in modern technology, it is hard to believe that his system of logic was not taken seriously until the early twentieth century. George Boole was truly one of the founders of computer science.John Vincent AtanasoffJohn Vincent Atanasoff was born in Hamilton, New York, on October 4, 1903, one of nine children. When he was about ten, his father bought a new slide rule. After reading the instructions, John Vincent became more interested in the mathematics involved than in the slide rule itself. His mother picked up on his interest and helped him study his father's old college algebra book. He continued his interest in mathematics and science and graduated from high school in two years. His family moved to Old Chicara, Florida where John Vincent graduated from the University of Florida in 1925 with a degree in electrical engineering because the university didn't offer a degree in theoretical physics. A year later, he received a Master's degree in mathematics from Iowa State College. In 1930, after receiving his Ph.D. in theoretical physics, he returned to Iowa State College as an assistant professor in mathematics and physics.Dr. Atanasoff became interested in finding a machine that could do the complex mathematical work he and his graduate students were doing. He examined computational devices in existence at that time, including the Monroe calculator and the IBM tabulator. Upon concluding that these machines were too slow and inaccurate, he became obsessed with finding a solution. He said that at night in a tavern after a drink of bourbon he began generating ideas of how to build this computing device. It would be electronically operated and would compute by direct logical action rather than enumeration, as in analog devices. It would use binary numbers rather than decimal numbers, condensers for memory, and a regenerative process to avoid lapses due to leakage of power.In 1939, with a $650 grant from the school and a new graduate assistant named Clifford Berry, Dr. Atanasoff began work on the first prototype of the Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) in the basement of the physics building. The first working prototype was demonstrated that year.In 1941, John Mauchly, a physicist at Ursinus College whom Dr. Atanasoff had met at a conference, came to Iowa State to visit the Atanasoffs and see a demonstration of the ABC machine. After extensive discussions, Mauchly left with papers describing its design. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert continued their work on a computation device at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. Their machine, the ENIAC, completed in 1945, became known as the first computer.Dr. Atanasoff went to Washington in 1942 to become director of the Underwater Acoustics Program at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory, leaving the patent application for the ABC computer in the hands of the Iowa State attorneys. The patent application was never filed and the ABC was eventually dismantled without either Atanasoff or Berry being notified. After the war, Dr. Atanasoff was chief scientist for the Army Field Forces and director of the Navy Fuse program at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory.In 1952, Dr. Atanasoff established The Ordnance Engineering Corporation, a research and engineering firm, which was later sold to Aerojet General Corporation. He continued to work for Aerojet until he retired in 1961.Meanwhile, in 1947 Mauchly and Eckert applied for the patent on their ENIAC computer. Sperry Rand bought the patent, and when it was issued in 1964, began to collect royalties. Honeywell declined to pay and Sperry Rand brought suit. The subsequent trial lasted 135 working days and filled more than 20,000 pages of transcript from the testimony of 77 witnesses, including Dr. Atanasoff. Judge Larson found that Mauchly and Eckert "did not themselves first invent the automatic electronic digital computer, but instead derived that subject matter from one Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff."In 1990 President George Bush acknowledged Dr. Atanasoff's pioneering work by awarding him the National Medal of Technology. Dr. Atanasoff died on June 15, 1995.。

Unit TwoLook Up at the StarsSuggested Teaching StepsLead-inText A➢Word & Sentence Study➢Structure StudyAfter-readingAdditional MaterialsLead-inDirections: Please watch the video clip and answer the questions.l . who was the speaker? what do you know about him?2 . According to the speaker, what are the ambitious experiments planned for the future?Tips:L.Stephen Hawking ( l942 — 20l8) was the former Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge and author of A Brief Hislory of Time which is an international bestseller.2.We will map the positions of billions of galaxies, better understand our place in the universe, and continue to explore space.Text A The Universe Gives up Its Deepest secret0ne of the greatest mysteries of the universe is about to be unraveled with the first detailed, threedimensional map of dark matter — the invisible material that makes up most of the cosmos.Astronomers announced yesterday that they have achieved the apparently impossible task of creating a picture of something that has defied every attempt to detect it since its existence was first postulated in l933.Scientists have known for many years that there is more to the universe than can be seen or detected through their telescopes but it is only now that they have been able to capture the first significant 3D image of this otherwise invisible material.Unlike the ordinary matter of the planets, stars and galaxies, which can be seen through telescopes or detected by scientific instruments, nobody has seen dark matter or knows what it is made of, though calculations suggest that it is at least six times bigger than the rest of the visible universe combined.A team of 70 astronomers from Europe, America and Japan used the Hubble Space Telescope to build up a picture of dark matter in a vast region of space where some of the galaxies date back to half the age of the universe —nearly 7 billion years.They used a phenomenon known as gravitational lensing, first predicted by Albert Einstein, to investigate an area of the sky nine times the size of a full moon. Gravitational lensing occurs when light from distant galaxies is bent by the gravitational influence of any matter that it passes on its journey through space.The scientists were able to exploit the technique by collecting the distorted light from half a million faraway galaxies to reconstruct some of the missing mass of the universe which isotherwise invisible to conventional telescopes.“We have, for the first time, mapped the large-scale distribution of dark matter in the universe,” the leading scientist said. “Dark matter is a mysterious and invisible form of matter, about which we know very little, yet it dominates the mass of the universe.”One of the most important discoveries to emerge from the study is that dark matter appears to form an invisible scaffold or skeleton around which the visible universe has formed.Although cosmologists have theorized that this would be the case, the findings are dramatic proof that their calculations are correct and that, without dark matter, the known universe that we can see would not be able to exist.“A filamentary web of dark matter is threaded through the entire universe, and acts as scaffolding within which the ordinary matter —including stars, galaxies and planets —can later be built,” the leading scientist said. “The most surprising aspect of our map is how unsurprising it is. Overall, we seem to understand really well what happens during the formation of structure and the evolution of the universe,” he said.The three-dimensional map of dark matter was built up by taking slices through different regions of space; much like a medical CT scanner builds a 3D image of the body by taking different X-ray “slices” in two dimensions.Data from the Hubble telescope was supplemented by measurements from telescopes on the ground, such as the Very Large Telescope of the European Southern Observatory and the Japanese Subaru telescope.Details of the dark matter map were released yesterday at the annual meeting of the American Astronomical society in Seattle and published online by the journal Nature. The map stretches half way back to the beginning of the universe and shows that dark matter has formed into “clumps” as it collapsed under gravity. Other matter then grouped around these clumps to form the visible stars, galaxies and planets.“The 3D information is vital to studying the evolution of the structures over cosmic time,” said another famous scientist.Astronomers have compared the task of detecting dark matter to the difficulty of photographing a city at night from the air when only street lights are visible.Scientists said the new images were equivalent to seeing a city, its suburbs and country roads in daylight for the first time. Major arteries and intersections become evident and a variety of neighborhoods are revealed.“Now that we have begun to map out where dark matter is, the next challenge is to determine what it is, and specifically its relationship to normal matter,” the leading scientist said. “We have answered the first question about where the dark matter is, but the ultimate goal will be to determine what it is.”Various experiments on Earth are under way to try to find out what dark matter is made of. One theory is that it is composed of mysterious sub-atomic particles that are difficult to detect because they do not interact with ordinary matter and so cannot be picked up and identified by conventional scientific instruments. Comparing the maps of visible matter and dark matter has already pointed to anomalies that could prove critical to the understanding of what constitutes dark matter.Detailed Study1.(Para. 2) Astronomers announced yesterday that they have achieved the apparently impossible task of creating a picture of something that has defied every attempt to detect it since its existence was first postulated in l933.【译文】昨天，天文学家声明：他们已完成了在此之前看似不可能完成的任务—— 自l933 年假设暗物质存在以来，人们一直尝试构建它的图像，但每次均以失败告终。