translation approach

翻译技巧英汉翻译对策①词汇把英汉词汇的词义做一比较，人们不难看出，英语词义比较灵活多变，含义内涵大，虽然一词多义现象比较普遍，但是词义一般较具体。

汉语词义相对稳定严谨，含义相对单一、固定并且词义较笼统。

因此翻译时，要视情况酌情处理。

②代词英语代词使用得多，这是因为英语为了避免重复，常常使用代词替代，而汉语代词使用得少。

这是英汉两种语言的词汇上的另一区别。

因此，汉译英时要多用代称，而英译汉时要少用代称。

例如：Read a city guidebook. Some are even specially designed for a 24-hour visit! If you don’t want to buy one, just look through the guidebooks in a store. They can give you hints on how to planyour trip.译文：参考城市旅游指南，有些旅游书甚至是专为一日游行程而写的呢！如果不想花钱买书，在书店里翻一翻也可以。

旅游指南会提出一些建议，帮助你规划行程。

英语有时在句子里先出代词，然后再出它所指的人或物。

汉语一般总是先出实词，然后才用代词。

例如：Once it is combined, nitrogen is not chemically inert any longer.译文：氮气一经化合，在化学上它就变得活跃了。

③连词就连词的使用频率而言，英语的连词的使用率远远高于汉语的连词，因为英语重形态结构，而汉语重内在联系。

英译汉翻译时，很多连词略而不译。

例如：Whenever he is free, he will come and see me.译文：他一有空就来看我。

（比较：每当他有空的时候，他就会来看我。

）④介词英语介词数量多，使用广泛，意义变化大，语法功能多；而汉语介词则比较少，使用面较窄，意义比较稳定。

例如：He was sitting on the grass. （on the grass指面积，即草是短的）译文：他坐在草坪上。

功能派翻译理论一·主要观点：1．理想的翻译应该在概念性内容、语言形式和交际功能方面都与原文对等 2·翻译是以原文为基础的、有目的和有结果的行为，这一行为必须经过协商来完成；翻译必须遵循一系列法则，其中目的法则居于首位，即是说译文取决于翻译的目的。

此外，翻译还应遵循“语内连贯法则”(the intratextual coherence rule)和“语际连贯法则”(the intertextual coherence rule)，前者指译文必须内部连贯，在译入语接受者看来是可理解的，后者指译文与原文之间也应该有连贯性，有时称作“忠实法则”(the fidelity rule)。

3·将翻译视作受目的驱使的、以翻译结果为导向的人与人之间的相互作用把翻译看作包括文本、图片、声音、肢体语言等复合信息传递物(message-transmitter compounds)在不同文化之间的迁移，用“翻译行为”(translatorial action)来代替翻译(translation) 将翻译分为工具翻译(instrumental translation)和纪实翻译(documentary translation)，工具翻译的目的是在译语文化中实现新的交际功能，而纪实翻译是对作者和源语文本的读者之间的交际所做的记录二·代表人物，代表作及突出观点：1. 凯瑟林娜•赖斯(Kantharina Reiss)的翻译标准的功能分类说(the Functional Category of Translation Criticism)1971年凯瑟林娜•赖斯在《翻译批评的可能性与限制》(Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism)中首次提出翻译功能论(functional approach)，把“功能类型”这个概念引入翻译理论，并将文本功能列为翻译批评的一个标准。

May 2019 中 国 民 航 飞 行 学 院 学 报V ol.30 No.3 Journal of Civil Aviation Flight University of China 47___________________________________________________*广东省高职院校公共英语课程教学指导委员会2018年项目（2018CE40）的部分研究成果An Overview of Four Language Testing Approaches *Li Zhuanggui（Guangzhou Civil Aviation College, Guangzhou 510403 Guangdong China ）Abstract: Language testing approach plays an increasingly important role in evaluating students’ learning efficiency. Considering the current testing methods in the classroom settings, the author attempts to analyze four major language testing approaches. This paper is essentially the elaboration of each testing approach in terms of feasibility and limitations. By studying the four testing approaches, the author hopes to provide some implications for English teaching.Keywords: Language testing approach Essay-translation approach Structuralist approach Integrative approach Communicative approach四种语言测试方法概览李壮桂（广州民航职业技术学院 广东广州 510403）摘 要：语言测试方法在评估学生的学习效率中起着越来越重要的作用。

英语学科知识与教学能力（高中）必背考点第二部分语言教学知识与能力第一章外语教学基本理论第二节英语教学法一语法翻译法（grammar translation method）（一）语言观：语言是书面语，语言是一种知识，是由语音，语法和词汇构成的符号体系。

（外语教学法史上最早的一个教学法体系）（二）教学目的：培养学生阅读外国文学作品的能力和模仿范文进行写作的能力（三）特点是：教师用母语授课，授课重点是讲解与分析句子成分和语音、词汇变化与语法规则。

（四）评价优点：母语翻译，强调语法学习，深刻理解外语抽象词义和复杂结构缺点：1. 忽视口语教学，学生的语音语调差，不利于培养学生用外语进行交际的能力；2. 教学方式单一，学生容易失去兴趣。

二直接法（direct method）（一）语言观：语言是一种技能或习惯，习惯的养成要靠大量的重复练习和模仿（二）教学目的：培养学生阅读外国文学作品的能力和模仿范文进行写作的能力。

（三）特点：直接学习，直接理解和直接应用（四）评价优点：1. 采用各种直观教具，接近实际生活，培养用外语思维能力；2. 注重语言实践练习，学生学习积极性高，学习兴趣浓厚；3. 重视口语和语音教学，能有效地培养学生的语言运用能力。

缺点：1. 排斥母语，使学生对一些抽象和复杂的概念难以理解；2. 没有明晰的语法解释，导致学生说出的话语法错误较多。

三听说法（audio-lingual method）（一）语言观：语言是口语，是说出来的话，而不是写出来的文字。

（二）特点：以句型操练为中心，着重培养儿童听说能力的外语教学法。

（三）评价优点：培养学生敢于大胆主动地使用所学语言进行交谈，口语能力较强；重听说，初级阶段帮助大，语音语调自然。

缺点：机械操练不利于发展创造性思维，重形式，轻读写，语境不利于灵活应用。

四情景法(the situational approach)（一）概念：情景法也叫视听法。

强调耳，眼等器官以及大脑整体地去感知和认识外语材料，培养学生的听说读写四种能力。

翻译的种类自汉代佛经翻译开始，我国就有“直译”、“意译”之争，一直持续到现在。

所谓直译，就是在译文语言条件许可时，在译文中既保持原文的内容，又保持原文的形式。

汉语和英语两种语言存在共同之处，所以有些情况下直译是可能的。

但是，由于语言本身以及社会、文化等因素的差异，使用原文的形式无法表达原文的意思，这时就舍弃原文的形式，直接表达原文的意思，即意译。

纽马克(1988)根据译者侧重译出语还是译入语，把翻译方法分为以下几类：侧重译出语(程度由高到低)：·Word-for-word translation(逐字对译)·Literal translation(字面翻译)·Faithful translation(忠实翻译)·Semantic translation(语意翻译)侧重译入语(程度由低到高)：·Communicative translation(传意翻译)·Idiomatic translation(符合语言习惯的翻译)·Free translation(自由翻译)·Adaptation(改写)从逐字对译到改写是一个连续体，逐字对译与原文的形式最为对应，改写最强调译人语的流畅性。

与此类似，周兆祥根据“翻译的自由度”，把翻译分为以下几类：·逐字对译word-for-word translation)·字面翻译(1iteral translation)·语意翻译(semantic translation)·传意翻译(communicative translation)·编译（free translation)·改写(adaptation)可以通过下面一句话的翻译，体会几种翻译方法的区别：原文：Mr. Dewar slipped and fell outside his official Edinburgh residence on Tuesday morning．He picked himself up and went on to carry out two lunchtime engagements．(BBC news 11／10／2000)译文：逐字对译：杜瓦先生滑了和跌倒在外面他的官方爱丁堡居所在星期二早晨。

4翻译目的论视角下的汉语典籍英译——以《论语》英译为例The Analects of Confucius: A Translation from a Translational PerspectiveIntroductionThe Analects of Confucius is an ancient Chinese classic text composed of a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius, the founder of Confucianism. It has been highly regarded as an invaluable source of information regarding Confucian philosophy since its compilation some two thousand years ago. This text holds a special place in Chinese culture, as it serves not only as a source of wisdom for the individual but also carries important cultural values and traditions. It is therefore unsurprising that the translations of this text have been particularly scrutinized, with the aim of preserving its original core meanings and making them accessible to a wider audience.This paper will discuss the translation of The Analects of Confucius from a translational perspective, in order to provide an overview of the challenges and considerations necessary in this particular context. To support this discussion, an analysis of two existing translations of the text will be undertaken. The first translation is by Lionel Giles, published in 1910 by The Peking Monthly Magazine. The second is a new translation by Henry Rosemont Jr., published in 2019 by Hackett Publishing. Both of these translations will be critically evaluated from a 4-Way Translation perspective in order to examine how language, culture and context affect the translation of this text.BackgroundThe Analects of Confucius is a short text composed of approximately 500 aphorisms, divided into twenty books. It was originally written between 722 and 481 BCE and compiled in about 479 BCE by the followers of Confucius after his death. The primary purpose of the text is to provide guidance on personal virtue and moral values, such as the importance of filial piety, politeness and humility. It also includes various discussions on subjects such as politics, religion and education, among others. As a result, the text is significant not only as a source of spiritual and philosophical teachings, but also as a means to gain insight into the life and thought of Confucius and the beliefs of his time.Translation Approach – 4-Way TranslationWhen translating a text, it is essential to consider the language, culture and context in which the text has been composed in orderto ensure that the original intended meaning is conveyed accurately. This is known as the 4-Way Translation approach, which takes into account not only the form of the language (grammar, syntax and rhetoric) but also the cultural, religious and political implicationsof the text (from both the source and target language). For example, in the case of The Analects of Confucius, it is necessary to consider the differences between the Chinese and English languages and cultures in order to accurately convey the original meaning and intent of the text.Analysis of Existing TranslationsLionel Giles’ 1910 Transl ationLionel Giles’ translation of The Analects of Confucius is significant because it was one of the earliest English translations of the text. He provided his own interpretations of the text based on his own understanding of the Chinese language, without attempting to preserve any of the original connotations or cultural references. His translation is often criticized for being too literal and failing to capture the nuances of the text. For example, he translates 人之初, “the beginning of a person”, as “the first men”, as opposed to taking into account the culturally specific connotations of the original phrase. Similarly, he translates 礼尚往来, “ceremonies carry the exchange of benefits”, as “ceremonies are the basis of return for kindness”, conveying the idea of transactions, rather than the concept of mutual beneficial relationships which is implied by the original Chinese phrase.Henry Rosemont Jr.’s 2019 TranslationHenry Rosemont Jr’s translation of The Analects of Confucius is a more contemporary interpretation which seeks to preserve the original connotations and implications of the text. In comparison to Giles’ translation, Rosemont’s translation captures more of the nuances and cultural specificity of the text. For example, he translates 人之初, “the beginning of a person”, as “the initiation of humanity”, taking into account the implications of Confucius’ view of man as the most noble and perfect being. Similarly, he translates 礼尚往来, “ceremonies carry the exchange of benefits”, as “etiquette celebrates reciprocity”, recognizing the important role of rituals in Confucian philosophy.ConclusionOverall, the 4-Way Translation approach is essential for the accurate and effective translation of texts. It is important to consider not only the form of the language but also the cultural, religious and political implications of the text in order to properly convey the original intended meaning of the text. The differences between the two translations of The Analects of Confucius discussed in this paper illustrate how varying approaches to translation can change the effect of the text. Consequently, it is clear that when attempting to translate a text, a great deal of thought and consideration is necessary in order to preserve the original meaning of the text.。

广西师范学院《英汉互译（一）》课程教案编号: 15-1 开课单位：外语系授课教研室：翻译写作课程名称：《英汉互译（一）》授课教师：唐旭光教材：《新编英汉互译教程》，授课对象：06级英语专业2、3、5班《英汉互译（一）》第一讲翻译简论与主要翻译方法（A Brief Discussion of Translation and Major Translation Approaches）1. IntroductionTranslation studies started along with translation practice. Translation theories developed flourishingly in the 20th century, especially in the second half of the last century.In fact, translation, which is a very complex phenomenon, is related to different disciplines, such as linguistics, psychology, sociology, cultural anthropology, communication theory, literary criticism, aesthetics, and semiotics. As translation study is a cross-discipline and cross-culture subject involving many aspects of human knowledge, the lack of a fully acceptable theory of translation should not come as a surprise. Meanwhile, quite a number of translation approaches and strategies have become universally acceptable and widely applicable. They are, of course, the fruits of many translation theorists and translation practitioners at home and abroad.2.The Origin of TranslationLanguage makes it possible for people to communicate with one another freely so as to complete important tasks in human life. Translation makes it possible for people from different languages to communicate with one another so as to complete important tasks in their life.Theodore Savory points out, “Translation is almost as old as original authorship and has a history as honorable and as complex as that of any other branch of literature”(申雨平, 2002:4).In Zhou Dynasty there were different forms of address for translators in different places. “Translators are called Ji in the east, Xiang in the south, Didi in the west, andYi in the north(东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译)”（陈福康, 2000:3）.3. Function of TranslationIt has helped people to better communicate with one another, and in the mean time it has facilitated the development of culture and civilization of all nations, such as the Sutra translation （佛经翻译）in China and the Bible translation in Western countries.Actually, translation, as a means to bridge different cultures, has been playing a very important role in promoting global economic and cultural development, and China in particular benefits a great deal from translation, which is obvious to all.4. Nature of translationOne school of theorists maintain that any interpretation is translation. Translation thus defined includes intra-lingual rewording（语言内的重新措辞）, inter-lingual （语言之间的翻译或语际翻译）translation and inter-semiotic transmutation（符号转换）.But most scholars who are interested in translation maintain that translation is a communicative activity which entails a most adequate or identical reproduction in a target language of a written message or text in a source language.5. Definition of translation in our textbook as follows: Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text. In terms of its nature or character, translation is both an art and a science as well, since it calls for a good command of at least two languages, a flexible application of their rules, and some knowledge of at least two cultures, as well as a good grasp of the necessary translation theories.6. Other scholars’ viewpoints about the translation1). The traditional viewpoint about the nature of translation is that translation is an art only. This viewpoint is still maintained by Xu Yuanchong（许渊冲）, a well-known professor at Beijing University, and a few other scholars.2). Professor Liu Zhongde vigorously advocates that translation is a science as well as an art mainly because of the following reasons:Firstly, like any other art and science, translation requires a good grasp and a flexible use of the necessary specialized knowledge and skills.Secondly, like any other art and science, translation calls for independent, honest and creative effort.Thirdly, just like any other art and science, translation demands that the translator be very careful about and highly responsible for his or her work.7. Principle for translationThe 13 statements on page 81). A translation must reproduce the words of the SLT(Source Language Text).2). A translation must reproduce the ideas (meaning) of the SLT.3). A translation should read like an original work.4). A translation should read like a translation.5). A translation should reflect the style of the original.6). A translation should possess the style of the translator.7). A translation should retain the historical stylistic dimension of the SLT.8). A translation should read as a contemporary piece of literature.9). A translation may add to or omit from the original.10). A translation may never add to or omit from the original.11). A translation should let the readers of the SLT and the target language text (TLT) have essentially the same response.12). A translation should convey what the SLT author intends to convey.13). A translation should satisfy the need of the client.Evidently, though each of the above statements is right in a certain sense, yet it is not adequate or comprehensive enough to serve as a translation principle. Some of the principles proposed by various translation theorists can find their expression in the statements given above. Interlinear translation is an illustration of the first statement. Yan Fu’s three-character principle can be a combination of statements 2, 3 and 6. Nida’s functional equivalence is best express ed in statement 11.8. Yan Fu’s Considerations for translation?Strictly speaking, a translation theory in its true sense in China originated from Yan Fu(严复). He proposed the famous triple principle for translation, namely, faithfulness(信), expressiveness(达) and elegance(雅).1). His faithfulness means that the translated text should be faithful to the original text, ie, the version should keep the content or ideas of the original.2). His expressiveness means that the translated text should be expressive and coherent without anything awkward. In other words, his expressiveness requires that the version should be fluid, smooth, and easy to read and understand.3). His elegance demands that the translated text should be exquisite and that its style ought to be very graceful.9. Professor Liu Zhongde argues against “elegance” as a principle for translation of the original styleHe argued eloquently against “elegance” as a principle for translation of the original style. We all know that not all works are characterized by the elegant style. Different writers display different styles. For instance, Lenin wrote in a bold style, and Hemingway wrote in a simple, symbolic style. Even the same writer shows different styles on different occasions for different purposes. Naturally, different works demonstrate different styles. Thus, it is impossible & absolutely wrong to achieve the effect of elegance in the translated text if the style of the original is not elegant.10. The compiler of the textbook in favor of “closeness”1). We are in favor of Professor Liu’s triple translation principle. He changed Yan Fu’s “elegance” into “closeness”, which represents his contribution to the translation theory. His “closeness” is central in meaning. It is suitable for translation of all types of texts with different styles.2). If the original text is characterized by the elegant style, the translator should do his utmost to render it into a graceful text in the target language whose style is close to the original elegant style.If the original style is highly technical with a wealth of technical terms, thetranslator ought to employ plenty of corresponding technical terms in the target language and make the translated style as close to the original technical style as possible.3). If the original style is colloquial with a lot of informal words and colloquial sentences, the translator should translate it into a text with an informal style as close as possible to the original one by using many colloquial words and informal sentences.If the original style is ornate, the translator should follow suit and make effort to render the translated style as close to the original as possible.If the original text contains some vulgar words and sentences, the translator is not entitled to replace them with elegant words or sentences, and he should reproduce the original by using some corresponding vulgar words and sentences in the receptor language. Translators are duty-bound to do so, for the simple reason that they are translators.4). As we know, Yan Fu’s triple translation principle is highly concise and well rhymed and quite easy to learn by heart, which is one of the reasons why it is still very popular in China today.Professor Liu’s triple principle is similar to Yan Fu’s in that it is equally concise and easy to remember.Though Professor Liu’s triple principle is n ot rhymed, yet it is very forceful and impressive, for the Chinese character “切” is uttered in the falling tone, carrying the implication that faithfully conveying the original style or rendering the translated style as close to the original as possible is absolutely necessary and worth the translator’s great effort.11. Nida’s principle for translationEugene A. Nida and Taber stated emphatically (1969:12): “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.His dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle, according to which the translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language text wording will produce the same impact on the target text audience as the original wording does upon the source text audience. Later on, Nida changed “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”, because it seemed much more satisfactory to use the expression “functional equivalence” in describing the degree of adequacy of a translation.12. The literal translation approachProfessor Liu Zhongde (1994: 172) defines literal translation as follows: “In the process of translation, literal translation treats sentences as basic units and at the same time takes the whole passage into consideration; a translator who attaches great importance to literal translation does his or her best to reproduce the ideas and writing style of the original work, retaining in the version as many rhetorical devices and sentence structures of the original as possible.”ExamplesHe is said to be a rough diamond.人们说他是一块浑金璞玉。

1.绝对翻译。

Absolute Translation。

按照古阿德克的解释，指专业译员为应付不同翻译要求而采用的七种翻译类型之一。

According to Gouadec,one of 7 types of translation which can be used by professional translators to respond to the various translation requirements2.摘要翻译。

Abstract Translation古阿德提出的用以对付不同翻译要求的七种翻译策略之一。

One of seven strategies proposed by Gouadec to fulfil the various translation needs which arise in a professional environment。

3.滥译。

Abusive Translation。

路易斯用来表示文学翻译中极端做法的一个术语。

A term used by Lewis to refer to a radical approach to literary translation。

4.可接受性。

Accetability。

图里采用的术语，用来指可以从翻译作品中观察到的两种倾向之一。

A term used by Toury to denote one of two tendencies which can be observed in translated texts。

5.准确。

Accuracy。

翻译评估中用来表示译文与原文相符程度的术语。

A term used in translation evaluation to refer to the extent to which a translation matches its original。

6.改编Adaptation。