Fluctuations and Rheology in Active Bacterial Suspensions

论著·临床辅助检查CHINESE COMMUNITY DOCTORS 妊娠期合并糖尿病包括2型糖尿病合并妊娠和妊娠期糖尿病(GDM)。

妊娠期糖尿病定义为在妊娠期首次发生或发现的不同程度的糖代谢异常[1]。

其发病率世界各国的报道大致为1%～14%，我国妊娠期糖尿病的发病率1%～5%，且有明显增高趋势。

妊娠期血糖控制不好，会明显增加不良围产期结局风险，包括巨大儿、分娩创伤、新生儿黄疸、婴儿呼吸窘迫综合征、妊娠期高血压性疾病，以及剖宫产概率升高。

因此，孕期将血糖控制在合理范围内至关重要。

而有效的血糖监测手段对孕妇的血糖管理至关重要。

动态血糖监测系统是一种新兴的技术，能够持续72h 对血糖进行监测，及时发现高血糖、低血糖及血糖的波动，从而为制定合理的方案提供治疗依据。

本文主要应用动态血糖监测系统对31例妊娠合并糖尿病患者进行连续动态血糖监测，了解血糖情况，对其结果进行分析。

资料与方法选取2014年9月-2017年12月收治的妊娠期合并糖尿病孕妇31例，妊娠期糖尿病均符合第8版《妇产科学》制定的妊娠期糖尿病诊断标准，糖尿病合并妊娠诊断标准为妊娠前已诊断为糖尿病，均符合第8版《内科学》制定的糖尿病诊断标准，孕期予胰岛素控制治疗。

将31例患者分为妊娠期糖尿病组(21例)和糖尿病合并妊娠组(10例)。

两组患者年龄、病程等比较差异无统计学意义(P ＞0.05)。

孕妇年龄23～41岁，平均(33.35±4.85)岁。

方法：受试者给予圣美迪诺公司生产的雷兰回顾式持续性动态血糖监测系统，连续监测72h，期间每天用罗氏血糖仪测4点指端毛细血管血糖，以校正误差，孕妇每天输入进食、运动等事件，所得数据用专门的分析软件进行分析，从而可获得患者连续3d 内血糖动态变化的信息。

分析监测指标：血糖平均值、空腹平均值、早餐后平均值、午餐后平均值、晚餐后平均值、低血糖时间比(动态血糖监测系统软件统计血糖＜3.9mmol/L 的时间与总有效时间之比)、血糖＞7.8mmol/L 时间比(动态血糖监测系统软件统计血糖＞7.8mmol/L 的时间与总有效时间之比)、血糖＞11.1mmol/L 时间比(动态血糖监测系统软件统计血糖＞11.1mmol/L 的时间与总有效时间之比)、血糖波动系数(由统计标准偏差方法计算，它代表血糖宏观波动程度)。

•化学•丹参抑制血小板聚集成分的构效关系及协同作用霍苏】0，崔鹤蓉10，田学浩】，郑娟2,姜文艳3,戴子琦】，高梦怡】，项嘉伟】，陈可｛】，吴倩文】，王鹏龙】，马涛】,雷海民】！（1.北京中医药大学中药学院，北京102488'.广元市中心医院，广元628000'.北京工业大学生命科学与生物技术学院，北京100124）摘要：目的分析丹参中酣酸类和丹参酮类成分对血小板聚集抑制作用的构效关系，并探究两类成分的协同作用°方法基于B3LYP/6-31G*优势构象，采用Gaussian09W软件计算化合物的化学构型，使用QSAR模块及Orange软件计算影响化合物抑制血小板聚集作用的物理化学性质；基于构效关系，采用文献分析法分析两类成分的协同作用，并采用血小板聚集试验，验证丹参中丹酚■酸类和丹参酮类化合物抑制血小板聚集的最佳协同比例"结果在2种主要的生物活性成分中，油水分配系数（lg P）是决定酣酸类化合物有效性的最重要因素，表面积（约）、lg3和水合能是决定丹参酮类化合物有效性的最重要因素；2种活性化合物的最佳协同比例为30（»酸类）：1（丹参酮类）结论丹参的抗血小板活性与两类主要生物活性化合物9协同作用有关，lg P等结构参数能影响其抑制血小板聚集活性°关键词：丹参；抗血小板聚集；活性成分；构效关系；协同作用DOI：10.3969/j.issn.1004-2407.2021.01.020中图分类号：R914文献标志码:A文章编号=1004-2407（2021）01-0095-06Structure-activity relationship and synergistic effect of components in Salvia milti-orrhiza on platelet aggregationHUO Su10,CUI Herong10,TIAN Xuehao1,ZHENG Juan2,JIANG Wenyan3,DAI Ziqi1,GAO Mengyi1,XIANG Jiawei1, CHEN Kedian1,WU Qianwen1, WANG Penglong1,MA Tao1*,LEI Haimin1*(1.School of Chinese Pharmacy,Beijing University ofChinese Medicine Beijing102488China'2Guangyuan Central Hospital Guangyuan628000China'3Co l egeofLifeScience andBiotechnology Beijing University of Technology Beijing100124China)Abstract:To analyze the structure-activity relationship between phenolic acids and tanshinones in Salvia miltiorrhiza on the inhibition of platelet aggregation,and to explore the synergistic effects of the2kinds components.Gaussian09W sof--ware was used to calculate the chemical configuration of the compounds based on the dominant conformation of B3LYP/6-31G*, and QSAR module and Orange software were used to calculate the physical and chemical properties of the compounds affecting the inhib i t i o n of pla t e le t aggregation.Based on t h e structure-activity relationship,t h e synergistic effect of the2kinds components was analyzed by literature analysis method,and the optimal synergistic ratio of salvianolic acid and tanshinone in Salvia miltiorrhiza inhibiting platelet aggregation was verified by platelet aggregation test.For the2main bioactive components,oil water dis-"ribuioncoe f icien"(lg3)is"hemos"impor"an"fac"or"ode"ermine"hee f ecivenessofphenoliccompoundsandsurfacearea(a-bou")lg3and hydra ion energy are"he mos"impor"an"fac"ors"o de"ermine"he e f ec iveness of"anshinone compounds.The op"i-mal synergistic ratio of t he2active compounds was30(phenolic acids):1(tanshinones).The antiplatelet activity of Salvia miltiorrhiza is related to the synergistic effect of the2main bioactive compounds,and structural parameters such as lg3 caninfluence"heinhibiionofpla"ele"aggrega"ion.Key words:Salvia miltiorrhiza；anti-platelet aggregation；active compounds；structure-activity relationship；synergistic effect化学成分是药理作用的基础,化合物的协同药理作用是丹参抑制血小板聚集的物质基础。

doi ： 10. 3969/j. issn. 1009-6469.2019. 02. 009 ◊临床医学！血糖波动对人脐静脉血管内皮细胞腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶和过氧化物酶增殖物激活受体7共激活因子9"的影响田翰林!，常柏2，田文静3作者单位：1铜仁市碧江区中医医院，贵州铜仁554300%2国家卫生健康委员会激素与发育重点实验室、天津医科大学代谢病医院内分泌研究所，天津300070;3贵州健康职业学院，贵州铜仁554300通信作者：常柏，男，主任医师，博士生导师，研究方向为糖尿病基础及临床研究,E-mail :493162946@qq. c m基金项目：国家自然科学基金（81473622)81273914);铜仁市科技课题(2018)52号摘要：目的观察血糖波动对人脐静脉血管内皮细胞（HUVEC)腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶（AMPK)和过氧化物酶增殖物激活受体"共激活因子l$(P G C-1$的影响以探讨血糖波动对血管内皮损伤的机制。

方法体外培养HUVEC至第3代，将细胞分为：正常组:用5 mmol/L含葡萄糖和氨基酸的培养液（Glu DMEM)(模拟正常血糖环境）；高糖组:25 mmol/L Glu DMEM培养液(模拟高糖环境）&血糖波动组:交替用25 mmol/L和5 mmol/L Glu DMEM培养液，每8 h更换一次(模拟血糖波动环境），三组均培养48 h。

使用流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡率。

蛋白质印迹法（W etern blot)、反转录-聚合酶链反应（RT-PCR)检测各组AMPK和PGC-1$蛋白与mRNA表达。

结果高糖组与血糖波动组两组早/晚期细胞凋亡率高于正常组（E <0. 001 )，且血糖波动组早/晚期细胞凋亡率高于高糖组（均E <0. 05);高糖组的AMPK和PGC-1$蛋白与mRBA表达分别为(0. 232 ±0. 018)、(0. 401 ±0. 013)，血糖波动组AMPK和P G C1$蛋白与mRBA表达分别为（0. 158 ± 0. 027)、（0. 199 ±0. 010)，均比正常组的(0. 905 ±0. 032)、（0. 946 ±0. 045)降低（均E <0. 05)，且血糖波动组AMPK和PGC-1$蛋白与mRBA表达低于高糖组（均E<0. 05)。

高温流体力学中的剪切变稀现象研究引言高温流体力学是一门研究在高温条件下流体行为的学科，它在许多领域具有重要应用，如航空航天、能源等。

在高温下，流体的性质可能会发生变化，其中剪切变稀现象是一个重要的研究方向。

本文将探讨高温流体力学中剪切变稀现象的研究结果和应用。

背景在高温条件下，流体的分子运动更加剧烈，分子之间的相互作用也更加复杂。

这导致高温下的流体行为可能会与常温下有所不同。

剪切变稀是指在剪切应力作用下，高温流体的粘度会减小的现象。

这种现象在某些流体中特别显著，如聚合物溶液和液晶等。

实验方法为了研究剪切变稀现象，研究人员采用了多种实验方法。

其中一种常用的方法是旋转流变仪实验。

在实验中，将高温流体置于旋转流变仪中，通过施加剪切应力，观察流体的粘度随时间的变化。

另一种方法是采用激光流变仪实验，通过激光光束对流体进行非侵入性测量，获得流体的剪切变稀行为。

研究结果通过实验研究，发现高温流体中的剪切变稀现象并非普遍存在，它受到许多因素的影响，如温度、压力、流动速度和流体组分等。

研究人员发现，在某些条件下，流体的粘度可能会随着剪切应力的增加而减小，这被称为剪切变稀现象。

然而，还有一些情况下，剪切变稀现象可能会受到限制，流体的粘度可能会保持稳定或者增加。

剪切变稀机制研究人员对剪切变稀现象的机制进行了深入研究。

他们发现，剪切变稀现象与流体分子的有序排列和流体内部结构的变化密切相关。

在剪切应力作用下，流体分子的排列会发生改变，导致流体内部存在不同的结构状态。

这些结构状态的改变可能会导致流体的粘度减小，从而出现剪切变稀现象。

应用剪切变稀现象在许多领域具有重要的应用价值。

在航空航天领域，剪切变稀现象可以用于设计高温油液的传动系统，提高系统的效率和耐久性。

在能源领域，剪切变稀现象可以用于改进石油开采过程中的油井注水技术，减少能源的浪费。

此外，剪切变稀现象还可以应用于液晶显示技术和生物医学领域等。

结论高温流体力学中的剪切变稀现象是一门重要的研究方向。

马冠骅，姜斯琪，张劲松，等. β-葡寡糖的制备及其结构鉴定和生物活性研究进展[J]. 食品工业科技，2023，44（8）：429−436. doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022050169MA Guanhua, JIANG Siqi, ZHANG Jingsong, et al. Research Progress on Preparation, Structure Identification and Bioactivity of β-Glucooligosaccharides[J]. Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2023, 44(8): 429−436. (in Chinese with English abstract). doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022050169· 专题综述 ·β-葡寡糖的制备及其结构鉴定和生物活性研究进展马冠骅1,2，姜斯琪1,2，张劲松1，秦　秀1，冯　杰1，刘艳芳1,2,*（1.上海市农业科学院食用菌研究所，农业农村部南方食用菌资源利用重点实验室，国家食用菌工程技术研究中心，上海 201403；2.上海理工大学健康科学与工程学院，上海 200093）摘　要：低聚糖是一种新型功能性糖原，在食品领域应用广泛。

β-葡寡糖是一类由2~20个葡萄糖通过β-糖苷键连接而成的低聚糖，主要由葡聚糖经不同方法降解制备得到，因其分子量低、水溶性好、结构独特、吸收效率高等特点，在调节肠道菌群、增强免疫、抗肿瘤等方面表现出较好的生物活性，在食品、保健品和药品等领域具有广阔的应用前景。

为促进β-葡寡糖的研究与开发，本文就近年有关β-葡寡糖的降解制备、分离纯化、结构表征方法及其生物活性方面的研究进行系统综述，以期为β-葡寡糖的深度研究与利用提供一定的参考。

颜心怡，李锦晶，李赤翎，等. 冷等离子体技术对食品组分的影响及其作用机制[J]. 食品工业科技，2023，44（12）：445−454. doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022070119YAN Xinyi, LI Jinjing, LI Chiling, et al. Effect and Action Mechanism of Cold Plasma Technology on Food Components[J]. Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2023, 44(12): 445−454. (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022070119· 专题综述 ·冷等离子体技术对食品组分的影响及其作用机制颜心怡1，李锦晶2，李赤翎1，吴金鸿3，俞　健1，王发祥1,4，刘永乐1,4，李向红1,4,*（1.长沙理工大学食品与生物工程学院，湖南长沙 410114；2.湖南康宝莱蕾硕天然产物有限公司，湖南长沙 410100；3.上海交通大学农业与生物学院，上海 200240；4.湖南省水生资源食品加工工程技术研究中心，湖南长沙 410114）摘　要：冷等离子体作为一种新型的非热加工技术，因其具有安全、绿色、能耗低等优点，在食品加工领域受到广泛关注。

冷等离子体使用的气体在电离过程中产生的紫外线、活性物质（如活性氧、活性氮、羟自由基和离子）等会通过辐射/修饰作用使生物大分子发生刻蚀及交联，或对食品组分（脂质、蛋白质、淀粉等）的表面结构和官能团进行修饰，使组分结构发生变化，从而影响食品的品质、功能特性等。

本文综述了冷等离子体作用对食品主要组分（蛋白质、脂质、淀粉）、维生素和多酚的影响及其可能的作用机制，并讨论了该技术存在的问题和未来发展的方向，以期为冷等离子体在食品工业的应用提供参考。

陈南，高浩祥，何强，等. 植物多酚与淀粉的分子相互作用研究进展[J]. 食品工业科技，2023，44（2）：497−505. doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022040140CHEN Nan, GAO Haoxiang, HE Qiang, et al. A Review of the Molecular Interaction between Plant Polyphenols and Starch[J]. Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2023, 44(2): 497−505. (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022040140· 专题综述 ·植物多酚与淀粉的分子相互作用研究进展陈　南1，高浩祥1，何　强2, *，曾维才1,2,*（1.四川大学食品工程系，四川成都 610065；2.食品科学与技术四川省高校重点实验室，四川成都 610065）摘　要：淀粉是食品工业的重要原料之一，同时也是人体主要的供能物质。

植物多酚是一类广泛存在于植物中且对人体健康有益的活性物质。

植物多酚与淀粉的分子相互作用会影响淀粉基食品在加工和贮藏过程中的品质（如质构、风味及色泽等）及营养特性。

本文在查阅和整理国内外有关文献和研究的基础上，对植物多酚与淀粉的分子相互作用及其对淀粉和植物多酚相关性质的影响进行综述，包括植物多酚与淀粉的复合物形成方式（以疏水作用力为主的V 型复合物和以氢键为主的非V 型复合物），其相互作用对淀粉理化性质（糊化性质、回生性质和流变性质等）、微观结构和消化特性的改变及其对植物多酚的保护及缓释作用，以期为植物多酚在淀粉的加工、贮藏及其他相关领域的资源化利用提供有益的帮助与参考。

关键词：植物多酚，淀粉，分子相互作用，理化性质，微观结构，缓释作用本文网刊:中图分类号：TS202.1 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1002−0306（2023）02−0497−09DOI: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022040140A Review of the Molecular Interaction between PlantPolyphenols and StarchCHEN Nan 1，GAO Haoxiang 1，HE Qiang 2, *，ZENG Weicai 1,2, *（1.Department of Food Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China ；2.Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology of Sichuan Province of Education,Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China ）Abstract ：Starch is the important raw material for food industry, and it is also the main bioenergy source for human body.Plant polyphenols are a kind of active substances that widely exist in plants, and they are beneficial to human health. And the molecular interaction between plant polyphenols and starch can affect the quality (such as texture, flavor, color and so on) and nutrition of starch food during processing and storage. On the basis of consulting a lot of literature and studies, this paper reviews the molecular interaction between plant polyphenols and starch and its influence on the related properties of starch and plant polyphenols, these include the formation of complexes between plant polyphenols and starch (including V-type inclusion facilitated by hydrophobic effect and complex most through hydrogen bonds), the change of their interaction on the physicochemical properties (such as pasting, retrogradation, rheological properties, etc.), microstructure and digestive properties of starch, as well as the effect of protection and slow release on plant polyphenols, which would provide useful guidance for the resource utilization of plant polyphenols in starch processing and storage and other related fields.Key words ：plant polyphenols ；starch ；molecular interaction ；physicochemical properties ；microstructure ；sustained release收稿日期：2022−04−14基金项目：国家自然科学基金项目（31801548）；四川省科技计划项目（2021YFH0072）；中央高校创新科技计划项目（2021CDLZ-21）；国家重点研发计划（2019YFE0103800）。

Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines 2010, 8(3): 0202 0207doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1009.2010.00202ChineseJournal ofNaturalMedicinesAnalysis of Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids in Iristectorum by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS nSHU Pan 1,2, HONG Jun-Li 1,2, WU Gang 1,2, YU Bo-Yang3, QIN Min-Jian 1,2*1Department of Resources Science of Traditional Chinese Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009;2Key Laboratory of Modern Traditional Chinese Medicines (Ministry of Education),China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009; 3Department of Complex Prescription of Traditional Chinese Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, ChinaAvailable online May 2010[ABSTRACT]AIM: To develop high performance liquid chromatography combined with photodiode-array detection and electrospray ionization multiple-stage mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS n) for the analysis and identification of flavonoids and phenolic acids in the rhizome of Iris tectorum Maxim.. METHOD: The structures of flavonoids and phenolic acids were identified by chroma-tographic retention times, UV spectra as well as ESI-MS n spectra. RESULTS: Ten isoflavones were identified as tectori-genin-7-O-ȕ-glucosyl-4'-O-ȕ-glucoside (3), tectoridin (5), iristectorin B (6), iristectorin A (7), iridin (8), genistein (11),tectorigenin (12), iristectorigenin A (14), iristectorigenin B (16), i and rigenin (17). Two flavanones, one flavonol and one flavanonol were tenta-tively identified as hesperetin (9), 5, 7, 3'-trihydroxy-6, 4'-dimethoxyflavanone (10), rhamnocitrin (13) and dihydrokaempferide (15), respectively. The three phenolic acids were tectoruside (1), androsin (2) and apocynin (4). CONCLUSION: The developed simple and rapid method is useful to rapidly identify the bioactive constituents in the rhizome of Iris tectorum. Two flavanones, hesperetin (9)and 5,7,3'-trihydroxy-6, 4'-dimethoxyflavanone (10) were identified from this species for the first time.[KEY WORDS]Iris tectorum Maxim.; HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS n; Flavonoids; Phenolic acids[CLC Number]R917 [Document code] A [Article ID] 1672-3651(2010)03-0202-061 IntroductionIris tectorum Maxim. (Iridaceae) is a perennial herbwidely distributed in China, called Yuan Wei in Chinese. It isalso known as Japanese Roof Iris in some literature, becauseit was first observed growing on roofs in Japan by the Rus-sian botanist, Carl Maximowicz (1827–1891) [1]. Its rhizomehas been used in traditional Japanese medicine as an emeticand laxative [2]. In traditional Chinese medicine, it was usedas a bitter medicine to treat disorders described as Zheng JiaJie Ju, which are similar to modern descriptions of tumors[3-4]. According to the latest edition of the Chinese Pharma-copoeia, the rhizome of I. tectorum is referred to as “ChuanShe Gan” (Rhizoma Iridis Tectori), which is used as a tradi-tional herbal medicine to treat sore throat, disperse phlegmand for heat-clearing as well as detoxifying [5]. Previous phy-[Received on] 18-Mar-2009[Research Funding] This project was supported by National NaturalScience Foundation of China (No. 30170103)[ Corresponding author] QIN Min-Jian: Prof., Tel: 86-025-********,Fax: 86-025-********, E-mail: minjianqin@Copyright © 2010, China Pharmaceutical University.Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.tochemical investigations resulted in the isolation of severalflavonoids [6-11], iridal-type triterpenoids [2, 12-14] and quinones[15]. Some isoflavones and phenolic acids were found to havehigh content in I. tectorum, and exhibit considerableanti-infective, antitussive, expectorant, antibacterial, cyto-toxic and hepatoprotective effects [3, 16-20]. Those compoundswere considered as the main active components of I. tectorum.However, in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, only tectoridin hasbeen used as the chemical marker for the quality control ofthe rhizome of I. tectorum. Therefore, qualitative evaluationof these main components of I. tectorum is significant for thequality control of this medicinal herb.With the soft ionization source such as atmosphericpressure chemical ionization (APCI) and electrospray ioniza-tion (ESI), MS combined with chromatographic techniqueshas become a powerful approach in the identification, quanti-fication and structural confirmation of active components inmedicinal plants. Nowadays, HPLC with photodiode arraydetection–electrospray ionization multiple-stage mass spec-trometry (HPLC-DAD–ESI-MS n) has grown into one of themost powerful analytical techniques available for analyzingcomplex herbal extracts [21-23]. It can simultaneously provideUV and multiple-stage mass spectra, which can be applied toidentify known components by comparing on-line detected chromatograms and spectra with those of authentic com-pounds, and can elucidate unknown structures based on the tandem mass fragmentation pathways of known ones. Previ-ously, there were no reports on the qualitative research of the major components in the rhizome of I. tectorum by HPLC-DAD–ESI-MS n.In this study, a HPLC-DAD–ESI-MS n method was de-veloped and validated for the identification of ten known isoflavones, three phenolic acids, two flavanones, one fla-vonol and one flavanonol in the rhizome of I. tectorum.2 Experimental2.1 Instrumentation and reagentsLiquid chromatography separation was performed using an Agilent 1100 HPLC system (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) composed of a quaternary pump, an on-line degasser, a column temperature controller and a diode array detector (DAD). A KH5200DB ultrasonic cleaning instru-ment (Jiangsu Kscsb Ultrasonic Instrument Co., Jiangsu, China) was used for extraction. HPLC grade acetonitrile (TEDIA, Fair¿eld, OH, USA) was used. HPLC grade water was obtained from a water purifying system (Milli-pore, Bedford, MA, USA); analytical grade acetic acid (Nanjing Reagent, Jiangsu, China) and HPLC grade methanol (Han-bang, Jiangsu, China) were used for sample preparation. For HPLC-DAD–ESI-MS n analysis, the LC system was coupled to ion trap mass spectrometer (Agilent Corp., Santa Clara, CA, USA) equipped with an ESI source.2.2 MaterialsI. tectorum was collected from Beijing, China, in August 2008. The plant was identified by Prof. QIN Min-jian and a voucher specimen (SP-08-0810) was deposited at the Her-barium of Medicinal Plants of China Pharmaceutical Univer-sity. Eight authentic compounds: Androsin, tectoridin, iris-tectorin A, iristectorin B, iridin, tectorigenin, iristectorigenin A and irigenin were isolated in our laboratory from I. tecto-rum. Their structures were elucidated by spectral data (MS, 1H NMR and 13C NMR). The purity of each compound was determined to be higher than 95% by HPLC. The samples of the herb and chemicals for analysis were stored in the refrig-erator at 20 q C.2.3 Sample preparationThe rhizomes of I. tectorum were air-dried and ground into powder. An aliquot (0.5 g) of the powder was weighed into a conical flask and 25 mL methanol (HPLC grade) was added. Then the mixture was ultrasonically extracted at room temperature for 40 min. The solution was centrifuged at 2 500 r·min 1, at room temperature for 10 min, the supernatant was filtered through a syringe filter (0.45 ȝm) before HPLC analysis.2.4 HPLC proceduresChromatographic separation was carried out on an Agilent Eclipse Plus TM C18 column (150 mm × 3.0 mm, 3.5 ȝm) at 40°C. Elution was performed at a flow rate of 0.8 mL·min 1. Solvents used were acetonitrile (A) and 0.05% acetic acid in water (B). All solvents were filtered through a 0.45 ȝm nylon filter and then degassed by sonication in an ultrasonic bath prior to use. Gradient was as follows: 5% B at 0 min, 12% B at 3 min, 15% B at 8 min, 20% B at 20 min, 28% B at 24 min, 35% B at 28 min, 65% B at 32 min, 65% B at 35 min, 100% B at 50 min, and the injection volume of sample solution was 5 ȝL. The chromatograms were recorded at 270 nm.2.5 ESI-MS parameterAgilent 1100 HPLC-MSD Trap SL mass spectrometer (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) equipped with an electrospray ionization source was used in both positive and negative ion modes. The mass spectrometry detector (MSD) parameters were as follows: negative and positive ionization modes, scan range from m/z 100 to 1 000, desol-vent gas temperature 350 °C, capillary voltage 3.1 kV (posi-tive mode) and 3.5 kV (negative mode). Nitrogen was used as nebulizing gas at a pressure of 40 psi and the flow rate was adjusted to 9.0 lL/min. All the operations, data acquisition and analysis were controlled by Chemstation software (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA).3 Results and discussion3.1 Optimization of HPLC–DAD–ESI-MS conditions and method validationPhotodiode array detector (DAD) was used in HPLC analysis and the optimum monitor wavelength at 270 nm was selected from the full range spectra. Several binary solvent gradients were compared with respect to separation efficiency of phenolic acids and flavonoids. Modifiers such as formic acid, acetic acid and phosphoric acid were added to the mo-bile phase to enhance peak resolution. After several trials, a gradient solvent system described in the experimental section with acetic acid as modifier was developed and a total of 17 flavonoids and phenolic acids were resolved within 30 min. Since a complicated gradient of elution was used, variation in retention time may happen. The repeatability was assessed by analyzing six independent extracts prepared from the same batch of herb, respectively. The RSDs of the retention time were lower than 0.15% (Table 1).The flavonoids and phenolic acids were analyzed in both positive and negative ionization mode. According to the lit-erature, the negative ion mode should be more selective and more sensitive than the positive ion mode in crude plant phytochemical analysis [25]. Although the pseudomolecular ion signals of all the components investigated were observed in negative ion mode, some of the diagnostic Retro-Diels-Alder (RDA) ions were only observed in the positive ion mode which is helpful for the structural determi-nation of the A- and B-ring substitution patterns. As a result, the combined application of negative and positive ion mode appeared to be necessary for the structural analysis of flavon-oids by mass spectrometry.3.2 Identification of flavonoids and phenolic acids in I. tectorum by HPLC–DAD– ESI-MS nThe dominant fragmentation pathways of authentic compounds were studied. All authentic compounds exhibited [M + H]+ ions in positive ion mode and [M – H]- in negative ion mode with sufficient abundances that could be subjected to MS2 and MS3 analysis. MS2 and MS3 data were obtained by collision-induced dissociation (CID), and utilized for the structural identification of compounds with similar fragmen-tation patterns. Comparing retention times and the MS n spec-tra with those of the authentic standards, eight peaks were unambiguously identified as androsin (2), tectoridin (5), iris-tectorin B (6), iristectorin A (7), iridin (8), tectorigenin (12), iristectorigenin A (14) and irigenin (17). Nine other peaks were tentatively identified as tectoruside (1), tectori-genin-7-O-ȕ-glucosyl-4'-O-ȕ-glucoside (3), apocynin (4), hesperetin (9), 5,7,3'-trihydroxy-6,4'-dimethoxyflavanone (10), genistein (11), rhamnocitrin (13), dihydrokaempferide (15) and iristectorigenin B (16) by comparing their MS data and UV spectra with those reported in the literature [10, 23-28].The total ion currents (TIC) together with HPLC chro-matograms of the samples are shown in Fig. 1, and the chemical structures of the compounds from 1 to 17 are shown in Fig. 2From the above results, isoflavonoids were identified as the major constituents in the rhizome of I. tectorum. Four isoflavone O-glycosides and five aglycones were identified. Peak 5 (tectoridin) was taken as an example to discuss the fragmentation pathways in detail. The molecule ion at m/z 463 in positive ion mode showed MS2 fragment ion at m/z 301, due to the loss of one glucose residue. In the following MS3 experiment, the loss of a methyl radical (15 Da) from [M + H – 162]+ was the predominant fragmentation, indicat-ing an methoxyl group linked at the aglycone. Furthermore, the ion at m/z 301 successively yielded the diagnostic ions of isoflavonoids at m/z 183, with the neutral loss of 118 Da produced by RDA fragmentation [26, 29], suggesting that the methoxyl group was attached to the A-ring. Therefore, peak 5 was identified as tectoridin by comparing its retention time and mass fragmentation pattern with those of the standards. The proposed fragmentation pathway in positive ion mode is given in Fig. 3. Similar fragmentation pathways were ob-served in the spectra of other isoflavonoids.Table 1 HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS n data of flavonoids and phenolic acids identified in the rhizome of Iris tectorum Maxim.Peak No. t R/minRSD oft R/%UV Ȝmax/nm[M+H]+(m/z)Fragment ions (+)[M–H]-(m/z)Fragment ions(-) Identi¿cation1 4.5 0.11 226, 270, 304 491 329, 167 489 373, 327, 165 tectoruside2 5.3 0.08 228, 270, 304 - - 327 283, 165, 150 androsin3 6.7 0.07 212(sh*),264,336(sh) - - 623 461,299tectori-genin-7-O-ȕ-glucosyl-4'-O-ȕ-glucoside4 9.4 0.13 232, 278, 304 - - 165 150, 122 apocynin5 13.2 0.13 214 (sh), 266,334(sh) 463 301, 286, 183 461 446, 428, 299, 284 tectoridin6 14.7 0.10 230(sh),266,340(sh) 493 331, 316, 298, 183, 168491 437, 331, 329, 314, 262 iristectorin B7 16.8 0.14 230(sh),266,340(sh) 493 331, 316, 299, 183, 168491 437, 331, 329, 314 iristectorin A8 17.5 0.14 238(sh), 268 523 361, 346 521 506,488,466,442,359,344 iridin9 25.7 0.03 214(sh), 294 - - 301 286,273,259,257,244,193,181, 179, 151, 124hesperetin10 26.6 0.03 212(sh), 266 - - 331 316, 313, 301, 274, 251,193, 1815,7,3'-trihydroxy-6,4'-dimethoxyflava-none11 26.7 0.02 271, 210 - - 269 212, 167, 152, 118 genistein12 27.3 0.05 214(sh),266,340(sh) 301 286, 229, 168, 159 299 284, 240, 212 tectorigenin13 27.9 0.04 218(sh), 282, 338 - - 299 284, 271, 255, 132, 120 rhamnocitrin14 28.1 0.03 216(sh), 268, 340(sh) 331 316, 301, 298, 242,186, 134329 314, 299, 271 iristectorigenin A15 28.5 0.05 220(sh), 292 - - 301 283, 273, 139 dihydrokaempferide16 28.9 0.04 224(sh), 268 331 316, 301, 298, 287,273, 243, 195329 314, 301, 289 iristectorigenin B17 29.2 0.04 234(sh), 268 361 346, 328, 310, 301,286, 271, 183 359 344,299 irigenin* shoulder peak - not observedreferred to as 5, 7, 3'-trihydroxy-6, 4'-dimethoxyflavanone likewise. According to the literature, the structures of known flavonol and flavanonol as well as three phenolic acids were also tentatively identified. Results of all the HPLC-DAD and MS n analyses are listed in Table 1.4 ConclusionIn this study, fourteen known flavonoids and three phe-nolic acids were identified in the rhizome of I. tectorum by using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS n in both positive and negative ion modes. Isoflavones seem to be the major constituents ac-cording to our study. Two flavanones were identified from this species for the first time.This newly established method was successfully applied to simultaneously identify the major constituents in the rhi-zome of I. tectorum. The results were consistent to other phytochemical analyses, but it’s timesaving and simple com-pared with the traditional phytochemical method [2, 6-15]. Moreover, with the high sensitivity of the mass spectrum detector (MSD), some components with trace amounts were also identified, and thus a full-scale chemical profile could be obtained. Those phenols identified in I. tectorum could be considered as chemical markers of this species which might be the major bioactive constituents of I. tectorum. Further quantitative analysis method of those components should be developed for the quality control of this medicinal herb. References[1] Klingaman G. Plant of the week: Japanese roof iris, Latin:Iris tectorum, Division of Agriculture, University of Arkan-sas, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA [EB/OL]. 2005. Availablefrom: /plantoftheweek/ articles/iris_ japanese_roof_3-4-05.htm,[2] Seki K, Tomihari T, Haga K, et al. Iristectorene B, a mono-cyclic triterpene ester from Iris tectorum [J].Phytochemistry,1994, 36(2): 433-438.[3] Fang R, Houghton PJ, Hylands PJ. 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Simultaneous characteri-zation of isoflavonoids and astragalosides in two Astragalusspecies by high-performance liquid chromatography coupledwith atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem massspectrometry [J]. J Sep Sci,2007, 30(13): 2059-2069.。

Study of the phase behavior of complexfluidsComplex fluids, also known as soft matter, are a class of materials that exhibit intermediate properties between solids and liquids. Examples of complex fluids include polymers, colloids, and liquid crystals. Understanding the phase behavior of complex fluids is important for a range of applications, including in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.Phase behavior refers to the way in which a material transitions between different states, such as solid, liquid, and gas. In the case of complex fluids, the phase behavior can be more complex due to the presence of various mesoscopic structures, such as micelles or crystalline domains.There are various techniques that can be used to study the phase behavior of complex fluids. One common approach is to use scattering techniques, such as X-ray, neutron, and light scattering. These techniques allow researchers to measure the structure of the material as well as the size and shape of the mesoscopic structures.Another approach is to use rheology, which is the study of the flow and deformation of materials. Rheological measurements can provide information about the mechanical properties of the complex fluid, such as its viscosity and elasticity, which can be used to infer its structure and phase behavior.One important aspect of studying the phase behavior of complex fluids is understanding how the behavior is affected by external factors, such as temperature, pressure, and concentration. For example, changes in temperature can cause the mesoscopic structures in a complex fluid to transition from one state to another, such as from a liquid to a solid or from a dispersed phase to an aggregated phase.Another important factor is the presence of additives, such as surfactants or polymers. These additives can influence the phase behavior of the complex fluid by stabilizing or destabilizing certain mesoscopic structures.Understanding the phase behavior of complex fluids has important applications in various fields. In the pharmaceutical industry, for example, it is important to understand how a drug will behave in different body fluids and tissues. In the cosmetics industry, it is important to understand how different additives will affect the texture and stability of a product.In conclusion, the study of the phase behavior of complex fluids is a complex and important field of research. Through the use of various techniques, researchers are able to gain insights into the structure and behavior of these materials, which has important applications in various industries.。

Modeling of morphology evolution in the injection moldingprocess of thermoplastic polymersR.Pantani,I.Coccorullo,V.Speranza,G.Titomanlio* Department of Chemical and Food Engineering,University of Salerno,via Ponte don Melillo,I-84084Fisciano(Salerno),Italy Received13May2005;received in revised form30August2005;accepted12September2005AbstractA thorough analysis of the effect of operative conditions of injection molding process on the morphology distribution inside the obtained moldings is performed,with particular reference to semi-crystalline polymers.The paper is divided into two parts:in the first part,the state of the art on the subject is outlined and discussed;in the second part,an example of the characterization required for a satisfactorily understanding and description of the phenomena is presented,starting from material characterization,passing through the monitoring of the process cycle and arriving to a deep analysis of morphology distribution inside the moldings.In particular,fully characterized injection molding tests are presented using an isotactic polypropylene,previously carefully characterized as far as most of properties of interest.The effects of both injectionflow rate and mold temperature are analyzed.The resulting moldings morphology(in terms of distribution of crystallinity degree,molecular orientation and crystals structure and dimensions)are analyzed by adopting different experimental techniques(optical,electronic and atomic force microscopy,IR and WAXS analysis).Final morphological characteristics of the samples are compared with the predictions of a simulation code developed at University of Salerno for the simulation of the injection molding process.q2005Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Injection molding;Crystallization kinetics;Morphology;Modeling;Isotactic polypropyleneContents1.Introduction (1186)1.1.Morphology distribution in injection molded iPP parts:state of the art (1189)1.1.1.Modeling of the injection molding process (1190)1.1.2.Modeling of the crystallization kinetics (1190)1.1.3.Modeling of the morphology evolution (1191)1.1.4.Modeling of the effect of crystallinity on rheology (1192)1.1.5.Modeling of the molecular orientation (1193)1.1.6.Modeling of theflow-induced crystallization (1195)ments on the state of the art (1197)2.Material and characterization (1198)2.1.PVT description (1198)*Corresponding author.Tel.:C39089964152;fax:C39089964057.E-mail address:gtitomanlio@unisa.it(G.Titomanlio).2.2.Quiescent crystallization kinetics (1198)2.3.Viscosity (1199)2.4.Viscoelastic behavior (1200)3.Injection molding tests and analysis of the moldings (1200)3.1.Injection molding tests and sample preparation (1200)3.2.Microscopy (1202)3.2.1.Optical microscopy (1202)3.2.2.SEM and AFM analysis (1202)3.3.Distribution of crystallinity (1202)3.3.1.IR analysis (1202)3.3.2.X-ray analysis (1203)3.4.Distribution of molecular orientation (1203)4.Analysis of experimental results (1203)4.1.Injection molding tests (1203)4.2.Morphology distribution along thickness direction (1204)4.2.1.Optical microscopy (1204)4.2.2.SEM and AFM analysis (1204)4.3.Morphology distribution alongflow direction (1208)4.4.Distribution of crystallinity (1210)4.4.1.Distribution of crystallinity along thickness direction (1210)4.4.2.Crystallinity distribution alongflow direction (1212)4.5.Distribution of molecular orientation (1212)4.5.1.Orientation along thickness direction (1212)4.5.2.Orientation alongflow direction (1213)4.5.3.Direction of orientation (1214)5.Simulation (1214)5.1.Pressure curves (1215)5.2.Morphology distribution (1215)5.3.Molecular orientation (1216)5.3.1.Molecular orientation distribution along thickness direction (1216)5.3.2.Molecular orientation distribution alongflow direction (1216)5.3.3.Direction of orientation (1217)5.4.Crystallinity distribution (1217)6.Conclusions (1217)References (1219)1.IntroductionInjection molding is one of the most widely employed methods for manufacturing polymeric products.Three main steps are recognized in the molding:filling,packing/holding and cooling.During thefilling stage,a hot polymer melt rapidlyfills a cold mold reproducing a cavity of the desired product shape. During the packing/holding stage,the pressure is raised and extra material is forced into the mold to compensate for the effects that both temperature decrease and crystallinity development determine on density during solidification.The cooling stage starts at the solidification of a thin section at cavity entrance (gate),starting from that instant no more material can enter or exit from the mold impression and holding pressure can be released.When the solid layer on the mold surface reaches a thickness sufficient to assure required rigidity,the product is ejected from the mold.Due to the thermomechanical history experienced by the polymer during processing,macromolecules in injection-molded objects present a local order.This order is referred to as‘morphology’which literally means‘the study of the form’where form stands for the shape and arrangement of parts of the object.When referred to polymers,the word morphology is adopted to indicate:–crystallinity,which is the relative volume occupied by each of the crystalline phases,including mesophases;–dimensions,shape,distribution and orientation of the crystallites;–orientation of amorphous phase.R.Pantani et al./Prog.Polym.Sci.30(2005)1185–1222 1186R.Pantani et al./Prog.Polym.Sci.30(2005)1185–12221187Apart from the scientific interest in understandingthe mechanisms leading to different order levels inside a polymer,the great technological importance of morphology relies on the fact that polymer character-istics (above all mechanical,but also optical,electrical,transport and chemical)are to a great extent affected by morphology.For instance,crystallinity has a pro-nounced effect on the mechanical properties of the bulk material since crystals are generally stiffer than amorphous material,and also orientation induces anisotropy and other changes in mechanical properties.In this work,a thorough analysis of the effect of injection molding operative conditions on morphology distribution in moldings with particular reference to crystalline materials is performed.The aim of the paper is twofold:first,to outline the state of the art on the subject;second,to present an example of the characterization required for asatisfactorilyR.Pantani et al./Prog.Polym.Sci.30(2005)1185–12221188understanding and description of the phenomena, starting from material description,passing through the monitoring of the process cycle and arriving to a deep analysis of morphology distribution inside the mold-ings.To these purposes,fully characterized injection molding tests were performed using an isotactic polypropylene,previously carefully characterized as far as most of properties of interest,in particular quiescent nucleation density,spherulitic growth rate and rheological properties(viscosity and relaxation time)were determined.The resulting moldings mor-phology(in terms of distribution of crystallinity degree, molecular orientation and crystals structure and dimensions)was analyzed by adopting different experimental techniques(optical,electronic and atomic force microscopy,IR and WAXS analysis).Final morphological characteristics of the samples were compared with the predictions of a simulation code developed at University of Salerno for the simulation of the injection molding process.The effects of both injectionflow rate and mold temperature were analyzed.1.1.Morphology distribution in injection molded iPP parts:state of the artFrom many experimental observations,it is shown that a highly oriented lamellar crystallite microstructure, usually referred to as‘skin layer’forms close to the surface of injection molded articles of semi-crystalline polymers.Far from the wall,the melt is allowed to crystallize three dimensionally to form spherulitic structures.Relative dimensions and morphology of both skin and core layers are dependent on local thermo-mechanical history,which is characterized on the surface by high stress levels,decreasing to very small values toward the core region.As a result,the skin and the core reveal distinct characteristics across the thickness and also along theflow path[1].Structural and morphological characterization of the injection molded polypropylene has attracted the interest of researchers in the past three decades.In the early seventies,Kantz et al.[2]studied the morphology of injection molded iPP tensile bars by using optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction.The microscopic results revealed the presence of three distinct crystalline zones on the cross-section:a highly oriented non-spherulitic skin;a shear zone with molecular chains oriented essentially parallel to the injection direction;a spherulitic core with essentially no preferred orientation.The X-ray diffraction studies indicated that the skin layer contains biaxially oriented crystallites due to the biaxial extensionalflow at theflow front.A similar multilayered morphology was also reported by Menges et al.[3].Later on,Fujiyama et al.[4] investigated the skin–core morphology of injection molded iPP samples using X-ray Small and Wide Angle Scattering techniques,and suggested that the shear region contains shish–kebab structures.The same shish–kebab structure was observed by Wenig and Herzog in the shear region of their molded samples[5].A similar investigation was conducted by Titomanlio and co-workers[6],who analyzed the morphology distribution in injection moldings of iPP. They observed a skin–core morphology distribution with an isotropic spherulitic core,a skin layer characterized by afine crystalline structure and an intermediate layer appearing as a dark band in crossed polarized light,this layer being characterized by high crystallinity.Kalay and Bevis[7]pointed out that,although iPP crystallizes essentially in the a-form,a small amount of b-form can be found in the skin layer and in the shear region.The amount of b-form was found to increase by effect of high shear rates[8].A wide analysis on the effect of processing conditions on the morphology of injection molded iPP was conducted by Viana et al.[9]and,more recently, by Mendoza et al.[10].In particular,Mendoza et al. report that the highest level of crystallinity orientation is found inside the shear zone and that a high level of orientation was also found in the skin layer,with an orientation angle tilted toward the core.It is rather difficult to theoretically establish the relationship between the observed microstructure and processing conditions.Indeed,a model of the injection molding process able to predict morphology distribution in thefinal samples is not yet available,even if it would be of enormous strategic importance.This is mainly because a complete understanding of crystallization kinetics in processing conditions(high cooling rates and pressures,strong and complexflowfields)has not yet been reached.In this section,the most relevant aspects for process modeling and morphology development are identified. In particular,a successful path leading to a reliable description of morphology evolution during polymer processing should necessarily pass through:–a good description of morphology evolution under quiescent conditions(accounting all competing crystallization processes),including the range of cooling rates characteristic of processing operations (from1to10008C/s);R.Pantani et al./Prog.Polym.Sci.30(2005)1185–12221189–a description capturing the main features of melt morphology(orientation and stretch)evolution under processing conditions;–a good coupling of the two(quiescent crystallization and orientation)in order to capture the effect of crystallinity on viscosity and the effect offlow on crystallization kinetics.The points listed above outline the strategy to be followed in order to achieve the basic understanding for a satisfactory description of morphology evolution during all polymer processing operations.In the following,the state of art for each of those points will be analyzed in a dedicated section.1.1.1.Modeling of the injection molding processThefirst step in the prediction of the morphology distribution within injection moldings is obviously the thermo-mechanical simulation of the process.Much of the efforts in the past were focused on the prediction of pressure and temperature evolution during the process and on the prediction of the melt front advancement [11–15].The simulation of injection molding involves the simultaneous solution of the mass,energy and momentum balance equations.Thefluid is non-New-tonian(and viscoelastic)with all parameters dependent upon temperature,pressure,crystallinity,which are all function of pressibility cannot be neglected as theflow during the packing/holding step is determined by density changes due to temperature, pressure and crystallinity evolution.Indeed,apart from some attempts to introduce a full 3D approach[16–19],the analysis is currently still often restricted to the Hele–Shaw(or thinfilm) approximation,which is warranted by the fact that most injection molded parts have the characteristic of being thin.Furthermore,it is recognized that the viscoelastic behavior of the polymer only marginally influences theflow kinematics[20–22]thus the melt is normally considered as a non-Newtonian viscousfluid for the description of pressure and velocity gradients evolution.Some examples of adopting a viscoelastic constitutive equation in the momentum balance equations are found in the literature[23],but the improvements in accuracy do not justify a considerable extension of computational effort.It has to be mentioned that the analysis of some features of kinematics and temperature gradients affecting the description of morphology need a more accurate description with respect to the analysis of pressure distributions.Some aspects of the process which were often neglected and may have a critical importance are the description of the heat transfer at polymer–mold interface[24–26]and of the effect of mold deformation[24,27,28].Another aspect of particular interest to the develop-ment of morphology is the fountainflow[29–32], which is often neglected being restricted to a rather small region at theflow front and close to the mold walls.1.1.2.Modeling of the crystallization kineticsIt is obvious that the description of crystallization kinetics is necessary if thefinal morphology of the molded object wants to be described.Also,the development of a crystalline degree during the process influences the evolution of all material properties like density and,above all,viscosity(see below).Further-more,crystallization kinetics enters explicitly in the generation term of the energy balance,through the latent heat of crystallization[26,33].It is therefore clear that the crystallinity degree is not only a result of simulation but also(and above all)a phenomenon to be kept into account in each step of process modeling.In spite of its dramatic influence on the process,the efforts to simulate the injection molding of semi-crystalline polymers are crude in most of the commercial software for processing simulation and rather scarce in the fleur and Kamal[34],Papatanasiu[35], Titomanlio et al.[15],Han and Wang[36],Ito et al.[37],Manzione[38],Guo and Isayev[26],and Hieber [25]adopted the following equation(Kolmogoroff–Avrami–Evans,KAE)to predict the development of crystallinityd xd tZð1K xÞd d cd t(1)where x is the relative degree of crystallization;d c is the undisturbed volume fraction of the crystals(if no impingement would occur).A significant improvement in the prediction of crystallinity development was introduced by Titoman-lio and co-workers[39]who kept into account the possibility of the formation of different crystalline phases.This was done by assuming a parallel of several non-interacting kinetic processes competing for the available amorphous volume.The evolution of each phase can thus be described byd x id tZð1K xÞd d c id t(2)where the subscript i stands for a particular phase,x i is the relative degree of crystallization,x ZPix i and d c iR.Pantani et al./Prog.Polym.Sci.30(2005)1185–1222 1190is the expectancy of volume fraction of each phase if no impingement would occur.Eq.(2)assumes that,for each phase,the probability of the fraction increase of a single crystalline phase is simply the product of the rate of growth of the corresponding undisturbed volume fraction and of the amount of available amorphous fraction.By summing up the phase evolution equations of all phases(Eq.(2))over the index i,and solving the resulting differential equation,one simply obtainsxðtÞZ1K exp½K d cðtÞ (3)where d c Z Pid c i and Eq.(1)is recovered.It was shown by Coccorullo et al.[40]with reference to an iPP,that the description of the kinetic competition between phases is crucial to a reliable prediction of solidified structures:indeed,it is not possible to describe iPP crystallization kinetics in the range of cooling rates of interest for processing(i.e.up to several hundreds of8C/s)if the mesomorphic phase is neglected:in the cooling rate range10–1008C/s, spherulite crystals in the a-phase are overcome by the formation of the mesophase.Furthermore,it has been found that in some conditions(mainly at pressures higher than100MPa,and low cooling rates),the g-phase can also form[41].In spite of this,the presence of different crystalline phases is usually neglected in the literature,essentially because the range of cooling rates investigated for characterization falls in the DSC range (well lower than typical cooling rates of interest for the process)and only one crystalline phase is formed for iPP at low cooling rates.It has to be noticed that for iPP,which presents a T g well lower than ambient temperature,high values of crystallinity degree are always found in solids which passed through ambient temperature,and the cooling rate can only determine which crystalline phase forms, roughly a-phase at low cooling rates(below about 508C/s)and mesomorphic phase at higher cooling rates.The most widespread approach to the description of kinetic constant is the isokinetic approach introduced by Nakamura et al.According to this model,d c in Eq.(1)is calculated asd cðtÞZ ln2ðt0KðTðsÞÞd s2 435n(4)where K is the kinetic constant and n is the so-called Avrami index.When introduced as in Eq.(4),the reciprocal of the kinetic constant is a characteristic time for crystallization,namely the crystallization half-time, t05.If a polymer is cooled through the crystallization temperature,crystallization takes place at the tempera-ture at which crystallization half-time is of the order of characteristic cooling time t q defined ast q Z D T=q(5) where q is the cooling rate and D T is a temperature interval over which the crystallization kinetic constant changes of at least one order of magnitude.The temperature dependence of the kinetic constant is modeled using some analytical function which,in the simplest approach,is described by a Gaussian shaped curve:KðTÞZ K0exp K4ln2ðT K T maxÞ2D2(6)The following Hoffman–Lauritzen expression[42] is also commonly adopted:K½TðtÞ Z K0exp KUÃR$ðTðtÞK T NÞ!exp KKÃ$ðTðtÞC T mÞ2TðtÞ2$ðT m K TðtÞÞð7ÞBoth equations describe a bell shaped curve with a maximum which for Eq.(6)is located at T Z T max and for Eq.(7)lies at a temperature between T m(the melting temperature)and T N(which is classically assumed to be 308C below the glass transition temperature).Accord-ing to Eq.(7),the kinetic constant is exactly zero at T Z T m and at T Z T N,whereas Eq.(6)describes a reduction of several orders of magnitude when the temperature departs from T max of a value higher than2D.It is worth mentioning that only three parameters are needed for Eq.(6),whereas Eq.(7)needs the definition offive parameters.Some authors[43,44]couple the above equations with the so-called‘induction time’,which can be defined as the time the crystallization process starts, when the temperature is below the equilibrium melting temperature.It is normally described as[45]Dt indDtZðT0m K TÞat m(8)where t m,T0m and a are material constants.It should be mentioned that it has been found[46,47]that there is no need to explicitly incorporate an induction time when the modeling is based upon the KAE equation(Eq.(1)).1.1.3.Modeling of the morphology evolutionDespite of the fact that the approaches based on Eq.(4)do represent a significant step toward the descriptionR.Pantani et al./Prog.Polym.Sci.30(2005)1185–12221191of morphology,it has often been pointed out in the literature that the isokinetic approach on which Nakamura’s equation (Eq.(4))is based does not describe details of structure formation [48].For instance,the well-known experience that,with many polymers,the number of spherulites in the final solid sample increases strongly with increasing cooling rate,is indeed not taken into account by this approach.Furthermore,Eq.(4)describes an increase of crystal-linity (at constant temperature)depending only on the current value of crystallinity degree itself,whereas it is expected that the crystallization rate should depend also on the number of crystalline entities present in the material.These limits are overcome by considering the crystallization phenomenon as the consequence of nucleation and growth.Kolmogoroff’s model [49],which describes crystallinity evolution accounting of the number of nuclei per unit volume and spherulitic growth rate can then be applied.In this case,d c in Eq.(1)is described asd ðt ÞZ C m ðt 0d N ðs Þd s$ðt sG ðu Þd u 2435nd s (9)where C m is a shape factor (C 3Z 4/3p ,for spherical growth),G (T (t ))is the linear growth rate,and N (T (t ))is the nucleation density.The following Hoffman–Lauritzen expression is normally adopted for the growth rateG ½T ðt Þ Z G 0exp KUR $ðT ðt ÞK T N Þ!exp K K g $ðT ðt ÞC T m Þ2T ðt Þ2$ðT m K T ðt ÞÞð10ÞEqs.(7)and (10)have the same form,however the values of the constants are different.The nucleation mechanism can be either homo-geneous or heterogeneous.In the case of heterogeneous nucleation,two equations are reported in the literature,both describing the nucleation density as a function of temperature [37,50]:N ðT ðt ÞÞZ N 0exp ½j $ðT m K T ðt ÞÞ (11)N ðT ðt ÞÞZ N 0exp K 3$T mT ðt ÞðT m K T ðt ÞÞ(12)In the case of homogeneous nucleation,the nucleation rate rather than the nucleation density is function of temperature,and a Hoffman–Lauritzen expression isadoptedd N ðT ðt ÞÞd t Z N 0exp K C 1ðT ðt ÞK T N Þ!exp KC 2$ðT ðt ÞC T m ÞT ðt Þ$ðT m K T ðt ÞÞð13ÞConcentration of nucleating particles is usually quite significant in commercial polymers,and thus hetero-geneous nucleation becomes the dominant mechanism.When Kolmogoroff’s approach is followed,the number N a of active nuclei at the end of the crystal-lization process can be calculated as [48]N a ;final Zðt final 0d N ½T ðs Þd sð1K x ðs ÞÞd s (14)and the average dimension of crystalline structures can be attained by geometrical considerations.Pantani et al.[51]and Zuidema et al.[22]exploited this method to describe the distribution of crystallinity and the final average radius of the spherulites in injection moldings of polypropylene;in particular,they adopted the following equationR Z ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi3x a ;final 4p N a ;final 3s (15)A different approach is also present in the literature,somehow halfway between Nakamura’s and Kolmo-goroff’s models:the growth rate (G )and the kinetic constant (K )are described independently,and the number of active nuclei (and consequently the average dimensions of crystalline entities)can be obtained by coupling Eqs.(4)and (9)asN a ðT ÞZ 3ln 24p K ðT ÞG ðT Þ 3(16)where heterogeneous nucleation and spherical growth is assumed (Avrami’s index Z 3).Guo et al.[43]adopted this approach to describe the dimensions of spherulites in injection moldings of polypropylene.1.1.4.Modeling of the effect of crystallinity on rheology As mentioned above,crystallization has a dramatic influence on material viscosity.This phenomenon must obviously be taken into account and,indeed,the solidification of a semi-crystalline material is essen-tially caused by crystallization rather than by tempera-ture in normal processing conditions.Despite of the importance of the subject,the relevant literature on the effect of crystallinity on viscosity isR.Pantani et al./Prog.Polym.Sci.30(2005)1185–12221192rather scarce.This might be due to the difficulties in measuring simultaneously rheological properties and crystallinity evolution during the same tests.Apart from some attempts to obtain simultaneous measure-ments of crystallinity and viscosity by special setups [52,53],more often viscosity and crystallinity are measured during separate tests having the same thermal history,thus greatly simplifying the experimental approach.Nevertheless,very few works can be retrieved in the literature in which(shear or complex) viscosity can be somehow linked to a crystallinity development.This is the case of Winter and co-workers [54],Vleeshouwers and Meijer[55](crystallinity evolution can be drawn from Swartjes[56]),Boutahar et al.[57],Titomanlio et al.[15],Han and Wang[36], Floudas et al.[58],Wassner and Maier[59],Pantani et al.[60],Pogodina et al.[61],Acierno and Grizzuti[62].All the authors essentially agree that melt viscosity experiences an abrupt increase when crystallinity degree reaches a certain‘critical’value,x c[15]. However,little agreement is found in the literature on the value of this critical crystallinity degree:assuming that x c is reached when the viscosity increases of one order of magnitude with respect to the molten state,it is found in the literature that,for iPP,x c ranges from a value of a few percent[15,62,60,58]up to values of20–30%[58,61]or even higher than40%[59,54,57].Some studies are also reported on the secondary effects of relevant variables such as temperature or shear rate(or frequency)on the dependence of crystallinity on viscosity.As for the effect of temperature,Titomanlio[15]found for an iPP that the increase of viscosity for the same crystallinity degree was higher at lower temperatures,whereas Winter[63] reports the opposite trend for a thermoplastic elasto-meric polypropylene.As for the effect of shear rate,a general agreement is found in the literature that the increase of viscosity for the same crystallinity degree is lower at higher deformation rates[62,61,57].Essentially,the equations adopted to describe the effect of crystallinity on viscosity of polymers can be grouped into two main categories:–equations based on suspensions theories(for a review,see[64]or[65]);–empirical equations.Some of the equations adopted in the literature with regard to polymer processing are summarized in Table1.Apart from Eq.(17)adopted by Katayama and Yoon [66],all equations predict a sharp increase of viscosity on increasing crystallinity,sometimes reaching infinite (Eqs.(18)and(21)).All authors consider that the relevant variable is the volume occupied by crystalline entities(i.e.x),even if the dimensions of the crystals should reasonably have an effect.1.1.5.Modeling of the molecular orientationOne of the most challenging problems to present day polymer science regards the reliable prediction of molecular orientation during transformation processes. Indeed,although pressure and velocity distribution during injection molding can be satisfactorily described by viscous models,details of the viscoelastic nature of the polymer need to be accounted for in the descriptionTable1List of the most used equations to describe the effect of crystallinity on viscosityEquation Author Derivation Parameters h=h0Z1C a0x(17)Katayama[66]Suspensions a Z99h=h0Z1=ðx K x cÞa0(18)Ziabicki[67]Empirical x c Z0.1h=h0Z1C a1expðK a2=x a3Þ(19)Titomanlio[15],also adopted byGuo[68]and Hieber[25]Empiricalh=h0Z expða1x a2Þ(20)Shimizu[69],also adopted byZuidema[22]and Hieber[25]Empiricalh=h0Z1Cðx=a1Þa2=ð1Kðx=a1Þa2Þ(21)Tanner[70]Empirical,basedon suspensionsa1Z0.44for compact crystallitesa1Z0.68for spherical crystallitesh=h0Z expða1x C a2x2Þ(22)Han[36]Empiricalh=h0Z1C a1x C a2x2(23)Tanner[71]Empirical a1Z0.54,a2Z4,x!0.4h=h0Zð1K x=a0ÞK2(24)Metzner[65],also adopted byTanner[70]Suspensions a Z0.68for smooth spheresR.Pantani et al./Prog.Polym.Sci.30(2005)1185–12221193。

生物与制药工程专业英语期末考试学院: 姓名:____________________班级: 学号:一、Translate the following terms into Chinese（1）agrochemical （6）fluidisation 农业化学的流态化（2）cytotoxic （7）periplasmic细胞毒素的原生质外的（3）pharmacognosy （8）cardiovascular生药学心血管的（4）toxicological （9）hepatic毒理学的肝脏的（5）bead （10）adaptability珠子，水珠适应性二、Translate the following terms into English（1）浓度（6）杂质concentration impurity（2）中性（7）成分与性状neutrality discription（3）极易溶解（8）药理作用very soluble phamacological actions（4）定量分析（9）气相色谱quantitative analysis gas chromatography（5）等当点（10）离子色谱equivalent point ion chromatograph三、Word Building（答够十个得满分）anti-antibiotic antibiotic抗生素；抗菌的antifoam 消泡剂antitussive止咳药antihistaminic抗组胺剂antineoplastic抗肿瘤的antidepressant抗抑郁剂antianginal抗心绞痛antibody抗体anticoagulant抗凝血剂antifoaming防沫的antifungal抗真菌的anti-infectives抗感染药物antioxidant抗氧剂antithrombin抗凝血酶antitode 解毒剂等四、Translate the following sentences into Chinese（1）Biologists and chemists divide compounds into two principal classes, inorganic and organic.生物学家和化学家将化合物分为两类，无机和有机。

H A R M O N I C I N F O R M A T I O N M A N A G E M E N T S Y S T E MJohan ADOLFSSON Peter ANDERSSON Nilesh CHINTALWARShital SHAH Director, Unipower AB CEO, Unipower AB GM, PCI Ltd PCI Ltd Alingsås - Sweden Alingsås - Sweden Mumbai -India Mumbai - IndiaINTRODUCTIONIn the vast majority of countries today there are regulations and standards implemented that specify the maximum level of harmonic content. Some countries implement the international IEC standards IEC 61000-2-2, IEC 61000-2-12 and IEC 61000-3-6 whereas other make local adaptations and implement their own versions of the standard meeting the local requirements. In Europe the EN 50160 specifies the harmonic content regarding the Total Harmonic Distortion, THD and individual harmonics, but many countries in Europe also add their own specific requirements to it.Common for most international and country specific standards is that not only the THD is monitored but also the individual harmonics up to the 40th or 50thharmonicdepending on what standard being used.Fig. 1. Example: Individual harmonic limits according to IEC 61000-2-12Another important requirement is that the measuring equipment being used must comply to adequate measure equipment standards (like IEC 61000-4-30 Class A,S and IEC 6100-4-7Ed2) to assure that the measurement results are correct and normative. Without appropriate norm compliance two power quality meters can produce very different results even if connected in the same measure point.Modern power quality meters do not only measure THD and individual harmonics but also include additional harmonic parameters. The result is a complex set of adequate data that must be managed and handled in an effective and appropriate way if harmonic measurements are implemented in a larger scale. The trend of Harmonic measurements today is towards continuous monitoring with permanently installed meters. Long term monitoring of harmonics also provides effective means for planning. Example below shows 5 years of THD data.Seasonal fluctuations are present, but the long term trend is stable.Fig. 2.Seasonal fluctuation of THD in a MV station at distribution level.POWER HARMONICS DIRECTIONModern PQ Monitors do often also measure the Harmonic Phase Angle, i.e. the phase angle between each voltage and current harmonic. For a standard three phase installation that mean additional 150 parameters in addition to the 300 individual voltage and current harmonics recorded.The harmonics phase angle is raw data from which the so called power harmonics can be derived. If using a PQ meter like the UP2210 or Unilyzer 902 the power harmonics can be shown with direction (+/-) thereby facilitating the interpretation of the harmonic flow, i.e. search for the harmonic source and at the same time reducing the data storage capacity.Fig. 3. Power harmonic flow. Negative indicates the source is downstream the measure point.3SEC MAX HARMONICSThe harmonic limits in the standards are usually specified as the 10-min averages. There are however fluctuating harmonic loads today that are dangerous even though the duration is short. A new need for measuring the 3sec Maximum Harmonics has therefore arised. For such applications the PQ Meter continuously calculates 3sec harmonics, storing the Maximum value for each seleceted time period, normally 10-min, if IEC 61000-2-2, IEC 61000-2-12 or EN 510160 is being applied.Fig. 4. Example: 3sec Max values and 10-min averages for 3rd Harmonic Phase 1.Today also the IEC 61000-3-6 specifies the need for measuring the 3sec Max Harmonics. THE NEED FOR A HARMONIC INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Harmonic measurements of today is no longer just THD measurements even though the number of THD parameters has increased (see below). As we have seen above up to approx 500 harmonic related parameters are to be calculated, stored and evaluated for each storage interval. In addition harmonic measurements are no longer just fortroubleshooting purpose, but for contractual verification of the power supply and for preventive purposes.Fig. 5. Example of THD parameters derived from PQ analyzer Unilyzer 902 and UP2210.The process of polling the data and making the in-depth data analysis is no longer efficient to make in a manual way when the number of measure points grow from just a few to hundreds and thousands of measure points in the transmission and distribution network. Neither is it a quality assured process. Instead a need for automatic handling of the harmonic data has arised. The characteristics of such a system are:- Automatic polling of harmonic data into a central database.- Data compression techniques for efficient transfer of data and data storage.- Automatic report generation scheduled on a weekly basis to provide summary statistics-Supervision of individual harmonic parameters withalarm functionsbON-LINE MONITORING OF INDIVIDUAL HARMONICSIn a mining industry in northern Europe a Harmonic Information Management System, Unipower PQ Secure, was implemented and on a normal basis the harmonic levels were within control. In January 12th , 2008 the system manager however received an email from the Harmonic Information Management System notifying that in one measure point the 7th individual harmonics were outsidespecified control limits according to IEC 61000-2-12. Still however the THD was reported being inside control limits.Fig. 6. 7th Harmonic failing (see table of limits – Fig 1)At site it could be concluded that one major filter had been disconnected by service personnel by mistake, and it could immediately be reconnected before any further damage andlosses occurred.Fig. 7. THD value goes high when the filter is disconnected. However the specified THD control limit is not violated.Without a Harmonic Information Management System in place monitoring the individual harmonics the filter would probably remained disconnected until the annual inspection or a possible failure occurred according to local management.CONCLUSIONThe international trend for Harmonic measurements is towards permanent supervision of harmonics in the transmission and distribution networks. The scale of implementation calls for an automated system for data gathering and automatic data analysis where both operators and authorities can receive scheduled weekly statistical information defining network status. Supervision and alarm functionality for all harmonic parameters also makes it possible to assure quality and keep harmonic levels in control in a preventive approach.The challenge of tomorrow is not only to retrieve reliable and norm compliant harmonic data from the network, but also to manage this data in a reliable and cost effective way.。

Sensory properties of cocoa liquor as affected by polyphenol concentration and duration of roastingMisnawi a ,S.Jinapa,*,B.Jamilah b ,S.Nazamidaa Department of Food Science,Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology,Universiti Putra Malaysia,43400UPM Serdang,Selangor,Malaysia bDepartment of Food Technology,Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology,Universiti Putra Malaysia,43400UPM Serdang,Selangor,MalaysiaReceived 21April 2003;received in revised form 12July 2003;accepted 18July 2003AbstractSensory properties of cocoa liquor roasted at 120°C for 15,25,35and 45min and containing different polyphenol concentrations (58,116,143and 170g kg À1)were studied.Eight trained panellists carried out the sensory analysis using line scale with Ghanaian fermented cocoa liquor as a reference.The sensory attributes were cocoa flavour,astringency,bitterness,acidity/sourness,fruity/floral/bouquet,raw/green,smoky,mouldy/earthy and viscosity.Results of the study showed that as polyphenol concentration in cocoa liquor increased,cocoa flavour and viscosity decreased and astringency and bitterness increased;however,other sensory properties were not influenced by polyphenol concentration.An increase in roasting duration of cocoa liquors containing 58–143g kg À1polyphenol increased the flavour intensity;meanwhile that of contains 170g kg À1polyphenol,it was in vice versa.These findings indicated that cocoa polyphenol would cause negative effect on flavour properties,apart from its well-known benefit as preservative and antioxidant.Ó2003Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Cocoa liquor;Polyphenol;Flavour;Astringency;Bitterness;Roasting;Amino acid;Reducing sugar;Pyrazine1.IntroductionFlavour is one of the most important constituents in cocoa products;its precursors are developed during fermentation and drying of cocoa beans.The aroma precursors in cocoa beans,which include free amino acids,peptides and reducing sugars develop into cocoa specific aroma through Maillard reactions during roasting (Barel,Leon,&Vincent,1985;Mohr,Lands-chreiber,&Severin,1976).Through the Maillard reac-tions,all of the cocoa aroma precursors interact to produce cocoa flavour components such as alcohols,ethers,furans,thiazoles,pyrones,acids,esters,alde-hydes,imines,amines,oxazoles,pyrazines and pyrroles (Hoskin &Dimick,1994;Jinap,Wan-Rosli,Russly,&Nurdin,1998;Puziah,Jinap,Sharifah,&Asbi,1998b).Researchers have also shown that under-fermented cocoa beans do not develop any chocolate flavour when roasted and are excessively astringent and bitter in taste(Biehl &Voigt,1996;Puziah,Jinap,Sharifah,&Asbi,1998a).Polyphenols are compounds in cocoa,which are responsible for the astringency and contribute to bitter and green flavours (Bonvehi &Coll,2000;Luna,Crouzillat,Cirou,&Bucheli,2002).Hagerman and Butler (1981)stated that the most important character-istic of polyphenol is its inclination to form complex compounds with protein,polysaccharide and alkaloid.Kim and Keeney (1984)found that cocoa beans are rich in polyphenols;unfermented cocoa bean was found to contain 120–180g kg À1of polyphenolic compounds.Wollgast and Anklam (2000a)stated that the cocoa polyphenols are mainly monomers and oligomers of flavan-3-ol basic compound and classified them into three groups i.e.catechins or flavan-3-ols %37%,anthocyanins %4%and proanthocyanidins %58%.During cocoa fermentation,polyphenols are subjected to biochemical modifications through oxidation and polymerization and binding with protein,hence decreasing their solubility and astringency effect (Bon-vehi &Coll,2000).At the same time,anthocyanins are hydrolyzed to produce anthocyanidins,galactose and arabinose;beside dimerisation of leucocyanidins and*Corresponding author.Tel.:+603-89486314;fax:+603-89485970.E-mail address:jinap@.my (S.Jinap).0950-3293/$-see front matter Ó2003Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/S0950-3293(03)00097-1Food Quality and Preference 15(2004)403–409/locate/foodqualexudation of theflavonoids from the bean.Subse-quently,during drying,the amount of polyphenols are substantially reduced mainly by enzymatic browning (Forsyth&Quesnel,1963;Kim&Keeney,1984).Recently,cocoa bean polyphenols have attracted a lot of attention owing to their antioxidant activity and possible beneficial implications on human health,par-ticularly in relation to some cancers,cardiovascular diseases and other pathologies(Kattenberg,2000; Wollgast&Anklam,2000b).Experiments using in vitro and animal models have demonstrated that most of the cocoa bean polyphenol fractions were found to have antioxidant activities and were likely to be beneficial to health(Kattenberg,2000).This paper discusses effects of polyphenol concentration and roasting duration on sensory properties of cocoa liquor.2.Materials and methods2.1.Crude polyphenol extractCocoa fruits of PBC140clone were obtained from the Cocoa Production and Processing Station,Malay-sian Cocoa Board.The ungerminated beans were col-lected from healthy pods and their testa removed manually before being shock frozen in liquid nitrogen. The frozen cocoa cotyledons were then lyophilized and freeze-dried at a pressure of<13.3Pa(Labconco Freezone6,USA),followed by grinding and refining in the presence of liquid nitrogen using Warring blender (Braun,Germany),and then defatting in a Soxhlet apparatus for16h with petroleum ether(b.p.40–60°C). Polyphenol was extracted from cocoa powder using chilled80%aqueous ethanol(twice)followed by chilled absolute ethanol(twice).The extract was centrifuged at 4000rpm and4°C for15min(Kubota788,Japan);the supernatant was then evaporated under vacuum at45°C using rotary evaporator(Heidolph WB/VV2000, Germany)followed by freeze-drying at a pressure of <13.3Pa.2.2.Design of studyThe study was carried out in two factors using com-plete randomized design(CRD)with three replications. Thefirst factor was polyphenol concentration in cocoa liquor(58,116,143and170g kgÀ1polyphenol),whereas the second factor was duration of roasting(15,25,35 and45min).Cocoa liquor was prepared from Ghanaian fermented cocoa powder.All of the cocoa liquors were adjusted to contain55%fat using deodorized cocoa butter and the respective polyphenol concentration was obtained using a crude polyphenol extract.2.3.Roasting conditionRoasting of cocoa liquor was carried out in an oven (Memmert UL40,Germany),which was set at120°C and maintained for1h to reach equilibrium,before used.Fifty grams of cocoa liquor were placed in a10cm petri dish at5mm thickness before being inserted into the oven.The door was opened and closed as quickly as possible after inserting the petri dish.After cooling to ambient temperature(26°C),the liquor was then de-fatted in a Soxhlet apparatus with petroleum ether(b.p. 40–60°C)for16h.Residue of petroleum ether was discarded by air-drying at room temperature for3h and under vacuum at pressure<13.3Pa for another3h.The sample was then kept in a sealed container for further analyses.2.4.Sensory evaluationSensory evaluation of the samples was carried out by eight trained panellists,three females andfive males. Panellists were selected from15persons who were interested sensory evaluation of cocoa.Training and selection of the panellist involved eight4-h sessions and included recognition of basic tastes,ranking tests and intensity scaling.These tests were carried out using basic taste solutions and cocoa liquor.A maximum of four samples and one reference were served to a panellist daily;the score of a sample was obtained by relative comparison of the sample to the reference for each respective sensory property.The ref-erence was Ghanaian cocoa liquor having sensory scores set at7for cocoaflavour,1.5for astringency,2.5for bitterness,1.5for acidity/sourness,0.5for fruity/floral/ bouquet,0for raw/green,0for smoky,0for mouldy/ earthy and7for viscosity.These scores were obtained from panellists’consensus scores and comparison with other commercial sensory laboratory results.A score of 0depicts no presence and10depicts maximum presence of the respective properties.Three-digit random sample codes were used during evaluation.Unsalted biscuit and warm water were used to rinse mouth between evalua-tion of the sample and the reference.2.5.Free amino acids,reducing sugars and pyrazineFree amino acids and reducing sugars were deter-mined using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)as described by Misnawi,Jinap,Jamilah,and Nazamid(2002b).However,pyrazines was determined by simultaneous steam distillation and extraction(SDE) followed by detection using gas chromatography(GC). Cocoa powder was extracted by distillation(1h)in a Lickens and Nickerson apparatus(Schultz,Flath,Mon, Eggling,&Terranishi,1977)using3g of cocoa powder and200ml of distilled water.Internal standard of4-404Misnawi et al./Food Quality and Preference15(2004)403–409Picoline (Aldrich,USA)was applied to the mixture be-fore the distillation.The extracted pyrazine was trapped with 20ml of pentane.Anhydrous sodium sulphate was later added to the distillate and set aside for 2h to ab-sorb moisture.The distillate was dried to less than 1ml using nitrogen stream before analysis.Measurement of different types of pyrazine was accomplished using an HP 6890GC (Hewlett-Packard,USA).The capillary column used was Fused Silica BP 20(50m ·0.33mm i.d.with 0.25l m film).The column temperature was programmed at 60°C for 3min,in-crease to 180°C at 5°C min À1and hold at the final temperature for 5min (Puziah et al.,1998a).Injector and detector (Flame Ionization Detector)were set at 200°C and carrier gas employed was helium at 30ml min À1.2.6.Statistical analysisStatistical analyses were carried out with Statistical Analysis System (SAS)Version 6.12(SAS Institute Inc.,1997)for multiple range (different)test.Panellist was considered as a fixed effect in the analysis of variance models,however replication was considered as a ran-dom effect.Principal component analysis was carried out with Numerical Taxonomy System (NTSYSpc)Version 2.1(Rohlf,2000)using the correlation matrix.3.Results and discussion3.1.Cocoa flavour,viscosity,astringency and bitterness Roasting is needed for development of cocoa flavour,and the quality of roasted cocoa depends on the originof the bean and roasting condition (Hoskin &Dimick,1994).After roasting the bean possesses the typical cocoa aroma and is less astringent,although remaining unpleasant without further processing and addition of ingredients (Jackson,1990;Minifie,1990).As expected,the increase in polyphenol concentration prior to roasting significantly decreased the intensity of per-ceived cocoa flavour of the resultant liquor (Table 1).Principal components plot (Fig.1)showed that the polyphenol and cocoa flavour vectors were located on opposite ends of the first Principal Components axis,with correlation coefficient (r )of )0.73,which is sig-nificant at p <0:01(Table 2).These results clearly indicated that higher concentration of polyphenol wouldTable 1Effects of polyphenol concentration and roasting duration on flavour,viscosity,astringency and bitterness properties of cocoa liquor Roasting duration (min)Polyphenol (g kg À1)Cocoa flavour Viscosity Astringency Bitterness 1558 6.3a 4.1a 3.3c 3.1c 116 6.0a 3.8a 4.6b 4.1b 143 5.5b 3.3ab 4.9b 4.2b 170 5.6b 2.9b 5.6a 5.3a 2558 6.3a 4.2a 4.0b 3.7c 116 6.5a 3.6ab 4.7ab 4.2b 143 5.5b 3.4ab 5.1a 4.6ab 170 5.6b 3.1b 5.3a 4.9a 3558 6.5a 4.3a 3.6c 2.9c 116 6.8a 3.6ab 4.4b 4.3ab 143 6.0b 3.3ab 4.6b 3.9b 170 4.9c 3.0b 5.2a 4.8a 4558 6.5a 4.1a 3.4b 2.9b 116 6.8a 3.5ab 4.3ab 4.2a 143 5.5b 3.6ab 4.6ab 3.9a 1704.8c3.1b5.2a4.7aNote:Means with same letter in the same column at every roasting duration are not significantly different according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (p >0:05).Misnawi et al./Food Quality and Preference 15(2004)403–409405decrease the cocoa flavour.The decrease was possibly due to the lower intensity of flavour compounds in the liquor and/or masking of astringency and bitterness tastes in the mouth.Lopez (1986)found that there was an inverse correlation between flavour and astringent-bitter sensation in cocoa liquor.It is postulated that the lack of flavour compound was due to binding of polyphenol on aroma precursors and aroma compounds formed during roasting;how-ever,further research is needed to verify this.The fla-vour precursors binding hypothesis is based on the fact that free amino acids and reducing sugars decreased with the increase in polyphenol concentration.Fig.2shows that as the concentration of polyphenol increased,the concentrations of free amino acids and reducing sugars prior to roasting decreased.Hydrophobic amino acids viz.alanine,tyrosine,valine,iso-leucine,leucine and phenylalanine are the specific aroma precursor for the formation of cocoa aroma (Voigt,Biehl,&Kama-ruddin,1993);their concentration dramatically de-creased from 9.9g kg À1in fermented cocoa liquor containing 58g kg À1polyphenol to only 3.7g kg À1in cocoa liquor enriched with polyphenol to contain 116g kg À1.In the same comparisons,concentrations of reducing sugar,mainly fructose,were also reduced from 48.6g kg À1to 15.2g kg À1.According to Hagerman (1992),the phenolic hydro-xyl group is an excellent hydrogen bond donor and forms strong hydrogen bonds with the amide carbonyls of the peptide backbone.Kattenberg and Kemmink (1993)also found oxidation of polyphenols produce quinones,which are very reactive agents.They can react further with amino acids and proteins,or polymerize with each other to form higher molecular weight com-plexes,the so-called ‘‘condensed tannin’’,whereas at molecular weight above 3000they form complexes with protein through hydrogen bonding.It is also possible that flavour compounds formed during roasting were then bound to polyphenols.Effect of roasting duration showed that cocoa flavour increased with the increases in roasting duration of the liquor containing up to 143g kg À1polyphenol,however at 170g kg À1the opposite effect was observed.This may be due to strong reduction effects of polyphenol against flavour formation and/or sensory interference from its strong astringent and bitter sensations.Table 2Correlation coefficient among polyphenol concentration prior to roasting and sensory properties of cocoa liquorTPPo aCocoa flavour Astrin-gency Bitterness Acidity FFB a RG a ME aCocoa flavour )0.73ÃÃAstringency +0.95ÃÃ)0.68ÃÃBitterness +0.90ÃÃ)0.59Ã+0.96ÃÃAcid FFB a +0.64ÃÃRG a ME a+0.61Ã+0.53ÃViscosity)0.97ÃÃ+0.68ÃÃ)0.92ÃÃ)0.90+0.69ÃÃ+0.65ÃNote:(1)only significant correlations (*p <0:05,**p <0:01)are shown and (2)data obtained from three replications.aTPPo,total polyphenol prior to roasting;FFB,fruity/floral/bouquet aroma;RG,raw/green;ME,mouldy/earthy.406Misnawi et al./Food Quality and Preference 15(2004)403–409Cocoa polyphenol also significantly affected viscosity,astringency and bitterness properties of the liquor.Coefficients of correlation between polyphenol concen-tration against viscosity,astringency and bitterness were )0.97,+0.95and+0.90,respectively,which were sig-nificant at p<0:01.Fig.1shows vectors of total poly-phenol,astringency and bitterness are in close angle toeach other;whereas the viscosity vector is located in theopposite direction.Viscosity determinesflow property of cocoa liquorwhile the liquor is in the mouth.Viscosity not only af-fects the way the chocolate runs around the mouth,butit also changes its taste perception,since the mouthcontains differentflavour receptors at different places(Beckett,2000).Increase in polyphenol concentrationwas found to significantly decrease viscosity of the li-quor(Table1);this phenomenon has also been sug-gested to be a function of polyphenol character,whichtends to interact and form complexes with other com-pounds such as protein,polysaccharide and alkaloid(Hagerman&Butler,1981).Polyphenol may also reduce lubricating action of thesaliva,due to the polyphenol–proline-rich proteininteraction and formation of precipitates or aggregates(Clifford,1985;Lindsay,1996),besides producingastringent taste,it also gives a puckering sensation andcauses a less viscous sensation on the tongue.Astringency and bitterness of the liquor were foundto increase with the increase in polyphenol concentra-tion(Table1).Astringent,a taste perceived as a dryfeeling in the mouth along with a coarse puckering ofthe oral tissue,is a taste that is usually minimized inchocolate products.Astringency has been identified tobe associated with polyphenols–protein interaction inthe saliva(Bonvehi&Coll,2000;Lindsay,1996).According to Charlton et al.(2002),Clifford(1985)andPorter and Woodruffe(1984),astringent sensation pro-gressively increases with an increase in polymerizationof polyphenol up to heptamers.Cocoa beans polyphe-nol is composed of%58%of procyanidin,which areoligomers offlavan-3-ols(Wollgast&Anklam,2000a).However,astringency is often confused with bitternessbecause many individuals do not clearly understand itsnature and many tannins or polyphenols exhibit bothbitter and astringent(Clifford,1985).Roasting andconching,as well tempering and other processes duringchocolate manufacturing cannot remove the excessiveamount of astringency in cocoa liquor(Fowler,1995).Roasting duration was not found to significantly(p>0:05)influence viscosity,astringency and bitternessproperties.This may be due to small changes in poly-phenol concentration during roasting.Our previousstudy have shown that roasting at120°C for15–45minof cocoa liquor enriched with unfermented cocoa beanpolyphenol at170g kgÀ1reduced the concentration oftotal polyphenol and tannin at only4.8–8.9%and2.3–7.5%,respectively(Misnawi,Jinap,Jamilah,&Naz-amid,2002a).3.2.Acidity,fruity/floral/bouquet and raw/greenAcidity,fruity/floral/bouquet aroma and raw/green properties of cocoa liquor were not influenced by poly-phenol concentration(Table2).Various phenols such as guaiacol,4-methylphenol and2,6-dimethylphenol, which may also originate from polyphenol degradations, have been previously proposed as the main compounds contributing to smokyflavour(Maga,1992).However it is likely that inadequate primary processing such as smoke contamination during mechanical drying or over-fermentation(noted by a hammyflavour)are the main sources of smoky odour.Luna et al.(2002)also found that,besides being responsible for astringent and bitter sensations,polyphenol also contributed to green and fruity senses of cocoa liquor.The insignificant effects of polyphenol on these properties in this study are thus in contrast to previous results.3.3.Free amino acids and reducing sugars degradationsFree amino acid and reducing sugar degradations during roasting would indicate aroma formation during roasting.This study found that an increase in polyphe-nol concentration reduced free amino acid degradations during roasting.The percentage of degradation for hydrophobic amino acid during roasting of cocoa li-quors which contained58,116,143and170g kgÀ1 polyphenol were76%,61%,56%and45%,respectively; however,those of total amino acid were76%,66%,36% and26%,respectively.Degradation of reducing sugars was found to be re-duced by the increase in polyphenol concentration.The degradation of fructose at58,116,143and170g kgÀ1 polyphenol were83%,68%,23%and26%,respectively, and those of glucose were79%,70%,70%and61%. These results also indicate that the reduction effect of polyphenol on reducing sugar degradation during roasting was higher for fructose than for glucose.This is possibly due to the fact that more fructose was bound to polyphenol compared to glucose;however,BeMiller and Whistler(1996)stated that glucose should undergo browning reaction faster than fructose.The decreases in free amino acids and reducing sugars degradation during roasting are suggested to cause the reduction offlavour formation by polyphenol as have been previously discussed.3.4.Pyrazine formationPyrazine formation was reduced by an increase in polyphenol concentration in the cocoa liquor(Table3). Roasting of cocoa liquor containing58,116,143andMisnawi et al./Food Quality and Preference15(2004)403–409407170g kgÀ1polyphenol for45min produced15.42,13.71, 7.15and6.93g kgÀ1total pyrazine,respectively.There was8.49g kgÀ1decrease of total pyrazine with the in-crease112g kgÀ1of polyphenol.A similar trend was observed for a decrease in roasting duration from35 through25to15min.This result indicates that three-fold increase in polyphenol concentration halved the production of pyrazine.4.ConclusionPresence of polyphenol in cocoa liquor during roasting decreased cocoaflavour and viscosity,and in-creased astringency and bitterness properties of the resultant liquor,but did not influence acidity,fruity/floral/bouquet aroma,raw/green and mouldy/earthy properties.Roasting duration of15–45min at120°C significantly affected cocoaflavour but not the other sensory properties.There was an interaction effect of polyphenol concentration and roasting duration on cocoaflavour property.AcknowledgementsWe thank The Ministry of Science,Technology and Environment of Malaysia who’s sponsored this research under Intensification of Research Priority Area(IRPA) Project No.01-02-04-0466.ReferencesBarel,M.,Leon,D.,&Vincent,J. 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生理学常用词汇英汉对照表（括号内数字表示该词汇所在章）Aabdominal breathing 腹式呼吸（5）absolute refractory period 绝对不应期（2）absorption 吸收（6）acrosin 顶体素（12）acrosome reaction 顶体反应（12）action potential 动作电位（2）adaptability 适应性（1）adequate stimulus 适宜刺激（10）adrenergic fibres 肾上腺能纤维（10）adrenoceptor肾上腺能受体（10）adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH 促肾上腺皮质激素（11）aerial 肺房（3）affinity 亲和力（11）after-discharge 后放（10）after-potential 后电位（2）agglutination 凝集（3）air cell 气室（14）airsac 气囊（14）aldosterone 醛固酮（11）alkali reserve 碱储（3）alveolar gas 肺泡气（5）alveolar surfactant肺表面活性物质（5）alveolar ventilation 肺泡通气量（5）amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation，APUD 胺前体摄取和脱竣作用（6）androgen 雄激素（12）androgen-binding protein，ABP 雄性激素结合蛋白（12）anticoagulation 抗凝剂（3）antidiuretic hormone o ADH 抗利尿激素（11）antiperistalsls 逆蠕动（6）antithrombin III 抗凝血酶ni（3）8-arginine oxytocin 8-精催产素（14）arterial blood pressure 动脉血压（4）arteriole 微动脉（4）arteriovenous anastomos 动一静脉吻合支（4）ascending activating system 上行激动系统（10）atrial natriuretic peptide 心房利尿钠肽（4）atrial natriuretic peptide 心钠素（11）attitudinal reflex 状态反射（10）autapse自身突触（10）autocrine 自分泌（11）autoregulation 自身调节（1）autorhythmic cell 自律细胞（4）autorhythmicity 自律性（4）avian pancreatic polypeptide, APP 胰多肽（14）axo-axonic synapse 轴一轴突触（10）axo-dendritic synapse 轴一树突触（10）axon reflex 轴突反射（4）axo-somatic svnanse 轴一体突触（10）Bbaroreceptor reflex压力感受器反射（4）basal electric rhythm，BER 基本电节律（6）basal metabolism rate，BMR 基础代谢率（7）basal metabolism 基础代谢（7）beck 喙（14）bile 胆汁（6）bioelectric phenomenon 生物电现象（2）biorhythm生物节律（1）blastocyst 胚泡（12）blood 血液（3）blood clotting factors 凝血因子（3）blood coagulation 血液凝固（3）blood pressure 血压（4）blood volume 血量（3）blood-testis barrier 血睾屏障（12）body fluid 体液（3）body temperature 体温（7）bombesin 蛙皮素（14）brain-gut peptide 脑一肠肽（6）breathing pattern 呼吸式（5）broodiness 抱窝（14）Brunner's gland 勃氏腺（6）Ccalcitonin，CT 降钙素（11）calcium binding protein CaBP 钙结合蛋白（5, 14）caloric value 热价（7）capacitance vessels 容量血管（4）capacitation 获能（12）capillary blood pressure 毛细血管血压（4）cardiac output 心输出量（4）cardiac sympathetic nerve 心交感神经（4）cardiac vagus nerve 心迷走神经（4）cardionatrin 心钠素（4）cardiophonogram 心音图（4）catecholamine 儿茶酚胺（10）central delay 中枢延搁（10）central inhibition 中枢抑制（10）central inspiratory activity generator, CIAG 吸气活动发生器（5）central positive feedback 中枢性正反馈（12）central venous pressure 中心静脉压（4）cephalic phase 头期（6）chemical synapse 化学性突触（10）chemoreceptor reflex 化学感受器反射（4）chemoreceptor 化学感受器（5）chloride shift 氯转移（5）cholecalciferol 胆钙化醇（11）cholinergic fibres 胆碱能纤维（10）cholinoceptor 胆碱能受体（10）chronaxie 时值（1）chylomicron 乳糜微粒（6）climatic adaptation 气候适应（7）clone 克隆（1）closed-loop circuit 闭合回路（11）clutch cycle 连产周期（14）cold acclimation 冷服习（7）cold acclimatization 冷驯化（7）collateral inhibition 侧支性抑制（10）colony forming unit-erythroid，CFIJ-E 红系集落形成单位（3）colony stimulating factor，CSF 集落刺激因子（3）colostrum 初乳（13）combined breathing 胸腹式呼吸（5）compensatory pause 代偿性间歇（4）premature systole期前收缩（额外收缩）（4）complete tetanus完全强直收缩（9）compound glands 复腺（14）conditions immune response 条件性免疫反应（10）conditional reflex 条件反射（10）conduction传导（2）（7）conductivity 传导性（4）contractility 收缩性（9）convection 对流（7）cortical nephron 皮质肾单位（8）corticotropin-releasing hormone. CRH 促肾上腺皮质激素释放激素（11）counter-current exchange 逆流交换（8）counter-current multiplication 逆流倍增（8）coupled sodium-chloride absorption 钠-氯同时吸收（6）critical fusion frequency 临界融合频率（9）crop sac gland 嗦囊腺（14）cross bridge 横桥（9）crossed extensor 对侧伸肌反射（10）cybernetics 控制论（1）cytokine细胞因子（10）Ddecerebrate animal 去大脑动物（10）decerebrate rigidity 去大脑僵直（10）defense reflex 防御性反射（10）deglutation 吞咽（6）dehydroepiandrosterone 脱氢异雄酮（11）deoxycorticosterone，DOC 脱氧皮质酮（11）depressor reflex 降压反射（4）diestrus 休情期（12）digestion 消化（6）5 a -dihydrotestosterone 5 a -双氢睾酮（12）direct calorimetry 直接测热法（7）dopamine 多巴胺（10）dorsal respiratory group，DRG 背侧呼吸组（5）dynamic stereotype 动力定型（10） Eectopic rhythm 异位心律（4）effective filtration pressure 有效滤过压（4）ejection fraction 射血分数（4）electrical synapse 电突触（1、9）electrocardiogram, ECG 心电图（4）electrochemical equilibrium 电一化学平衡（3）electrochemical gradient 电一化学梯度（2）emergency reaction 应急反应（11）emotion 情绪（10）endocrine 内分泌（11）end-plate potential, EPP 终板电位（9）entero-gastric reflex 肠一胃反射（6）entero-hepatic circulation 肠肝循环（6）epicrine 表分泌（11）epidermal growth factor，EGF 上皮细胞生长因子（11）epinephrine， E 肾上腺素（11）eructation 暧气（6）erythrocyte osmotic fragility 红细胞渗透脆性（3）erythrocyte sedimentation rate，ESR 红细胞沉降率（3）erythrocyte 红细胞（3）erythropoietin，EPO 红细胞生成素（3）estradiol，E2 雌二醇（11）estrogen， E 雌激素（12）estrous cycle 发情周期（12）estrous 发情期（12）eupnea平静呼吸（4 ）evaporation 蒸发（7）exchange vessels 交换血管（4）excitability 兴奋性（1）excitable tissue可兴奋性组织（1）excitation contraction coupling 兴奋一收缩耦联（9）excitation 兴奋（1）excitatory postsynaptic potential，EPSP 兴奋性突触后电位（10）excitatory synapse 兴奋性突触（10）excitatory transmitter 兴奋性化学递质（10）expiration 呼气（5）expiratory reserve volume 补呼气量（5）exteroceptor 外感受器（10）extracellular fluid 细胞外液（1）extrapyramidal system 锥体外系统（10）extrinsic route外源性激活途径（3）Ffacilitated diffusion 易化扩散（2）factor 因子（11）feedback 反馈（1）feedforward 前反馈（1）feeding center 摄食中枢（10）fertilization 受精（12）fibrin纤维蛋白（3）fibrinolysis纤维蛋白溶解（3）filtration fraction 滤过分数（8）fluid mosaic model 流体镶嵌模型（2）follicle statin 卵泡抑制素（12）follicle-stimulating hormone，FSH 卵泡刺激素（11）follicular phase 卵泡期（12）FSH-releasing protein，FRP 促FISH 释放蛋白（12）functional residual capacity 机能余气量（5）Ggall-bladder bile 胆囊胆汁（6）gastric emptying 胃的排空（6）gastric inhibitory polypeptide, GIP 抑胃肽（6）gastric phase 胃期（6）gastrointestinal hormone 胃肠激素（6）gizzard 肌胃（14）gland cisterns 乳腺池（13）glandular stomach 腺胃（14）glomerular filtration rate，GFR 肾小球滤过率（8）glomerulo-tubular balance 球一管平衡（8）glucagon胰高血糖素（11）glucocorticoid 糖皮质激素（11）gonadotropic hormone, gonadotropin, GTH 促性腺激素（11）gonadotropin-releasing hormone, GnRH 促性腺激素释放激素（11）growth hormone, GH 生长激素（11）growth hormone release-inhibiting hormone, GIH 生长激素释放抑制激素（11）growth hormone releasing hormone, GHRH 生长激素释放激素（11）gut hormone 胃肠激素（11）Hhalf-life period 半衰期（11）heart rate 心率（4）heart sound 心音（4）hematocrit血细胞比容（3）hematopoietic growth factor, HGF 造血生长因子（3）hemolysis 溶血（3）heparin cofactor II肝素辅助因子II（3）heparin 肝素（3）hepatic bile 肝胆汁（6）Hering-Breuer reflex 黑一伯二氏反射（5）high nervous activity 高级神经活动（10）histamine 组胺（14）homeostasis 稳态（1）hormone 激素（11）human chorionic gonadotrophin, HCG 人绒毛膜促性腺激素（11）human leukocyte antigen HLA 人白细胞抗原（3）humoral regulation 体液调节（1）hypothalamic hypophysiotropic area 下丘脑促垂体区（11）hypothalamus regulatory peptide, HRP 下丘脑调节肽（11）hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, HPA 下丘脑一垂体一肾上腺轴（10）hypoxia 低氧（5）Iimpulse 冲动（2）incomplete tetanus不完全强直收缩（9）indirect calorimetry 间接测热法（7）inhibin 抑制素（11）inhibition 抑制（1）inhibitory postsynaptic potential, IPSP 抑制性突触后电位（10）inhibitory synapse 抑制性突触（10）inhibitorytransmitter 抑制性化学递质（10）initiation of lactation 发动泌乳（13）inspiration 吸气（5）inspiratory off -switch mechanism, IOS 吸气切断机制（5）inspiratory reserve volume 补吸气量（5）insulin 胰岛素（11）insulin-like growth factor IGF 胰岛素样生长因子（11）integration 整合作用（1）interdigestive motility complex 消化间期运动复合波（6）internal environment 内环境（1）internal respiration 内呼吸（5）interoceptor 内感受器（10）interstitial cell stimulating hormone 间质细胞刺激素（11）interstitial fluid 细胞间液（3）intestinal phase 肠期（6）intestinal villi 小肠绒毛（6）intracellular fluid 细胞内液（3）intrapleural pressure 胸膜腔内压（5）intrapulmonary pressure 肺内压（5）intrapulmonary primary bronchi 肺内一级支气管（14）intrinsic factor 内因子（2, 5）intrinsic plexus 壁内神经丛（6）intrinsic route内源性激活途径（3）iodine accumulation 聚碘作用（11）iodine activation 碘的活化（11）iodine of tyrosine 酪氨酸碘化（11）iodine pump 碘泵（11）irradiation 扩散（10）irritability 感应性（1）8-isoleucine oxytocin 8 一异亮催产素（14）isometric contraction 等长收缩（9）isotonic contraction 等张收缩（9）isotonic solution 等张溶液（3）Jjuxtamedullary nephron 近髓肾单位（8）Kkiller cell 杀伤细胞（3）knee jerk 膝反射（10）Llatent period 潜伏期（9）leucocyte 白细胞（3）Leydig's cell 间质细胞（12）Lieberkiihn crypt 李氏腺（6）limbic system 边缘系统（10）lipid bilayer脂质双分子层（2）lipopolysaccharide 脂多糖（10）lipotropin，6-LPH 促脂解素（11）local hormone 局部激素（11）long-loop feedback 长反馈（11）lung compliance 顺应性（5）luteal phase 黄体期（12）luteinizing hormone, LH 黄体生成素（11）Mmaintenance of lactation 维持泌乳（13）mammary glands 乳腺（13）mass peristalsis 集团蠕动（6）mastication 咀嚼（6）maximal diastolic potentia 一最大舒张（期）电位（4）mean circulatory filling pressure 平均充盈压（4）melanophore-stimulating hormone，MSH 促黑（素细胞）激素（11）elanophore-stimulating hormone release-inhibiting factor，MIF 促黑素细胞激素释放抑制因子（11）melanophore-stimulating hormone-releasing factor, MRF 促黑素细胞激素释放因子（11）melatonin，MLT 褪黑素（11）membrane potential 膜电位（2）menstrual cycle 月经周期（12）messenger 信使（11）metabolism新陈代谢（1、6）metaestrus 发情后期（12）microvilli 微绒毛（6）migrating burst spikes 移行性锋电位（6）migrating motility complex，MMC 移行性运动复合波（6）milk excretion 排乳（13）milk secretion 乳的分泌（13）mineralocorticoid 盐皮质激素（11）minute ventilation volume 每分通气量（5）minute volume每分输出量（4）mobile brain 游动脑（10）modulation 调制（10）motor end plate 运动终板（9）motor neuron运动神经元（10）motor unit运动单位（9）muscarinic receptor毒蕈型受体（10）muscle spindle 肌梭（10）Nnasal gland 鼻腺（14）natural kill cell自然杀伤细胞（3）nephron 肾单位（8）nerve growth factor NGF 神经生长因子（11）nervoustype 神经型（10）neurocrine 神经分泌（11）neuroendocrine 神经内分泌（11）neuroendocrinology 神经内分泌学（11）neurohormone 神经激素（11）neurohumoral regulation 神经一体液调节（1）neuroimmunomodulation 神经免疫调节（10）neuromuscular junction 神经肌肉接头（9）neuroregulation 神经调节（1）neurotransmitter 神经递质（1）nicotinic receptor 烟碱型受体（10）nidation 着床（12）nitrogenous hormone 含氮激素（11）norepinephrine，NE 去甲肾上腺素（11）normal milk 常乳（13）null cell 裸细胞（3）Ooocyte maturation inhibitor，OMI 卵泡细胞成熟抑制素（12）osmotic pressure 渗透压（3）overdrive suppression 超速驱动压抑（4）overshot 超射（I）ovulatory cycle 排卵周期（14）oxygen dissociation curve氧离曲线（4）oxygenation 氧合（5）oxytocin，OXT 催产素（11）Ppancreatic amylase 胰淀粉酶（6）pancreatic juice 胰液（6）pancreatic lipase 胰脂肪酶（6）、pancreatic polypeptide 胰多肽（11）paracellular absorption 旁细胞吸收（6）paracrine 旁分泌（11）parasympathetic nervous system 副交感神经系统（10）parathyroid hormone，PTH 甲状旁腺素（11）parotid gland 腮腺（6）parturition delivery 分娩（12）pepsin胃蛋白酶（6）peptidergic neuron 肽能神经元（11）peripheral venous pressure 夕卜周静脉压（4）peristalsis 蠕动（6）permeability选择通透性（2）permissive action 允许作用（11）phagocytosis 吞噬作用（1）pheromone 外激素（11）pineal body 松果体（14）plasma osmotic pressure 血浆渗透压（3）plasma 血浆（3）plasmin纤维蛋白溶解酶（3）plasminogen纤维蛋白溶解酶原（3）platelet-derived growth factor, PDGF 血小板衍生因子（4）platelets 血小板（3）pneumothorax 气胸（5）polarization 极化（2）postganglionic neuron 节后纤维（10）postsynaptic inhibition 突触后抑制（10）postsynaptic potential 突触后电位（10）postural reflex 姿势反射（10）precapillary sphincter毛细血管前括约肌（4）preganglionic neuron 节前纤维（10）pregnancy 妊娠（12）pregnant mare serum gonadotropin，PMSG 孕马血清促性腺激素（11）prehension 米食（6）premature pacemaker 早搏（4）pre-prohormone 前激素原（11）presynaptic inhibition 突触前抑制（10）primary active transport 原发性主动转运（2）proestrus 发情前期（12）progesterone 孕酮（12）progestogen 孕激素（12）prohormone 激素原（11）prolactin release-inhibiting factor，PIF 催乳素释放抑制因子（11）prolactin releasing factor, PRF 催乳素释放因子（11）pro-opiomelanocortin, POMC促阿片一黑素细胞皮质素原（11）prostaglandin，PG 前列腺素（11）prostaglandin 前列腺素（11）protein C 蛋白质C（3）protein kinase C, PKC 蛋白激酶 C （11）prothrombin 凝血酶原（3）proventriculus 前胃（14）puberty 初情期（12）pulmonary circulation 肺循环（4）pulmonary stretch reflex 肺牵张反射（5）pulmonary ventilation 肺通气（5）pyramidal system 锥体系统（10）Rradiation 辐射（7）receptive relaxation 容受性扩张（6）receptor 受体（2）recipient 受血者（3）reciprocal inhibition 交互抑制（10）recurrent inhibition 回返性抑制（10）redeglutation 再吞咽（6）reflex arc 反射弧（10）reflex milk 反射乳（13）reflex time 反射时（10）regurgitation 逆呕（6）reinforcement 强化（10）relative refractory period 相对不应期（2）relaxin 松弛素（12）relaxing period 舒张期（9）renal glucose threshold 肾糖阈（8）renal plasma flow, RPF 肾血浆流量（8）reproduction 生殖（1、11）residual volume 余气量（5）respiration 呼吸（5）respiratory frequency 呼吸频率（5）respiratory quotient，RQ 呼吸商（7）response 反应（2）resting potential 静息电位（2）reticulorumen 网瘤胃（6）righting reflex 翻正反射（10）rumination 反刍（6）ssaliva 唾液（6）saltatory conduction 跳跃式传导（2）satiety center 饱中枢（10）sebaceous gland 皮脂腺（14）second active transport 继发性主动转运（2）second messenger hypothesis 第二信使学说（11）second messenger 第二信使（2）secondary 二级支气管（14）secondarysexual characteristics 副性征（12）secretion 分泌（11）segmentation 分节运动（6）self-replication 自我复制（1）sensation 感觉（10）sensorimotor area 感觉运动区（10）serine protease inhibitor丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制物（3）serum 血清（3）sex hormone 性激素（）sexual cycle 性周期（12）sexual maturity 性成熟（12）sexual reflex 性反射（12）shell gland lumen 壳腺腔（14）shell gland 壳腺（14）shivering 寒颤（7）shortening period 缩短期（9）short-loop feedback 短反馈（11）simple diffusion 单纯扩散（2）sinus rhythm 窦性心律（4）sodium co-transport system 钠协同转运系统（6）somatomedin, SM 生长介素（11）somatostatin,生长激素释放抑制激素（11）specific dynamic effect 特殊动力效应（7）specific projectionsystem 特异性投射系统（10）spike potential 锋电位（2）spinal animal 脊髓动物（10）spinal reflex 脊髓反射（10）steroid hormone 类固醇激素（11）stimulus 刺激（2）strength-duration curve 强度一时间曲线（2）stress 应激（11）stretch reflex 牵张反射（10）stroke volume每搏输出量（4）sublingual gland 舌下腺（6）submaxillary gland 颌下腺（6）subnormal period 低常期（2）summation of contraction 收缩总和（9）summation 总和（10）summation 总和（效应）（2）supermummerary teats 副乳头（13）supranormal period 超常期（2）supraorbital gland 眶上腺（14）suspension stability 悬浮稳定性（3）sympathetic nervoussystem 交感神经系统（10）sympathetic tone 交感紧张（4）synaptic transmission 突触传递（10）systemic circulation 体循环（4）systolic pressure 收缩压（4）Ttapetum 照膜（1 3）target cell 靶细胞（11）target issue 靶组织（11）target organ 靶器官（11）tear cisterns 乳头池（13）telecrine 远距分泌（11）temporary connection 暂时联系（10）tendon reflex 键反射（10）tertiary branchi三级支气管，副支气管（14）testosterone，T 睾酮（12）tetanus强直收缩（韵）tetraiodothyronine, T4 四碘甲腺原氨酸（11）thermal equivalent of oxygen 氧热价（s）thoracic breathing 胸式呼吸（5）thoroughfare channel 直捷通路（4）threshold intensity 阈强度（2）threshold 阈值（2）thrombin 凝血酶（3）thrombocyte 血小板（3）thymosiri 胸腺激素（11）thyroglobulin, TG 甲状腺球蛋白（11）thyroid hormone 甲状腺激素（11）thyroid-stimulating hormone, TSH 促甲状腺激素（11）thyroprotein-releasing hormone，TRH 促甲状腺释放激素（11）thyroxine 甲状腺素（11）thyroxine-binding globulin，TBG 甲状腺激素结合蛋白（11）thyroxine-binding prealbumin，TBPA 甲状腺激素结合前蛋白（11）tidal volume 潮气量（5）tight junction 紧密连接（4）tonic contraction 紧张性收缩（6）total lung capacity 肺总容量（5）transcellular absorption 跨细胞吸收（6）transduction of receptor 换能作用（10）transmembrane signaling transmission 跨膜信号传递（2）transmission 传递（2）triiodothyronine，T3三碘甲腺原氨酸（11）tropic action 营养作用（6）tyrosine kinase receptor 酪昔酸激酶受体（2）Uultrimobranchial gland 腮后腺（14）ultrashort-loop feedback 超短反馈（11）unconditional reflex 非条件反射（10）unspecific projection system 非特异性投射系统（10）uropygial gland 尾脂腺（14）Vvagal tone迷走紧张（4）vasoactive intestinal peptide，VIP 血管活性肠肽（5, 14）vasopressin，VP 升压素（11）venous pressure 静脉血压（4）venous return静脉回心血量（4）ventilation /perfusion ratio 通气/血流比值（5）ventral respiratory group，VRG 腹侧呼吸组（5）venule微静脉（4）viscosity 粘滞性（3）vital capacity 肺活量（5）vomiting 呕吐（6）wwater diuresis 水利尿（8）。

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONSummaryPhysiology is the study of how living organisms work. It is the science that describe the normal functions and their regular patterns of the living organisms. The vast field of physiology can be divided into viral physiology, bacterial physiology, cellular physiology, plant physiology, human physiology,and many more subdivisions. However, the Human Physiology is very important and basic biomedical course for medical students.The body has three fundamental characteristics of living organism which are metabolism, excitability and reproduction. The metabolism include material metabolism and energy metabolism. The material metabolisms of carbonhydrate, lipid, proteins etc. have mainly been learned in BIOCHMISTRY. The energy metabolism will be learned in the 7th Chapter in PHYSIOLOGY. The excitability is very important physiological term, the property of living organisms that permit them to react to stimuli is defined as excitability.Since the normal functions of organs or organ systems was emphasized, homeostasis is another very important physiological concept. Homeostasis signifies a stable and constant status of the internal enviroment in the body of living organism. It is a dynamic balance of pH, osmostic pressure, temperature, ions concentrations, and so on. Homeostasis is a necessary for the normal functions of cells, organs and organ systems. Therefore, homeostasis is the soul concept of PHYSIOLOGY.The living organism needs to overcome the possible disorder caused by the metabolisms, then homeostasis could be maintained and the normal functions of the living organisms could be gone on. How to maintain the homeostasis? There are mainly three mechanisms to maintain the homeostasis. They are neural regulation, humoral regulation and auto-regulation. Three regulatory patterns exhibit different mechanisms and features.Feedback, a term borrowed from engineering, is a fundamental feature of homeostasis. Feedback regulation anticipates changes in a regulated variable, improves the speed of the body’s homeostatic responses, and minimizes fluctuations in the level of the variable being regulated. In the negative feedback system, a change in the variable being regulated brings about response that tend to push the variable in the direction opposite to the original change. The homeostasis could be maintained after negative feedback regulation. In positive feedback system, an initial disturbance in the system sets off a train of events that increases the disturbance even further. Some special physiological activities in the living organism are carried out by the positive feedback system such as processes of giving birth, blood coagulation, micturition.Definition1.Physiology（生理学）2.Acute experiment（急性实验）3.Chronic experiments（慢性实验）4.In vitro（离体）5.In vivo（在体）6.Metabolism（新陈代谢）7.Interstitial fluid（组织间液）8.Internal environment（内环境）9.Homeostasis（稳态）10.Excitability（兴奋性）11.Excitation（兴奋）12.Inhibition（抑制）13.Stimulus（刺激）14.Neural regulation（神经调节）15.Neuro-humoral regulation（神经体液调节）16.Reflex arc（反射弧）17.Unconditioned reflex（非条件反射）18.Conditioned reflex（条件反射）19.Humoral regulation（体液调节）20.Auto-regulation（自身调节）21.Feedback（反馈）22.Negative feedback（负反馈）23.Positive feedback（正反馈）24.Feedforward（前馈）Choose the ONE best answer, then fill the corresponding letter in the blank.( C ) 1. Which one of the following is a physiological process with negative feedback?A.Blood coagulationB.Process of passing urineC.Sino-aortic baroreceptor reflexD.Na+ influx during action potentialE.Process of parturition( D ) 2. Which one of the following is not the property of regulation by hormone?A.Slow in onsetB.Diffuse in natureC.Longer in durationD.Accurate in actionE.Action in overcorrection( D ) 3. Which of the following is not the fundamental characteristic of living organisms?A.MetabolismB.ExcitabilityC.ReproductionD.Passive diffusionE.Adaption( D ) 4. The concept of homeostasisA.includes the concept of an error signal.B.refers to maintaining physiological functions in a stable condition.C.refers only to the regulation of body temperature.D. A and BE. B and C(A) 5. This term refers to the existence of a stable internal environmentA.HomeostasisB.FeedbackC.AutoregulationD.All the aboveE.None of the above(C) 6. Which one of the following provides long-term regulatory control that results in relatively unchanging internal conditions.A.Positive FeedbackB.DiseaseC.Negative FeedbackD.All the aboveE.None of the above(B) 7. Moving your hand away from a hot stove is an example of a basic function calledA.Positive feedbackB.ResponseC.RegulationD.All the aboveE.None of the above(E) 8. On the objects that Physiology researches and observes, which of the following is correct description ?A.Whole body levelan and organ systems levelsC.Cellular levelD.Molecular levelE.All the above(E) 9. On the methodology applied in Physiology, which of the following is correct?A.Acute experimentB.Chronic experimentC.Experiment in vivoD.Experiment in vitroE.All the above(D) 10. The acceleration of heart beat caused by catecholamine hormones released from adrenal gland after doing exercise, it isA.Neural regulationB.Humoral regulationC.AutoregulationD.Neural-humoral regulationE.None of the aboveQuestions:1.What are the five components of the reflex arc?2.What are fundamental characteristics of living organism?3.Explain the mechanisms of how to maintain the homeostasis in living organism.4.Contrast the properties of the neural regulation, humoral regulation andauto-regulation.5.Describe the category of the humoral regulation.Answers:Definitions:1.Physiology（生理学）: Physiology is the study of how living organisms work, the goal ofphysiology is to study the normal functions and their regular patterns of organs or organ systems of living organism.2.Acute experiment（急性实验）：Experiment performed is to study the physiological activitiesor to observe the reaction to the external interference in short time is called acute experiment.The animals used are oftenly under anesthesia, and the experiments are oftenly destructive and irreversible, even induce the death of animals. The acute experiment include experiment in vivo and in vitro.3.Chronic experiments（慢性实验）: Experiment performed is to study the physiologicalactivities or to observe the reaction to the external interference in long time is called chronic experiment. The Chronic experiments may be performed on conscious subject for a long period of time after recovery from the operation.4.In vitro（离体）：Experiment is performed on an isolated tissue or organ that is taken out fromthe body of the animal.5.In vivo（在体）：Experiment is performed on the whole body of the animal to observe one orsome physiological functions of the organ or organ systems.6.Metabolism（新陈代谢）：Metabolism is the one of basic characteristics of living organism. Itmeans all the chemical reactions in all the cells of the body, and includes all material and energy transformations that occur in the body. The material metabolism includes catabolic and anabolic reactions.7.Interstitial fluid（组织间液）：The spaces between cells are called the interstitutium, the fluidin these spaces is the interstitial fluid.8.Internal environment（内环境）：It is the environment that all cells of the body live in theextracellular fluid, which is called the internal environment of the body.9.Homeostasis（稳态）：The state maintenance of a constancy and balance in one’s internalenvironment. It is the soul of the physiology.10.Excitability（兴奋性）：It is the ability of certain kinds of cells (excitable cell) to makeresponse to the stimulus. Essentially, It is the ability of cells to generate action potential.Excitability is a fundamental property to all tissues and cells.11.Excitation（兴奋）：It signifies a beginning of an activity or increase in physiological activityafter stimulus, such as the acceleration of the heart beat after stimulating the sympathetic nerve.12.Inhibition（抑制）：Inhibition is a stop of an activity or a decrease in physiological activityafter stimulus, such as the slowing of the heart beat after stimulating the vagus nerve.13.Stimulus（刺激）：Any changes from external or internal environmental factors that causes aresponse in a sense organ or an organism are called the stimulus. It includes the physical, chemical and biological stimuli.14.Neural regulation（神经调节）：The functions of organs or organ systems are regulated by thecentral nervous system via the reflexes. The reflex is the regular response of effectors to the stimulus based on the reflex arc.15.Neuro-humoral regulation（神经体液调节）：In many cases, the endocrine system is soclosely related to the nervous system that it can be regarded as an extension of the efferent limb of the reflex arc . In this instance it is called neuro-humoral regulation.16.Reflex arc（反射弧）：Reflex arc is the pathway in a reflex, it is the basic unit of integratedneural activity, consisting of receptor, afferent nerve, nervous center, efferent nerve and effector.17.Unconditioned reflex（非条件反射）：A fixed reflex whose mechanism may be supposed to beinherited as its functioning does not depend on previous experience.18.Conditioned reflex（条件反射）：A learned reflex in which the nervous system is trainedto produce a new and unusual response to a stimulus.19.Humoral regulation（体液调节）：The functions of organs or organ systems areregulated by the special chemicals released by the endocrine glands or cells, or metabolic products released by the living cells.20.Auto-regulation（自身调节）：In certain cases, a tissue or organ can respond directly to theenvironmental change, depending neither on nervous nor on humoral control. This form of regulation is called auto-regulation.21.Feedback（反馈）：It is a flow of information along a closed loop. Usually, a constancy ofphysiological variable requires a feedback mechanism that feeds the output information back to the control system so as to modify the nature of control.22.Negative feedback（负反馈）：A regulated variable is sensed, information is sent to acontroller, and action is taken to oppose change from the desire value.23.Positive feedback（正反馈）：With a variable is sensed and action is taken to reinforce changeof the variable, so it promotes a change in one direction.24.Feedforward（前馈）：control mechanisms often sense a disturbance and can therefore takecorrective action that anticipates changes. Conditioned reflexes belong to the feedforward control system.。