A CONNECTION BETWEEN ORDINARY PARTITIONS AND TILINGS WITH DOMINOES AND SQUARES

高二英语哲学讨论单选题30题1. In the philosophical debate, the term "metaphysics" refers to the study of _____.A. the nature of realityB. human behaviorC. social systemsD. language structure答案：A。

“metaphysics”意为形而上学，主要研究现实的本质。

选项B“human behavior”指人类行为；选项C“social systems”指社会系统；选项D“language structure”指语言结构。

在哲学讨论中，“metaphysics”通常指对现实本质的研究，故选A。

2. When discussing philosophy, the phrase "epistemology" is concerned with _____.A. moral valuesB. knowledge and beliefC. artistic expressionD. economic systems答案：B。

“epistemology”指认识论，主要涉及知识和信念。

选项A“moral values”是道德价值观；选项C“artistic expression”是艺术表达；选项D“economic systems”是经济系统。

哲学中“epistemology”侧重于知识和信念方面，所以选B。

3. In a philosophical context, "ontology" is the branch of philosophythat examines _____.A. beauty and aestheticsB. the nature of beingC. political theoriesD. logical reasoning答案：B。

2.-第二章课后习题及答案LT第二章1. (Q2) For a communication session betweena pair of processes, which process is theclient and which is the server?Answer: The process which initiates the communication is the client; the process that waits to be contacted is the server. .2. (Q3) What is the difference between network architecture and application architecture?Answer: Network architecture refers to the organization of the communication process into layers (e.g., the five-layer Internet architecture). Application architecture, on the other hand, is designed by an application developer and dictates the broad structure of the application (e.g., client-server or P2P)3. (Q4) What information is used by a processrunning on one host to identify a process running on another host?Answer: The IP address of the destination host and the port number of the destination socket.4. (Q6) Referring to Figure 2.4, we see thatnone of the application listed in Figure2.4 requires both no data loss and timing.Can you conceive of an application that requires no data loss and that is also highly time-sensitive?Answer: There are no good example of an application that requires no data loss and timing. If you know of one, send an e-mail to the authors5. (Q9) Why do HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and POP3 run on top of TCP rather than on UDP?Answer: The applications associated with those protocols require that all application data be received in the correct order and without gaps. TCP provides this service whereas UDP does not.6. (Q11) What is meant by a handshaking protocol?Answer: A protocol uses handshaking if the two communicating entities first exchange control packets before sending data to each other. SMTP uses handshaking at the application layer whereas HTTP does not.7. (Q13) Telnet into a Web server and senda multiline request message. Include inthe request message the If-modified-since:header line to force a response message with the 304 Not Modified status code.Answer: Issued the following command (in Windows command prompt) followed by the HTTP GET message to the “” web server:> telnet 80Since the index.html page in this web server was not modified since Fri, 18 May 2007 09:23:34 GMT, the following output was displayed when the above commands were issued on Sat, 19 May 2007. Note that the first 4 lines are the GET message and header lines input by the user and the next 4 lines (starting from HTTP/1.1 304 Not Modified) is the response from the web server.8. (Q14) Consider an e-commerce site thatwants to keep a purchase record for each of its customers. Describe how this can be done with cookies.Answer: When the user first visits the site, the site returns a cookie number.This cookie number is stored on the user’s host and is managed by the browser.During each subsequent visit (and purchase), the browser sends the cookie number back to the site. Thus the site knows when this user (more precisely, this browser) is visiting the site.9. (Q15) Suppose Alice, with a Web-basede-mail account (such as Hotmail or gmail), sends a message to Bob, who accesses his mail from his mail server using POP3.Discuss how the message gets from Alice’s host t o Bob’s host. Be sure to list theseries of application-layer protocols that are used to move the message between the two hosts.Answer: Message is sent from Alice’s host to her mail server over HTTP. Alice’s mail server then sends the message to Bob’s mail server over SMTP. Bob then transfers the message from his mail server to his host over POP3.10. (Q10) Recall that TCP can be enhancedwith SSL to provide process-to-process security services, including encryption.Does SSL operate at the transport layer or the application layer? If the application developer wants TCP to be enhanced with SSL, what does the developer have to do?Answer: SSL operates at the application layer. The SSL socket takes unencrypteddata from the application layer, encrypts it and then passes it to the TCP socket. If the application developer wants TCP to be enhanced with SSL, she has to include the SSL code in the application.11. (Q16) Print out the header of an e-mailmessage you have recently received. How many Received: header lines are there?Analyze each of the header lines in the message.Answer: from 65.54.246.203 (EHLO ) Received：(65.54.246.203) bywith SMTP; Sat, 19 May 200716:53:51 -0700from ([65.55.135.106]) by Received: with MicrosoftSMTPSVC(6.0.3790.2668); Sat, 19 May 2007 16:52:42 -0700Received: from mail pickup service by with MicrosoftSMTPSVC; Sat,19 May 200716:52:41 -0700Message-ID:<BAY130-F26D9E35BF59E0D18A819AFB9310@p hx.gbl>Received: from 65.55.135.123 byby130fd.bay130.hotmail.msn.com with HTTP; Sat, 19 May 200723:52:36 GMTFrom: "prithula dhungel"<prithuladhungel@>To: prithula@Bcc:Subject: Test mailDate: Sat, 19 May 2007 23:52:36 +0000Mime-Version:1.0Content-Type: Text/html; format=flowedReturn-Path: prithuladhungel@Figure: A sample mail message headerReceived: This header field indicates the sequence in which the SMTP servers send and receive the mail message including the respective timestamps.In this example there are 4 “Received:”header lines. This means the mail message passed through 5 different SMTP servers before being delivered to the receiver’s mail box. The last (forth) “Received:” header indicates the mail message flow from the SMTP server of the sender to the second SMTP server in the chain of servers. The sender’s SMTP server is at address 65.55.135.123 and the second SMTP server in the chain is . The third “Received:” header indicates the mail message flow from the second SMTPserver in the chain to the third server, and so on.Finally, the first “Received:” he ader indicates the flow of the mail message from the forth SMTP server to the last SMTP server (i.e. the receiver’s mail server) in the chain.Message-id: The message has been given this numberBAY130-F26D9E35BF59E0D18A819AFB9310@ph x.gbl(by. Message-id is a unique string assigned by the mail system when the message is first created.From: This indicates the email address of the sender of the mail. In the given example, the sender is prithuladhungel@To: This field indicates the email address of the receiver of the mail. In the example, the receiver is prithula@Subject: This gives the subject of the mail (if any specified by the sender). In the example, the subject specified by the sender is “Test mail”Date: The date and time when the mail was sent by the sender. In the example, the sender sent the mail on 19th May 2007, at time 23:52:36 GMT.Mime-version: MIME version used for the mail. In the example, it is 1.0.Content-type: The type of content in the body of the mail message. In the example, it is “text/html”.Return-Path: This specifies the emailaddress to which the mail will be sent if thereceiver of this mail wants to reply to the sender. This is also used by the sender’s mail server for bouncing back undeliverable mail messages of mailer-daemonerror messages. In the example, the return path is“prithuladhungel@”.12. (Q18) Is it possible for anorganization’s Web server and mail server to have exactly the same alias fora hostname (for example, )? Whatwould be the type for the RR that contains the hostname of the mail server?Answer: Yes an organization’s mail server and Web server can have the same alias for a host name. The MX record is used to map the mail server’s host name to its IP address.13. (Q19) Why is it said that FTP sends control information “out-of-band”?Answer: FTP uses two parallel TCP connections, one connection for sending control information (such as a request to transfer a file) and another connection for actually transferring the file. Because the control information is not sent over the same connection that the file is sent over, FTP sends control information out of band.14. (P6) Consider an HTTP client that wantsto retrieve a Web document at a given URL.The IP address of the HTTP server is initially unknown. What transport and application-layer protocols besides HTTP are needed in this scenario?Answer:Application layer protocols: DNS and HTTPTransport layer protocols: UDP for DNS;TCP for HTTP15. (P9) Consider Figure2.12, for whichthere is an institutional network connected to the Internet. Suppose that the average object size is 900,000 bits and that the average request rate from the institution’s browsers to the origin servers is 10 requests per second.Also suppose that the amount of time it takes from when the router on the Internet side of the access link forwards an HTTP request until it receives the response is two seconds on average (see Section 2.2.5). Model the total average response times as the sum of the averageaccess delay (that is, the delay from Internet router to institution router) and the average Internet delay. For the average access delay, use △/(1-△β), where △ is the average time required to send an object over the access link and β is the arrival rate of objects to the access link.a. Find the total average response time.b. Now suppose a cache is installed in theinstitutional LAN. Suppose the hit rate is 0.6. Find the total response time.Answer:a.T he time to transmit an object of sizeL over a link or rate R is L/R. The average time is the average size of the object divided by R:Δ= (900,000 bits)/(1,500,000 bits/sec) = 0.6 secThe traffic intensity on the link is (1.5requests/sec)(0.6 sec/request) = 0.9. Thus, the average access delay is (0.6 sec)/(1 - 0.9) = 6 seconds. The total average response time is therefore 6 sec + 2 sec = 8 sec.b.T he traffic intensity on the access linkis reduced by 40% since the 40% of the requests are satisfied within the institutional network. Thus the average access delay is (0.6 sec)/[1 –(0.6)(0.9)] = 1.2 seconds. The responsetime is approximately zero if the request is satisfied by the cache (which happens with probability 0.4); the average response time is 1.2 sec + 2 sec = 3.2 sec for cache misses (which happens 60% of the time). So the average response time is (0.4)(0 sec) +(0.6)(3.2 sec) = 1.92 seconds. Thus theaverage response time is reduced from 8 sec to 1.92 sec.10 100 1000200 Kbps 10240 51200 512000u 600 Kbps 10240 51200 512000 1Mbps 10240 51200 512000Peer to Peer:N10 100 1000200 Kbps 10240 25904.3 47559.33 U 600 Kbps 10240 13029.6 16899.641 Mbps 10240 10240 10240。

高三英语学术文章单选题50题1. In the scientific research paper, the term "hypothesis" is closest in meaning to _.A. theoryB. experimentC. conclusionD. assumption答案：D。

解析：“hypothesis”的意思是假设，假定。

“assumption”也表示假定，假设，在学术语境中，当提出一个假设来进行研究时，这两个词意思相近。

“theory”指理论，是经过大量研究和论证后的成果；“experiment”是实验，是验证假设或理论的手段；“conclusion”是结论，是研究之后得出的结果，所以选D。

2. The historical article mentioned "feudal system", which refers to _.A. democratic systemB. hierarchical social systemC. capitalist systemD. modern political system答案：B。

解析：“feudal system”是封建制度，它是一种等级森严的社会制度。

“democratic system”是民主制度；“capitalist system”是资本主义制度；“modern political system”是现代政治制度，与封建制度完全不同概念，所以选B。

3. In a literary review, "metaphor" is a figure of speech that _.A. gives human qualities to non - human thingsB. compares two different things without using "like" or "as"C. uses exaggeration to emphasize a pointD. repeats the same sound at the beginning of words答案：B。

Arbitrage,State Prices and Portfolio Theory Handbook of the Economics of FinancePhilip Dybvig Washington University in Saint Louis Stephen A.RossMITFirst draft:September,2001 This draft:September19,2002AbstractNeoclassicalfinancial models provide the foundation for our understanding of finance.This chapter introduces the main ideas of neoclassicalfinance in a single-period context that avoids the technical difficulties of continuous-time models,but preserves the principal intuitions of the subject.The starting point of the analysis is the formulation of standard portfolio choice problems.A central conceptual result is the Fundamental Theorem of Asset Pricing,which asserts the equivalence of absence of arbitrage,the existence of a positive linear pricing rule,and the existence of an optimum for some agent who prefers more to less.A related conceptual result is the Pricing Rule Representation Theorem, which asserts that a positive linear pricing rule can be represented as using state prices,risk-neutral expectations,or a state-price density.Different equivalent rep-resentations are useful in different contexts.Many applied results can be derived from thefirst-order conditions of the portfolio choice problem.Thefirst-order conditions say that marginal utility in each state is proportional to a consistent state-price density,where the constant of proportion-ality is determined by the budget constaint.If markets are complete,the implicit state-price density is uniquely determined by investment opportunities and must be the same as viewed by all agents,thus simplifying the choice problem.Solv-ingfirst-order conditions for quantities gives us optimal portfolio choice,solving them for prices gives us asset pricing models,solving them for utilities gives us preferences,and solving them for for probabilities gives us beliefs.We look at two popular asset pricing models,the CAPM and the APT,as well as complete-markets pricing.In the case of the CAPM,thefirst-order conditions link nicely to the traditional measures of portfolio performance.Further conceptual results include aggregation and mutual fund separation theory, both of which are useful for understanding equilibrium and asset pricing.The modern quantitative approach tofinance has its original roots in neoclassicaleconomics.Neoclassical economics studies an idealized world in which marketswork smoothly without impediments such as transaction costs,taxes,asymme-try of information,or indivisibilities.This chapter considers what we learn fromsingle-period neoclassical models infinance.While dynamic models are becom-ing more and more common,single-period models contain a surprisingly largeamount of the intuition and intellectual content of modernfinance,and are alsocommonly used by investment practitioners for the construction of optimal port-folios and communication of investment results.Focusing on a single period isalso consistent with an important theme.While general equilibrium theory seeksgreat generality and abstraction,finance has work to be done and seeks specificmodels with strong assumptions and definite implications that can be tested andimplemented in practice.1Portfolio ProblemsIn our analysis,there are two points of time,0and1,with an interval of time inbetween during which nothing happens.At time zero,our champion(the agent)is making decisions that will affect the allocation of consumption between non-random consumption,c0,at time0,and random consumption cωacross statesω12Ωrevealed at time1.At time0and in each state at time1,there is a single consumption good,and therefore consumption at time0or in a state attime1is a real number.This abstraction of a single good is obviously not“true”in any literal sense,but this is not a problem,and indeed any useful theoreticalmodel is much simpler than reality.The abstraction does,however face us withthe question of how to interpret our simple model(in this case with a single good)in a practical context that is more complex(has multiple goods).In using a single-good model,there are two usual practices:either use nominal values and measureconsumption in dollars,or use real values and measure consumption in inflation-adjusted dollars.Depending on the context,one or the other can make the mostsense.In this article,we will normally think of the consumption units as beingthe numeraire,so that“cashflows”or“claims to consumption”have the samemeaning.Following the usual practice from general equilibrium theory of thinking of units2of consumption at various times and in different states of nature as different goods, a typical consumption vector is C c0c1cΩ,where the real number c0de-notes consumption of the single good at time zero,and the vector c c1cΩof real numbers c1cΩdenotes random consumption of the single good in each state1Ωat time1.If this were a typical exercise in general equilibrium theory,we would have a price vector for consumption across goods.For example,we might have the following choice problem,which is named after two great pioneers of general equilibrium theory,Kenneth Arrow and Gerard Debreu:Problem1Arrow-Debreu ProblemChoose consumptions C c0c1cΩtomaximize utility of consumption U C subject tothe budget constraintc0Ω∑ω1pωcωW(1)Here,U is the utility function that represents preferences,p is the price vector, and W is wealth,which might be replaced by the market value of an endowment. We are taking consumption at time0to be the numeraire,and pωis the price of the Arrow-Debreu security which is a claim to one unit of consumption at time1 in stateω.Thefirst-order condition for Problem1is the existence of a positive Lagrangian multiplierλ(the marginal utility of wealth)such that U0c0λ,and for allω1Ω,UωcωλpωThis is the usual result from neoclassical economics that the gradient of the util-ity function is proportional to prices.Specializing to the leading case infinance of time-separable von Neumann-Morgenstern preferences,named after John von Neumann and Oscar Morgenstern,two great pioneers of utility theory,we have that U C v c0∑Ωω1πωu cω.We will take v and u to be differentiable, strictly increasing(more is preferred to less),and strictly concave(risk averse).3Here,πωis the probability of stateω.In this case,thefirst-order condition is the existence ofλsuch that(2)v c0λand for allω12n,(3)πωu cωλpωor equivalently(4)u cωλρωwhereρωpωπωis the state-price density(also called the stochastic discount factor or pricing kernel),which is a measure of priced relative scarcity in state of natureω.Therefore,the marginal utility of consumption in a state is pro-portional to the relative scarcity.There is a solution if the problem is feasible, prices and probabilities are positive,the von Neumann-Morgenstern utility func-tion is increasing and strictly concave,and there is satisfied the Inada condition lim c∞u c0.1There are different motivations of von Neumann-Morgenstern preferences in the literature and the probabilities may be objective or subjective. What is important for us that the von Neumann-Morgenstern utility function rep-resents preferences in the sense that expected utility is higher for more preferred consumption patterns.2Using von Neumann-Morganstern preferences has been popular in part because of axiomatic derivations of the theory(see,for example,Herstein and Milnor [1953]or Luce and Raiffa[1957],chapter2).There is also a large literature on alternatives and extensions to von Neumann-Morgenstern preferences.Forsingle-period models,see Knight[1921],Bewley[1988],Machina[1982],Blume, Brandenburger,and Dekel[1991],and Fishburn[1988].There is an even richer set of models in multiple periods,for example,time-separable von Neumann-Morgenstern(the traditional standard),habit formation(e.g.Duesenberry[1949], Pollak[1970],Abel[1990],Constantinides[1991],and Dybvig[1995]),local substitutability over time(Hindy and Huang[1992]),interpersonal dependence (Duesenberry[1949]and Abel[1990]),preference for resolution of uncertainty (Kreps and Porteus[1978]),time preference dependent on consumption(Bergman [1985]),and general recursive utility(Epstein and Zin[1989]).Recently,there have also been some attempts to revive the age-old idea of study-ingfinancial situations using psychological theories(like prospect theory,Kahne-man and Tversky[1979]).Unfortunately,these models do not translate well to financial markets.For example,in prospect theory framing matters,that is,the observed phenomenon of an agent making different decisions when facing identi-cal decision problems described differently.However,this is an alien concept for financial economists and when they proxy for it in models they substitute some-thing more familiar(for example,some history dependence as in Barberis,Huang, and Santos[2001]).Another problem with the psychological theories is that they tend to be isolated stories rather than a general specification,and they are often hard to generalize.For example,prospect theory says that agents put extra weight on very unlikely outcomes,but it is not at all clear what this means in a model with a continuum of states.This literature also has problems with using ex post explanations(positive correlations of returns are underreaction and negative cor-relations are overreactions)and a lack of clarity of how much is going on that cannot be explained by traditional models(and much of it can).In actualfinancial markets,Arrow-Debreu securities do not trade directly,even if they can be constructed indirectly using a portfolio of securities.A security is characterized by its cashflows.This description would not be adequate for analysis of taxes,since different sources of cashflow might have very different tax treatment,but we are looking at models without taxes.For an asset like a common stock or a bond,the cashflow might be negative at time0,from payment of the price,and positive or zero in each state at time1,the positive amount coming from any repayment of principal,dividends,coupons,or proceeds from sale of the asset.For a futures contract,the cashflow would be0at time0,and the cashflow in different states at time1could be positive,negative,or zero, depending on news about the value of the underlying commodity.In general,we5think of the negative of the initial cashflow as the price of a security.We denote by P P1P N the vector of prices of the N securities1N,and we denote by X the payoff matrix.We have that P n is the price we pay for one unit of security n and Xωn is the payoff per unit of security n at time1in the single state of nature ω.With the choice of a portfolio of assets,our choice problem might becomeProblem2First Portfolio Choice ProblemChoose portfolio holdingsΘΘ1Θn and consumptions C c0cΩto maximize utility of consumption U C subject toportfolio payoffs c c1cωXΘandbudget constraint c0PΘW.Here,Θis the vector of portfolio weights.Time0consumption is the numeraire, and wealth W is now chosen in time0consumption units and the entire endow-ment is received at time0.In the budget constraint,the term PΘis the cost of the portfolio holding,which is the sum across securities n of the price P n times the number of shares or other unitΘn.The matrix product XΘsays that the consump-tion in stateωis cω∑n XωnΘn,i.e.the sum across securities n of the payoff Xωn of security n in stateω,times the number of shares or other unitsΘn of security n our champion is holding.Thefirst-order condition for Problem2is the existence of a vector of shadow prices p and a Lagrangian multiplierλsuch that(5)πωu cωλpωwhere(6)P pXThefirst equation is the same as in the Arrow-Debreu model,with an implicit shadow price vector in place of the given Arrow-Debreu prices.The second equa-tion is a pricing equation that says the prices of all assets must be consistent with6the shadow prices of the states.For the Arrow-Debreu model itself,the state-space tableau X is I,the identity matrix,and the price vector P is p,the vector of Arrow-Debreu state prices.For the Arrow-Debreu model,the pricing equation determines the shadow prices as equal to the state prices.Even if the assets are not the Arrow-Debreu securities,Problem2may be essen-tially equivalent to the Arrow-Debreu model in Problem1.In economic terms, the important feature of the Arrow-Debreu problem is that all payoff patterns are spanned,i.e.,each potential payoff pattern can be generated at some price by some portolio of assets.Linear algebra tells us that all payoff patterns can be generated if the payoff matrix X has full row rank.If X has full row rank,p is determined(or over-determined)by(6).If p is uniquely determined by the pricing equation(and therefore also all Arrow-Debreu assets can be purchased as portfolios of assets in the economy),we say that markets are complete,and for all practical purposes we are in an Arrow-Debreu world.For the choice problem to have a solution for any agent who prefers more to less, we also need for the price of each payoff pattern to be unique(the“law of one price”)and positive,or else there would be arbitrage(i.e.,a“money pump”or a “free lunch”).If there is no arbitrage,then there is at least one vector of positive state prices p solving the pricing equation(6).There is an arbitrage if the vector of state prices is overdetermined or if all consistent vectors of state prices assign a negative or zero price to some state.The notion of absence of arbitrage is a central concept infinance,and we develop its implications more fully in the section on preference-free results.So far,we have been stating portfolio problems in prices and quantities,as we would in general equilibrium theory.However,it is also common to describe assets in terms of rates of return,which are relative price changes(often expressed as percentages).The return to security n,which is the relative change in total value (including any dividends,splits,warrant issues,coupons,stock issues,and the like as well as change in the price).There is not an absolute standard of what is meant by return,in different contexts this can be the rate of rate of return,one plus the rate of return,or the difference between two rates of return.It is necessary to figure which is intended by asking or from ing the notation above,the rate of return in stateωis rωn=Xωn P n P n.3Often,consumption at the outsetis suppressed,and we specialize to von Neumann-Morgenstern expected utility. In this case,we have the following common form of portfolio problem. Problem3Portfolio Problem using ReturnsChoose portfolio proportionsθθ1θn and consumptions c c1cΩtomaximize expected utility of consumption∑Ωω1πθu cωsubject tothe consumption equation c Wθ1r and the budget constraintθ11.Here,ππ1πΩis a vector of state probabilities,u is the von Neumann-Morgenstern utility function,and1is a vector of1’s.The dimensionality of1is determined implicitly from the context,here the dimensionality is the number of assets.Thefirst-order condition for an optimum is the existence of shadow state price density vectorρand shadow marginal utility of wealthλsuch that(7)u cωλρωand(8)1E1rρThese equations say that the state-price density is consistent with the marginal valuation by the agent and with pricing in the market.As ourfinal typical problem,let us consider a mean-variance optimization.This optimization is predicated on the assumption that investors care only about mean and variance(typically preferring more mean and less variance),so we have a utility function V m v in mean m and variance v.For this problem,suppose there is a risk-free asset paying a return r(although the market-level implications of mean-variance analysis can also be derived in a general model without a riskyasset).In this case,portfolio proportions in the risky assets are unconstrained (need not sum to1)because the slack can be taken up by the risk-free asset.We denote byµthe vector of mean risky asset returns and byσthe covariance matrix of risky returns.Then our champion solves the following choice problem. Problem4Mean-variance optimizationChoose portfolio proportionsθθ1θn tomaximize the mean-variance utility function V rµr1θθΣθ.Thefirst-order condition for the problem is(9)µr1λΣθwhereλis twice the marginal rate of substitution V v m v V m m v,evaluated at m rµr1θand vθΣθ,whereθis the optimal choice of portfolio pro-portions.Thefirst-order condition(9)says that mean excess return for each asset is proportional to the marginal contribution of volatility to the agent’s optimal portfolio.We have seen a few of the typical types of portfolio problem.There are a lot of variations.The problem might be stated in terms of excess returns(rate of return less a risk-free rate)or total return(one plus the rate of return).Or,we might constrain portfolio holdings to be positive(no short sales)or we might require consumption to be nonnegative(limited liability).Many other variations adapt the basic portfolio problem to handle institutional features not present in a neoclassical formulation,such as transaction costs,bid-ask spreads,or taxes. These extensions are very interesting,but beyond the scope of what we are doing here,which is to explore the neoclassical foundations.2Absence of Arbitrage and Preference-free ResultsBefore considering specific solutions and applications,let us consider some gen-eral results that are useful for thinking about portfolio choice.These results are9preference-free in the sense that they do not depend on any specific assumptions about preferences but only depend on an assumption that agents prefer more to less.Central to this section is the notion of an arbitrage,which is a“money pump”or a“free lunch”.If there is arbitrage,linearity of the neoclassical problem im-plies that any candidate optimum can be dominated by adding the arbitrage.As a result,no agent who prefers more to less would have an optimum if there ex-ists arbitrage.Furthermore,this seemingly weak assumption is enough to obtain two useful theorems.The Fundamental Theorem of Asset Pricing says that the following are equivalent:absence of arbitrage,existence of a consistent positive linear pricing rule,and existence of an optimum for some hypothetical agent who prefers more to less.The Pricing Rule Representation Theorem gives different equivalent forms for the consistent positive linear pricing rule,using state prices, risk-neutral probabilites(martingale valuation),state-price density(or stochastic discount factor or pricing kernel),or an abstract positive linear operator.The re-sults in this section are from Cox and Ross[1975],Ross[1976c,1978b],and Dybvig and Ross[1987].The results have been formalized in continuous time by Harrison and Kreps[1979]and Harrison and Pliska[1981].Occasionally,the theorems in this section can be applied directly to obtain an in-teresting result.For example,linearity of the pricing rule is enough to derive put-call parity without constructing the arbitrage.More often,the results in this sec-tion help to answer conceptual questions.For example,an option pricing formula that is derived using absence of arbitrage is always consistent with equilibrium, as can be seen from the Fundamental Theorem.By the Fundamental Theorem, absence of arbitrage implies there is an optimum for some hypothetical agent who prefers more to less;we can therefore construct an equilibrium in the single-agent pure exchange economy in which this agent is endowed with the optimal holding. By construction the equilibrium in this economy will have the desired pricing,and therefore any no-arbitrage pricing result is consistent with some equilibrium.In this section,we will work in the context of Problem2.An arbitrage is a change in the portfolio that makes all agents who prefer more to less better off.We make all such agents better off if we increase consumption sometime,and in some state of nature,and we never decrease consumption.By combining the two constraints in Problem2,we can write the consumption C associated with any portfolio choice10Θusing the stacked matrix equationC WPXΘThefirst row,W PΘ,is consumption at time0,which is wealth W less the cost of our portfolio.The remaining rows,XΘ,give the random consumption across states at time1.Now,when we move from the portfolio choiceΘto the portfolio choiceΘη, the initial wealth term cancels and the change in consumption can now be writtenas∆CPXηThis will be an arbitrage it∆C is never negative and is positive in at least one component,which we will write as4∆C0orPXη0Some authors describe taxonomies of different types of arbitrage,having perhaps a negative price today and zero payoff tomorrow,a zero price today and a non-negative but not identically zero payoff tomorrow,or a negative price today and a positive payoff tomorrow.These are all examples of arbitrages that are sub-sumed by our general formula.The important thing is that there is an increase in consumption in some state of nature at some point of time and there is never any decrease in consumption.Fundamental Theorem of Asset PricingTheorem1Fundamental Theorem of Asset Pricing The following conditions on prices P and payoffs X are equivalent:i Absence of arbitrage:ηP Xη0.ii Existence of a consistent positive linear pricing rule(positive state prices): p0P p X.iii Some agent with strictly increasing preferences U has an optimum in Prob-lem2.P ROOF We prove the equivalence by showing i ii,ii iii,and iii i.i ii:This is the most subtle part,and it follows from a separation theorem or the duality theorem from linear programming.From the definition of absence of arbitrage,we have that the setsS1PXηηℜnandS2xℜΩ1x0must be disjoint.Therefore,there is a separating hyperplane z such that z x0for all x S1and z x0for all x S2.(See...,theorem...)Normalizing so that the first component(the shadow price of time zero consumption)is1,we will see that p defined by1p z z0is the consistent linear pricing rule we seek.Constancy of zx for x S1implies that1p P X0,which is to say that P p X,i.e. p is a consistent linear pricing rule.Furthermore,z x positive for x S2implies z0and consequently p0,and p is indeed the desired consistent positive linear pricing rule.ii iii:This part is proven by construction.Let U C1p C,thenΘ0 solves Problem2.To see this,note that the objective function U C is constant and equal to W for allΘ:U C1p C1p WPXΘW P p XΘW12(The motivation this construction is observation that the existence of the consistent linear pricing rule with state prices p implies that all feasible consumptions satisfy 1p C W.)iii i:This part is obvious,since any candidate optimum is dominated by adding the arbitrage,and therefore there can be no arbitrage if there is an optimum. More formally,adding an arbitrage implies the change of consumption∆C0, which implies an increase in U C.Pricing Rule Representation TheoremDepending on the context,there are different useful ways of representing the pric-ing rule.For some abstract applications(like proving put-call parity),it is easiestto use a general abstract representation as a linear operator L c such that c0 L c0.For asset pricing applications,it is often useful to use either the thestate-price representation we used in the Fundamental Theorem,L c∑ωpωcω,or risk-neutral probabilities,L c1r1E cω1r1∑ωπωcω.The intuition behind the risk-neutral representation(or martingale representation5)is that the price is the expected discounted value computed using a shadow risk-free rate(equal to the actual risk-free rate if there is one)and artificial risk-neutral probabilitiesπthat assign positive probability to the same states as do the true probabilities.Risk-neutral pricing says that all investments are fair gambles once we have adjusted for time preference by discounting and for risk preference by adjusting the probabilities.Thefinal representation using the state-price density (or stochastic discount factor)ρto write L c Eρωcω∑ωπωρωcω.The state price density simplifiesfirst-order conditions of portfolio choice problems because the state-price density measures priced scarcity of consumption.The state-price density is also handy for continuous-state models in which individual states have zero state probabilities and state prices but there exists a well-defined positive ratio of the two.Theorem2Pricing Rule Representation Theorem The consistent positive lin-ear pricing rule can be represented equivalently usingi an abstract linear functional L c that is positive:c0L c0ii positive state prices p0:L c∑Ωω1pωcωiii positive risk-neutral probabilitiesπ0summing to1with associated shadow risk-free rate r:L c1r1E cω1r1∑ωπωcωiv positive state-price densitiesρ0:L c Eρc∑ωπωρωcω.P ROOF i ii:This is the known form of a linear operator inℜΩ.ii iii:Notefirst that the shadow risk-free rate must price the riskless asset c1:Ω∑ω1pω11r1E1which implies(since E11)that r1p1 1.Then,matching coefficients inΩ∑ω1pωcω1r1∑ωπωcωwe have thatπp1p,which sums to1as required and inherits positivity from p.iii iv:Simply letρω1r1πω(which is the same as pωπω).iv i:immediate.time s of receiving subsequent cashflows c s1,c s2...c t is given by t∑τs1E sρτ1r s1r s11rτ(11)Note that unless the riskfree rate is nonrandom,we cannot take the discount fac-tors out of the expectation.6This is because of the way that the law of iterated expectations works.For example,consider the value V0at time0of the cashflow in time2.V01r11E0V1(12)1r11E01r21E1c21r11E01r21c2Now,1r11is outside the expectation(as could be1r s11in(11)),but 1r21cannot come outside the expectation unless it is nonrandom.7So,it is best to remember that when interest rates are stochastic,discounting for risk-neutral valuation should use the rolled-over spot rate,within the expectation.3Various Analyses:Arrow-Debreu WorldThe portfolio problem is the starting point of a lot of types of analysis infinance. Here are some implications that can be drawn from portfolio problems(usually through thefirst-order conditions):optimal portfolio choice(asset allocation or stock selection)portfolio efficiencyaggregation and market-level implicationsasset pricing and performance measurementpayoff distribution pricingrecovery or estimation of preferencesinference of expectationsWe can think of many of these distinctions as a question of what we are solving for when we look at thefirst-order conditions.In optimal portfolio choice and its aggregation,we are solving for the portfolio choice given the preferences and be-liefs about returns.In asset pricing,we are computing the prices(or restrictions on expected returns)given preferences,beliefs about payoffs,and the optimal choice (which is itself often derived using an aggregation result).In recovery,we derive preferences from beliefs and idealized observations about portfolio choice,e.g.at all wealth levels.Estimation of preferences is similar,but works with noisy obser-vations of demand at afinite set of data points and uses a restriction in the func-tional form or smoothing in the statistical procedure to identify preferences.And, inference of expectations derives probability beliefs from preferences,prices,and the(observed)optimal demand.In this section,we illustrate the various analyses in the case of an Arrow-Debreu world.Analysis of the complete-markets model has been developed by many people over a period of time.Some of the more important works include some of the origi-nal work on competitive equilibrium such as Arrow and Debreu[1954],Debreu17。

语言学辽宁慕课习题整理chapter1-7Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1introduction to linguistics选择题1、Which of the following statements is NOT true?A Language consists of the systems of sounds and grammar.B Language is instrumental.C Language is social and conventional.D Language is a system of symbols.2、The scope of linguistic study may be generally divided into ______________.A interlinguistic study and extralinguistic studyB sociolinguistics and psycholinguisticsC descriptive linguistics and prescriptive linguisticsD phonetics and phonology3、Saussure made the distinction between _______________.A Langue and paroleB theoretical linguistics and applied linguisticsC comparative linguistics and historical linguisticsD competence and performance4、Chomsky made the distinction between _______________.A diachronic linguistics and synchronic linguisticsB Langue and paroleC competence and performanceD comparative linguistics and historical linguistics5、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___________.A prescriptiveB descriptiveC sociolinguisticD psycholinguistic判断题6、Language consists of the systems of sounds and grammar.7、The actual production and comprehension of the speech by speakers of a language is called performance.8、English is an intonation language.9、The fact that children can speak before they can read or write shows that language is arbitrary.10、According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.答案：AAACB X√√X√2design features of language选择题1、Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature of language?A DualityB ConventionC DisplacementD Arbitrariness.2、“I can refer to Confucius even though he died 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of __________.A dualityB creativityC arbitrarinessD displacement3、The design feature of __________ refers to the property ofhaving two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.A arbitrarinessB creativityC displacementD duality4、One of the properties of language is that a language user can understand and produce sentences he/she has never heard before. This property of language is called ________.A productivityB dualityC displacementD arbitrariness5、In broad terms, linguists agree to define language as a system of ____vocal symbols used for human communication.A arbitraryB conventionalC motivatedD dual答案：BDDAA3origins of language选择题1、There are some well-known theories about the origin of language, the natural response theory, also called .A the sing-song theoryB the pooh-pooh theoryC the Ding-Dong theoryD the yo-he-ho theory2、Ding-Dong theory is put forward by German scholar .A M. MULLerB HallidayC SaussureD Malinowski3、holds that language develops from primitive ritual songs of praise.A the yo-he-ho theoryB The sing-song theoryC the pooh-pooh theoryD the Ding-Dong theory4、holds that language originated from people’s imitations of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.A The bow-wow theoryB the pooh-pooh theoryC the yo-he-ho theoryD the Ding-Dong theory判断题5、The bow-wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.6、Now linguists have known the specific origin of language.7、The yo-he-ho theory explains that language originated from the cries uttered during strain of work.答案：CABA √X√4functions of language选择题1、When people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the ____________function of language.A creativeB phaticC emotiveD metalingual2、The social functions of language do NOT include_______________.A interrogative functionB phatic functionC metacognitive functionD informative function3、Which of the following is NOT a metafunction of language proposed by Halliday?A IdeationalB ConventionalC InterpersonalD Textual4、The social functions of language do NOT include_______________.A interrogative functionB informative functionC metacognitive functionD phatic function5、The ______ function refers to the fact that language can be used for establishing a favorable atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.A phaticB evocativeC directiveD performative判断题6、“Language operates by rules” is a fu ndamental view about language.7、When people use language to indulge in itself for its ownsake, people are using the creative function of language.8、According to Halliday’s theory of metafunctions of language, interpersonal function enacts social relationship.9、According to Halliday, a theory of metafunctions of language, that is , language has ideational, interpersonal and textual function.10、When people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the poetic function of language.答案：CCBCA √X√√√Chapter 1 主观题1、名词解释：Diachronic linguisticsDiachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.2、名词解释：Synchronic linguisticsA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation.3、名词解释：PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. Most problems in psycholinguistics are more concrete, involving the study of language acquisition especially in children and linguistic performance such as producing and comprehending utterances or sentences among adults.4、名词解释：DualityBy Duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements and units.Besides, the language is hierarchical.5、名词解释：DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. In a word, the intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.6、Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning? Why or why not?No matter whether you say “Yes” or “No”, you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needsarbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. In order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like “murmurous” and “murderous”. They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but “murmurous” is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while “murderous” is chose n to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.（参考答案）No, I don't think so. There exists the arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. Also, in English, totally different words are used to describe the sound. In fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time. For example, Widdowson cites a line from Keats' Ode to a Nightingale to illustrate. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves. To test this, just think of using the similar sounding word murderous to substitute murmurous, and no connectionwhatsover will be established between the sounds and the little noises of the flying flies. "It's only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate." （我的答案）7、Illustrate the origins of language you have known.The sing-song theory: it holds that language develops from primitive ritual songs of praise.The Ding-Dong theory: the natural response theory postulates that language began with vocal expressions being assigned to objects found in the environment.The pooh-pooh theory: the theory traces language back to interjections which expresses the speakers’ emotions.The yo-he-ho theory: it explains that language originated form the cries uttered during strain of work.The bow-wow theory: it holds that language originated from people’s imitations of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.Ta-Ta theory: it believes that body movement preceded language. language began as an unconscious vocal imitation of these movements.8、Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Chapter 2 Phonetics5phonetics选择题1、Pair ___________ doesn’t form a minimal pair.A cat and actB tip and dipC gap and capD pat and pad2、The study of the production of speech sounds is closely connected with ____________.A articulatory phoneticsB auditory phoneticsC acoustic phoneticsD arbitrary phonetics3、The study of the physical properties of speech sounds is closely connected with ____________.A acoustic phoneticsB articulatory phoneticsC auditory phoneticsD arbitrary phonetics4、The study of the perception of speech sounds is closely connected with .A acoustic phoneticsB articulatory phoneticsC auditory phoneticsD arbitrary phonetics5、Pair ________is not in complementary distribution.A spot and potB stop and topC light and gladD school and cool判断题1、A single phoneme always represents a single morpheme.2、When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiced.3、Cave and shave forms a minimal pair.4、Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.5、The tongue is divided into five parts: the tip, the blade, the front, the back and the root.主观题1、Please describe what is phoneme.The speech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning are phonemes. (A phoneme is the minimal or smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language.)2、Please describe what is complementary distribution.The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.答案：AAACC ××√√√6English Consonan t选择题1、The classification and description of English consonants are based on ___________________.A narrow and broad transcriptionB the shape of vocal tractC the place and manner of articulationD the position of the tongue2、According to the manner of articulation, [m] is a ___________.A nasalB plosiveC bilabialD lateral3、In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t], [n], [z] share the feature of ____________.A alveolarB velarC palatalD bilabial4、Which of the following sounds is a bilabial?A [ t ]B [ b ]C [ g ]D [ d ]5、Which of the following sounds is an alveolar?A [ d ]B [ m ]C [ g ]D [ b ]判断题1、The difference between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of the airstream.2、According to the manner of articulation, [s] is a fricative.3、English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.4、According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.5、/d/ is a voiced alveolar stop.主观题Please describe what are consonants.Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of the air in the oral cavity.答案：CAABA √√××√7English Vowels1、The classification and description of English vowels are based on ___________________.A the position of the tongueB the shape of the lipsC the shape of vocal tractD all of the above2、The difference between vowels and consonants lies in ___________________.A the intonation of the soundsB the obstruction of the airstreamC the place and manner of articulationD the aspiration of the sounds3、A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A centralB frontC middleD back3、can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.A Consonant soundsB Voicing soundsC Vowel soundsD devoicing sounds主观题1、Please describe what are vowels.V owels are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the a ir can be perceived.2、What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1. V owels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2. According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semiclose vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3. According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4. The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.答案：DBBCChapter 3 Phonology8phonology选择题1、Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/are the most flexible.A lipsB tongueC mouthD vocal cords2、A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A soundB phoneC phonemeD allophone3、The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A phonesB soundsC allophonesD phonemes4、Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A in phonemic contrastB the allophonesC in complementary distributionD minimal pair5、The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A sameB identicalC exactly alikeD similar判断题1、Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.2、Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.3、The rules governing the phonological patterning arelanguage specific.4、Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.5、When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.主观题What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?1．They differ in their approach and focus.2．Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they p ossess, how they can be classified.3．Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languag e; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are use d to convey meaning in linguistic communication.答案：BCCA D √×√√×9coarticulation选择题1、When such simultaneous or overlapping articulation are involved, we call the process .A coarticulationB aspirationC nasalizationD epenthesis2、In producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the .A nasal tractB vocal foldsC vocal cordsD larynx3、The fact that the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call .A devoicingB velarizationC nasalizationD aspiration4、In coarticulation, if the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in lamb, it is known as .A perseverative coarticulationB aspirationC nasalizationD anticipatory coarticulation5、When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a .A aspirationB narrow transcriptionC nasalizationD broad transcription判断题1、In English, the distinction between aspirated [p?] and unaspirated [p] is not phonemic.2、In the word peak, /p/ is unaspirated, phonetically transcribed as [p]3、Aspiration is a distinctive feature in English.4、In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the “narrow” transcription.5、Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs donot move from one sound segment to thenext in a series of separate steps.主观题名词解释：CoarticulationCoarticulation：Simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation.答案：AACDD √×××√10suprasegmentals选择题1、Which of the following is NOT a Suprasegmental feature?A toneB intonationC syllableD stress2、In a syllable, a vowel often serves as ____________.A onsetB sequenceC peak or nucleusD coda3、The word “digitalization” consists of _______ syllables, and _________ morphemes.A six/ threeB five/ threeC six/ fourD five /five4、The word “digitalization” consists of _______ syllables, and _________ morphemes.A six/ threeB six/ fourC five /fiveD five/ three5、Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A immediate constituentsB phonetic componentsC suprasegmental featuresD semantic features主观题1、名词解释：suprasegmental featuresThe features that occur above the level of the segments and can distinguish meaning are called suprasegmental features, which include syllable structure, stress, tone and intonation.2、名词解释： intonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation.3、Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the firstelement and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2. The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, etc. are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3. English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.答案：CCCBCChapter 4 Morphology11morphology选择题1.Derivational affixes are bound morphemes added to existing form to construct new words. English derivational affixes are divided into ________and _______.A prefixes, infixesB suffixes and infixesC prefixes, suffixesD morphemes, allomorphs2.In the word “unavailability”, ______________ is the root.A unB availableC availD ability3.In today’s grammar we normally say that English does not have a “future tense”. This is because in English ________________.A the future can be expressed in many waysB the future is not expressed by morphological changeC the future is expressed by modal verbsD the future belongs to the category of “aspect”4.The morpheme “vision” in the word “television” is a(n)____________.A inflectional morphemeB bound formC free morphemeD bound morpheme5.Which of the following words is made up of bound morphemes only?A televisioB happinessC ecologyD teacher6.Morpheme is the minimal unit of meanin7.–ing is an “inflectional suffix”8.Stems in English can be classified into derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.9.The bound morpheme in “apples” is inflectional morpheme.10.Although is an open-class word.主观题11..名词解释：RootRoot: Root refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. And roots can be further classified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme.12.名词解释：AllomorphAllomorph: A morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certain phonetic forms or variants in different phonetic environments. Each of the phonetic for ms or variants is a morph. A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morph s. The different morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allom orphs of that morpheme答案：CCBCC √√×√×12word formation选择题1._________can best describe the following group of words: table--tables, influenza--flu.A Inflection and derivationB Derivation and blendingC Inflection and abbreviationD Compound and derivation2.Which of the following ways of word-formation does not change the grammatical class of the stem?A inflectionB compoundC derivationD coinage3._________can best describe the word formation rules of thefollowing group of words: to burgle (from burglar), Eurodollar (from European + dollar).A Back-formation and blendingB Inflection and derivationC Derivation and blendingD Compound and derivation4._________can best describe the following group of words: table—tables, day + break—daybreak.A Inflection and derivationB Derivation and blending.C Compound and derivation.D Inflection and compound5.__________can be best describe the following group of words: advertisement—ad, bicycle—bike.A abbreviationB compoundC derivationD coinage6.“Invention” is a form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial par t of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two w ords.7.Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding.8.Derivation does not change the grammatical class of the stem.9.Derivation can be further divided into two sub-types: the derivational type and the compositional type.10.Inflection shows a relationship between roots and affixes.主观题11.What is the distinction between inflectional affixes andderivational affixes?1.When an affix, usually a suffix in English, indicates the tense of a verb, the plurality of a counta ble noun, or the comparative/superlative degree of an adjective, it is termed as inflectional morphe me. For example, '-ed' in 'worked', '-ing' in 'studying', '-s' in 'books' or 'er' in 'shorter' and 'est' in 'lo ngest' are all inflectional morphemes. Usually, the inflectional morpheme will not change the part of speech of a word to which it is attached.2.But a derivational morpheme usually changes the part of speech of a word to which it is attached . When we attach '-al' to the word 'nation' to form 'national', the part of speech of the word 'nation', i.e. a noun, has been changed into an adjective. As we can see, the concept of derivational morphe me is related to a kind of word formation called derivation.答案：CAADA ×√×√×Chapter 5 Syntax13concept of grammar选择题1.A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mi nd of native speakers.A wrongB ungrammaticalC rightD grammatical2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A particleB prepositionC subordinatorD coordinator3. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A recursiveB grammaticalC socialD functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A All of the above.B how words and phrases form sentences.C what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsD how people produce and recognize possible sentences5. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A smallB largeC finiteD infinite判断题6.Descriptive grammar refers to grammarian’s attempt to legislate what speakers’ grammatical rules should be, rather than what they are.7.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.8.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence9.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.10.In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.答案：DBDDD XX√√√主观题1. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.①Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate (compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.For example: John reads extensively.②A coordinate sentence conta ins two clauses joined by a linking word that is calledcoordinat ing conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”.For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other.For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.14Cultural Approach选择题1. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.。

Chinese Medicine, 2010, 1, 45-48doi:10.4236/cm.2010.12009 Published Online September 2010 (/journal/cm)The Wu Xing Theory and Homeostatic Interaction ofOrgansYevgeny V. Albegov, Dmitry V. Butenko, Lyudmila N. ButenkoCAD/CAE Systems Department; Volgograd State Technical University, Volgograd, RussiaE-mail: albegov05Received June 21, 2010; revised August 9, 2010; accepted August 13, 2010AbstractIn this paper the making of homeostatic models of the bioenergetic informational acupunctural human’s sys-tem of the “Pentacube” and the “Hexagon” according to the Wu Xing rules and energy shifts dynamics is considering. The making of the meridional homeostatic model of the bioenergetic informational acupunctural human’s system based on the existing knowledges about the human body meridians is considering. Prefer-ence to choice of the homeostatic functional models of the human body organs energies interaction is sub-stantiated. The meridional control submodel of homeostatic system is defined and constructed. The descrip-tion of control submodel, perspectives of application and development are represented.Keywords:System Stability, Homeostat, Homeostatic Model, “Pentacube”, “Hexagon”, Meridional Homeo-static Model, Control Submodel, “Merkabah”1. IntroductionThe fundamental issues of any system are the problems of stability. In this paper various types of stability and models, this stability is achieved with, are considering. As a prototype, we consider how to reach stability in complex systems, which are biological organisms.For biosystems the stability issues is the problem of homeostasis [1]. As an example of this system class sta-bility, we selected the human organism and examined it based on the five-membered cycle of the Wu Xing which reflects the interaction of human organs groups.In the process of studying of organs rhythm activity of the Yin-Yang cycles, we came to the conclusion that the interaction is homeostatic in nature. Then based on this conclusion we constructed the functional homeostatic “Pentacube” model. Next, on the basis of data available to us, the sixth group of organs of the “Fire' ” element was extracted. As a result we increased the order of the system stability transforming the “Pentacube” into the “Hexagon” model.The next step of the model development was the ex-traction of regulating channels of processes and their switching centers in the homeostatic relationships. They are represented by the meridians of the human body, encephalon and spinal cord.Based on the information about the levels of the system organization processes, we have attempted to identify the implicit control structure of the meridional homeostatic system. On the basis of representation of two-dimensional discrete set of stars we have concluded that the control submodel is the “Merkabah” system.The stellated tetrahedron is an invariant of the octahe-dron, and hence, it is quite a stable structure in different coordinate systems. The “Merkabah” submodel also pro- ves the correctness of the hexagonal homeostatic model and the meridional homeostatic model: a stable system of biological type can be controlled only by a stable internal structure with the same stability level. In systems of the pentagonal type the correct stable internal model is not observed.Thus, the stability of the human body functioning can be explained in terms of homeostatic nets.2. Making of the Homeostatic Models2.1. Making of the “Pentacube”According to the Wu Xing theory, the pentagons of human organs Yang and Yin have two circular cycles. One is clockwise and stimulating in nature, the other is anticlockwise and depressive [2]. The pentagons’ sti- mulating and depressive processes can be graphically represented as a pentagram (a five-pointed star). ThisY. V. ALBEGOV ET AL. 46may be due to the interaction between two poles of homeostats. Besides, if you combine the Yin and Yang organs relating to the same element according to the Wu Xing theory, you can get a number of Yin-Yang homeostats. The homeostatic nature of this interaction is confirmed by the fact that organs interactions in these homeostats are synchronized. For example, in homeo-stat of “Metal” element (lungs—large intestine) lungs become more active from 3 till 5 in the morning, and large intestine from 5 till 7 in the morning; in homeostat of “Water” element (kidneys—urinary bladder) urinary bladder becomes more active from 15 till 17 in the af-ternoon, and kidneys from 17 till 19 in the afternoon; in homeostat of “Wood” element (liver—gall bladder) gall bladder becomes more active from 23 till 1 in the night, and liver from 1 till 3 in the night; in the homeostat of “Fire” element (small intestine—heart), the heart be-comes more active from 11 till 13 in the afternoon, and small intestine from 13 till 15 in the afternoon; in the homeostat of “Earth” element (spleen/pancreas—stom-ach) stomach becomes more active from 7 till 9 in the morning, and spleen/pancreas from 9 till 11 in the morning. So, connecting all 5 known organs of Yin and Yang horizontally and vertically, we get the homeo-static functional “Pentacube”, in the vertexes of which there are human organs, and the edges are homeostatic connections between organs (Figure 1).The direction of arrows on the figures of homeostatic models indicate “generating” (the green one) and “over-coming” (the black one) processes accepted and thor-oughly described in the Wu Xing theory.In particular, alongside with “Pentacube” model one obtains a partial fractal model of the relationships hier-archy of homeostats. At the same time, the chain of “the conglutinated” homeostats represents the homeostat of higher organizational level. The new homeostat proc-esses information in the same manner as the component homeostats do but at qualitatively superior level [3].2.2. Making of the “Hexagon”First of all, the premises for the existence of sixth groupFigure 1. Homeostatic “Pentacube” of organs were made many hundreds years ago by an-cient Chinese scholars. In parallel with the system of five Zang-Fu, they created a system of circulation of the twelve meridians (Jing-Luo), the imaginary vessel, which circulates Qi energy, usually called “vital force”. After developing the system of meridians, the ancient Chinese scholars associated each meridian with a spe-cific internal organ. Meanwhile, onto the 12 meridians only 10 of the internal organs were assigned. So, the question if two more internal organs existed arose. For the additional Zang organ, the so-called “Master of the Heart” (Xin Zhu) also known as pericardium was se-lected. Onto the place of the sixth Fu organ, the “su-per-organ” was selected. It is known as San Jiao or triple heater. This organ of Three Jiaos is involved in meta-bolic processes of the organism. Currently, one can come across the fact that in addition to five-membered ring in the Wu Xing cycle, there is another equal “member”. The “Fire” element is dual and contains 4 elements (two Zang organs and two Fu organs) in that representation. Secondly, although the element of “Fire” fills the hu-man body with vital energy, the physical-chemical me-chanism of oxidation (“internal warming”) in the “Fire” of hear t—small intestine and in the “Fire” of pericar-dium—triple heater is different.Thirdly, we turn to the stability of systems built on polygons. Hexagon has a higher symmetry axis L6 against the pentagonal L5. Structures of solids, characterized by the fifth-order axis of symmetry of the prohibited in classical crystallography, occur rarely in nature and have a prefix “quasi-”. The very nature aspires to create ob-jects of different complexity levels in the hexagonal structures. This property is manifested both at the mac-rocosm and microcosm levels.Fourthly, the interaction rhythm (by analogy with the previously described homeostats) of organs such as peri-cardium—triple heater will also be homeostatic in nature: the pericardium becomes more active from 19 to 21 in the evening, and triple heater from21 till 23 in the evening. And fifth, in a model of five-membered cycle in pathological states of excess or lack of Qi energy in the organs, logical rhythmic of activity has a probabilistic nature, and points to an extreme degree of degeneration of the pentagonal system. In the model of six-membered cycle this uncertainty states is completely eliminated. The ideas described above enable us to draw a conclu-sion that the sixth group of organs exists: triple heater— pericardium, relating to the element “Fire' ”. The proc-esses of stimulating and suppression and, accordingly, the homeostatic interactions of organs in sexangles of Yin and Yang of the homeostatic functional “Hexagon” are the same as the processes between the organs in the pentagons of “Pentacube” (Figure 2).Y. V. ALBEGOV ET AL.473. Making of the Meridional Homeostatic ModelDue to the fact, there are regulators in the compound of homeostatic bioenergetic system, then we suggest, that as channels of regulating the standard meridians are used, which have projections on the surfaces of human body. It is known, that besides 12 standard meridians, related to the definite organs of the human body, there are other subsys-tems of meridians, performing the functions of additional direct and feedback connections (“miraculous” meridians, tendinomuscular meridians, unpaired meridians, collat-erals and secondary meridians) [4]. To switching centers, transmitting control action into the unpaired posterome-dian and unpaired anteromedian pretend, to our mind, spinal cord for Yin organs and encephalon for Yang or-gans. Chief-regulator likely to represent consis- tent be-ginning of nature, pacing the works of homeostats of or-gans. Since inner homeostatic interactions between the organs in pentagon of organs are described as a five- point star (a star as a planar geometric figure is meant) and are exhaustive, so in sexangle of organs the inner homeostatic interactions will be described as a six-point star/hexagram, representing in form the projection of stellated trigonal bipyramid on the plane, and will be also exhaustive [5,6]. Consequently the conclusion can be made about the pres-ence of homeostatic connections between the homeostat of “Wood” element (liver—gall bladder) and homeostat of “Fire' ” element (pericardium—triple heater), and be-tween the homeostat of the “Fire” element (small intes-tine—heart) and the homeostat of “Earth” element (spleen/pancreas—stomach) in homeostatic “Hexagon” of the human body organs (Figure 3).The given model of interaction of human organs ener-gies represents a hierarchy meridional and homeostatic net, where the meridional net represents a tracking sys-tem with feedback connection on the wholeness of ho-meostatic net system.The preference of choosing forms of homeostatic modelsFigure 2. Homeostatic “Hexagon”.is based on “gold” polygons and polyhedrons since the structures having in its basis correct n-angles have the maximal degree of stability, information, self- organizing and a harmonicity, whether there are creations of civili-zations (the Egyptian pyramids, protective forts, calendars of ancient civilizations, the theory of “civilizing hexagon”, models of location of cities, models of classification of smells) or the very nature (structure of che- mical sub-stances (fullerenes, frame structures), of a atomic nucleus, DNA chain, a crystal lattice and nanostructures) [7]. “The golden section” and corresponding “golden” properties of edges of functional homeostatic models are based on concepts of space of variability of natural processes and homeostat (elementary homeostatic system) [8].4. Making of the Meridional Submodel “Merkabah”Proceeding from judgment that organizers and regulators of local processes in the control space of the lower level of system of correct polygons are stars (connected and not connected), it is possible to make a conclusion, that in homeostatic “Hexagon” (a polyhedron – a prism) of the meridional homeostatic system of energies interaction of human body organs such organizer-regulator of processes is a star-shaped polyhedron—Merkabah or a stellated tetrahedron.Merkabah as a member of a row of Platonic solids (oc-tahedron is an invariant to stellated trigonal bipyramid) can model dualism. Merkabah as a process is the integral stage of biosystem genesis, namely biological-energy evolution of a cell: at the third stage of the ovicell division eight cells form a stellated tetrahedron and they are ab-solutely identical to each other [7]. Static cognitive model of interaction a stellated tetrahedron reflects the basicFigure 3. Meridional homeostatic model.Y. V. ALBEGOV ET AL. 48rules of constructing of meridional biosystem and the technology of forming homeostatic connections as com-plete units. Knots in “Merkabah” system represent a brain as the switching centers of a human body. 4 knots of Yang-tetrahedron are the encephalon, and 4 knots of Yin-tetrahedron – the spinal cord. And as the switching centers encephalon and the spinal cord will be absolutely identical to character of controlling.The key rule of constructing consists of the following: the meridian represents not unidirectional structural unit (brain – body), but a contour (brain – organ – brain), or a construction of the tunnel type with "two-way traffic". The technology of formation of homeostatic units is ob-viously displayed on a stellated trigonal bipyramid: ho-meostatic couple of Yin-Yang organs is formed owing to a crossing of meridians of the corresponding Yin-Yang organs. We can notice that such approach does not con-tradict, namely proves the correctness of meridional ho-meostatic model. Having connected homeostatic couples of Yin-Yang organs by a broken line in view of their timely activity, we receive a flat figure hexanema, de-termining a timely way [9] (Figure 4).Proceeding the meridians in view of timely activity both in a stellated tetrahedron as a whole, and in Yin and Yang tetrahedrons, and consequently also a process of meridional energy circulation (signals), on the given cognitive models occurs at first clockwise, then changes its direction on counter, i.e. on an endless helix, and on a plane looks like an infinity sign.Figure 4. Meridional submodel “Merkabah”.5. ConclusionsThe system approach to the construction of functional submodel allows to observe all scope of relations of “Merkabah” elements and connections between them and to approach to understanding of dialectic “plan” of the nature in organizing and controlling the processes, to see dynamics in statics. From the point of view of the applied component of the research, the given control submodel allows to understand the essence of pathological proc-esses in a human body, as infringement of energy flow (transferring signals) in meridional system with the fur-ther disbalance of rhythms of homeostats and displace ment of homeostatic energy from optimum areas to the risky areas. The same comprehension of occurrence of disease states in turn, on the basis of knowledge of tradi-tional Chinese medicine, will lead to forming and using of algorithms of updating of biosystem and taking out from pathological conditions by methods of not classical me- dicine, but phytotherapy or acupuncture. We’d like to note that “Merkabah” as conceptual model of relations of complicated compound elements, has all preconditions to deep system complication (by all aspects of the given concept), owing to the analysis and decomposition of components.6. References[1] A. G. Teslinov, “Development of Control Systems:Methodology and Conceptual Structures,” Globus, Moscow, 1998.[2]W. Xing, 2005. /wiki/Wu_Xing[3] A. M. Stepanov, “The Fundamental Principle of theMedical Homeostatics,” MODEC, Voronezh, 1994.[4]G. Luvsan, “Traditional and Modern Aspects of OrientalAcupuncture,” Nauka, Moscow, 1991.[5]The Star (geometry), 2008. /wiki/Звезда_(геометрия)[6]The Bipyramid, 2008./wiki/Бипирамида[7] A. Stahov, A. Sluchenkova and I. Scherbakov, “The DaVinci code and Fibonacci series,” Piter, SPb, 2007.[8]Yu. M. Gorsky, A. M. Stepanov and A. G. Teslinov,“Homeostatic: Harmony in Game of Contradiction,”Reprotsentr A1, Irkutsk 1998.[9]V. Eremeev, “A Diagram of Anthropocosmos,” ASM,Moskva, 1994.。

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

Proceedings of General Topology Symposium,p.29-p.34,2002http://gt2002.h.kobe-u.ac.jp/ON THE PROPERTY“SEP”OF PARTIAL ORDERINGSSAKA´E FUCHINOAbstract.A partial ordering P has the property SEP(or SEP(P)),if,fora sufficiently large regular cardinalχ,the family of elementary submodels ofH(χ)of cardinalityℵ1with the property that[M]ℵ0∩M is cofinal subset(withrespect to⊆)of[M]ℵ0and P∩M≤σP,is cofinal(also with respect to⊆)in[H(χ)]ℵ1(see Proposition2below).We describe,in section1,againstwhich historical background this notion came to be formulated.In section2,we introduce the property SEP and some other related properties of partial or-derings P such as the weak Freese-Nation property and(ℵ1,ℵ0)-ideal propertyand review some known results around these properties.In section3we givea sketch of a proof of the theorem asserting that the combinatorial principlePrinc introduced by S.Shelah does not imply SEP of P(ω),⊆ .The following is based on author’s talk at General Topology Symposium2002 held on18–20,November2002at Kobe University,Japan.The property SEP to be introduced in section2will be the main subject of this article.But since this is going to appear in the proceedings of the general topology symposium,let us begin with a historical account explaining the connection to topology.1.Historical backgroundRemember that a zero-dimensional Hausdorffspace is also called a Boolean space —a topological space X is said to be zero-dimensional if closed and open(clopen) subsets of X constitute a topological base of X.It is well-known that there are contravariant functors between the category of Boolean algebras and the category of Boolean spaces(Stone Duality Theorem).By the duality,a Boolean algebra B is related to the space Ult(B)of all ultra-filters on B with a canonical topology and a Boolean space X is related to the Boolean algebra Clop(B)of clopen subsets of X partially ordered by⊆(see e.g.[16]).One of the most important classes of Boolean spaces is that of the generalized Cantor spacesκ2which are the product spaces ofκcopies of the discrete space 2={0,1}with their Boolean algebraic dual being free Boolean algebras F r(κ) with a free generator of sizeκ.A variety of classes of topological spaces which are more or less similar to the generalized Cantor spaces,such as dyadic spaces, Dugundji spaces andκ-metrizable spaces,have been studied extensively in the literature(see e.g.the reference of[17]and[12]).These classes of topological spaces have natural counterparts in the category of Boolean algebras via Stone Duality Theorem(see[17],[12]):2930SAKA´E FUCHINOBoolean space which is:corresponding notion in Boolean algebra κ2F r(κ)dyadic space subalgebra of a free Boolean algebraDugundji space projective Boolean algebraκ-metrizable space Boolean algebra with Freese-Nation property (also called openly generated Boolean algebra)The last line of the chart above is a result by Lutz Heindorf in[12]which can be formulated as follows:Theorem1.1.(L.Heindorf[12])A Boolean algebra B is a Boolean algebraic dual of aκ-metrizable space if and only if there is a mapping f:B→[B]<ℵ0such that (∗)For any a,b∈B,a≤b,there is c∈f(a)∩f(b)such that a≤c≤b.A Boolean algebra with an f as above is said to have the Freese-Nation prop-erty after R.Freese and B.Nation who studied this property in connection with projective lattices in[2].Soon after this result,an interesting weakening of the Freese-Nation property was formulated in[12]and[9]:a Boolean algebraB is said to have the weak Freese-Nation property(wFN)if there is a mapping f:B→[B]ℵ0 with the property(∗)as above.For a topological translation of the wFN see[12].The following is an almost trivial but very useful characterization of Boolean algebras with the wFN:Theorem1.2.(S.Fuchino,S.Koppelberg and S.Shelah[9])A Boolean algebra B has the wFN if and only if,for any sufficiently large regularκand for any M≺ H(χ),∈ with B∈M and|M|=ℵ1,we have B∩M≤σB.Here H(χ)denotes the set consisting of all sets of hereditary of cardinality<χ. For a partial ordering P,≤ and its subordering Q,Q is said to be aσ-subordering of P(or Q≤σP)if and only if for any p∈P,Q p={q∈Q:q≤p}has a cofinal subset of size≤ℵ0and Q↑p={q∈Q:q≥p}has a coinitial subset of size≤ℵ0.Note that,in case of a Boolean algebra B and its subalgebra A,it is enough to check that every ideal in A of the form A b={a∈A:a≤b}for some b∈B is countably generated to see that A is aσ-subalgebra of B.Let us say that a partial ordering P has the wFN(notation:WFN(P))if P satisfies the property given in Theorem1.2,i.e.if for any sufficiently large regular κand for any M≺ H(χ),∈ with P∈M and|M|=ℵ1,we have P∩M≤σP.An interesting point about the wFN is that also the Boolean algebra P(ω),⊆ can have this property†.Under CH this is trivially so but also in a model of ZFC obtained by adding Cohen reals e.g.to a model of V=L(see[9]and[10]).In[8],it is shown that under the assumption‡of the wFN of P(ω),⊆ ,we can prove many of the combinatorial statements known to hold in Cohen models.2.SEP and some other weakenings of the weak Freese-NationpropertyA.Dow and K.P.Hart defined the following weakening of the property WFN(P) of a partial ordering P in[1]:A partial ordering P has the(ℵ1,ℵ0)-Ideal Property (abbreviation:IDP(P))if the following holds:†In contrast, P(ω),⊆ never has the Freese-Nation property.‡This assumption is also denoted as“WFN”.ON THE PROPERTY “SEP”OF PARTIAL ORDERINGS 31IDP(P ):For any sufficiently large regular κand for any M ≺ H (χ),∈ withP ∈M and |M |=ℵ1such that [M ]ℵ0∩M is cofinal in [M ]ℵ0,wehave P ∩M ≤σP .The question if WFN(P )is equivalent with IDP(P )is a very delicate one:Theorem 2.1.(S.Fuchino and L.Soukup [10])For partial ordering P of cardinal-ity <ℵω,WFN(P )if and only if IDP(P ).If a very weak form of square principle holds for cardinals of countable cofinality then WFN(P )and IDP(P )are equivalent for arbitrary partial ordering P .On the other hand,as is proved in [10],there is a partial ordering P with ¬WFN(P )and IDP(P )under (ℵω)ℵ0=ℵω+1and Chang’s conjecture (ℵω+1,ℵω) (ℵ1,ℵ0).It is shown in [1](independently from [8])that most of the results obtained in[8]under the wFN of P (ω)can be already proved under the weaker assumption of IDP of P (ω).In [13],I.Juh´a sz and K.Kunen introduced a property which they called SEP.For a Boolean algebra B let SEP(B )be the following assertion:SEP(B ):For every sufficiently large regular cardinal χ,the set of those M ≺H (χ)satisfying the following conditions (0)∼(2)is cofinal in [H (χ)]ℵ1:(0)B ∈M and |M |=ℵ1;(1)[M ]ℵ0∩M is cofinal in [M ]ℵ0;(2)B ∩M ≤sep B .Here,for a Boolean algebra A and its subalgebra B ,B ≤sep A if and only if for all a ∈A and K ∈[B a ]ℵ1,there is b ∈B a such that |K ∩B b |=ℵ1where B a denotes as before the ideal {d ∈B :d ≤a }.SEP has a characterization which put it in line with wFN and IDP.This follows from the next lemma.(S.Fuchino and S.Geschke [6])Suppose that A is a Boolean algebra and B its subalgebra.Then(1)B ≤σA implies B ≤sep A .(2)If |B |≤ℵ1then B ≤σA implies B ≤sep AProof.(1):Suppose that B ≤σA .For a ∈A and K ∈[B a ]ℵ1.Let {b n :n ∈ω}be a cofinal subset of B a .Then K = n ∈ω(K ∩B b n ).Hence one of K ∩B b n ,n ∈ωmust be uncountable.(2):Let B ={b α:α<ω1}.Assume that B ≤sep A but B is not a σ-subalgebra of A .Then there is an a ∈A such that B a is not countably generated.Let c α∈A b be taken inductively so that c αis not in the ideal in B generated byG α={c β:β<α}∪{b β:β<α,b β≤a }.This is possible since each G α⊆B a is countable.Let K ={c α:α<ω1}.By assumption there is some β0<ω1such that b β0≤a and K ∩B b β0is uncountable.Then there is some β0<α<ω1such that c α∈K ∩B b β0.But,since b β0<a ,b β0∈G αand soc α≤b β0.This is a contradiction.(Lemma 0)(S.Fuchino and S.Geschke [6])For a Boolean algebra B ,SEP(B )if and only ifthe following holds:32SAKA´E FUCHINOFor every sufficiently large regular cardinalχ,the set of those M≺H(χ) satisfying the following conditions(0)∼(2)is cofinal in[H(χ)]ℵ1:(0)B∈M and|M|=ℵ1;(1)[M]ℵ0∩M is cofinal in[M]ℵ0;(2’)B∩M≤σB.Proof.By Lemma2.(Proposition0) Note that the characterization of SEP is applicable for partial orderings as well. Hence we shall say SEP(P)for a partial ordering P if,for every sufficiently large regular cardinalχ,the set of those M≺H(χ)satisfying the following conditions (0)∼(2’)is cofinal in[H(χ)]ℵ1:(0)P∈M and|M|=ℵ1;(1)[M]ℵ0∩M is cofinal in[M]ℵ0;(2’)P∩M≤σP.Clearly we haveWFN(P)⇒IDP(P)⇒SEP(P)for all partial ordering P.In[6]it is proved(in ZFC without any additional as-sumptions)that there exists a Boolean algebra B such that¬IDP(B)and SEP(B).3.Princ does not imply SEPLet us denote by WFN,IDP and SEP the combinatorial statements WFN(P(ω)), IDP(P(ω))and SEP(P(ω))respectively where P(ω)is seen here as before as the partial ordering P(ω),⊆ .It is shown in[7]that WFN⇐IDP is consistent with ZFC modulo some quite large cardinal.The consistency of IDP⇐SEP(without any large cardinal)is proved in[6].Thus we have:WFN⇒⇐IDP ⇒⇐SEPSEP is still strong enough to drive most of the results proved in[8]under the assumption of WFN.Most of the proofs in[8]can be easily modified to a proof under SEP.With one exception:The proof of a=ℵ1under WFN in[8]works without any problem under IDP but it seems that the proof cannot be recast for the proof under SEP.What we have right now is the following slightly weaker result: Theorem3.1.(S.Fuchino and S.Geschke[6])Assume ω1.Then SEP implies a=ℵ1.There are some other combinatorial principles which are also related to these principles.One of them is introduced by S.Shelah and called Princ: Princ:For every sufficiently large regular cardinalχ,the set of those M≺H(χ)satisfying the following conditions(I)∼(III)is cofinal in[H(χ)]ℵ1:(I)|M|=ℵ1;(II)ω2∩M∈ω2;(III)For all a∈P(ω)there is X∈[P(ω)]ℵ1∩M such that X∩P(a) is cofinal in P(a)∩M.SEP implies Princ.Proof.Assume SEP and suppose thatχis sufficiently large and M≺H(χ)is such that|M|=ℵ1,[M]ℵ0∩M is cofinal in[M]ℵ0and P(ω)∩M≤σP(ω).Note that,by assumption,there are cofinally may such M’s in[H(χ)]ℵ1.Hence it is enough to show that M as above satisfies(I),(II)and(III)in the definition of Princ.ON THE PROPERTY“SEP”OF PARTIAL ORDERINGS33 M|=(I)is clear.For(II),note thatω1⊆M.Supposeα∈ω2∩M.Then,by elementarity,there is f∈M such that f:ω1→αand f is surjective.It follows thatα=f ω1⊆M.Henceω2∩M is an initial segment ofω2of cardinalityℵ1 and thus an element ofω2.To show M|=(III),let a∈P(ω).Then there is a countable X ⊆P(a)∩M such that X is cofinal in P(a)∩M.Let X ∈[P(ω)]ℵ0∩M be such that X ⊆X . By elementarity,there is some X∈[P(ω)]ℵ1∩M with X ⊆X.This X is clearlyas in(III)for our a.(Lemma0)To close this section,we shall give a sketch of the proof the the converse of Lemma 0does not hold.The following Theorem is due to Stefan Geschke:Theorem3.2.Suppose that V|=CH,Q is a partial ordering satisfying the c.c.c. and there is a partial ordering P of cardinality≤ℵ1such that Q is afinite support product of copies of P.Then –Q“Princ”.Theorem3.3.¬SEP+Princ is consistent with ZFC.Proof.Start from a model V of CH.In V,let P be the partial ordering for adding a single random real and let Q be afinite support product ofκ>ℵ1copies of P. Then –Q“¬SEP”by Lemma3.1.6in[11]and Theorem8.1in[6].On the otherhand –Q“Princ”by Theorem3.2.(Theorem0)4.Some more principlesThe following diagram summarizes known implications among combinatorial principles discussed in the previous sections together with some other combina-torial principles from[14],[15]and[5]:WFN[7]⇑⇓IDPCH∗[13]-45⇒[6]⇑⇓SEPIP(ω2)(*)⇑⇓(†)⇓Princ HP(ω)2[13]⇑⇓(**)45⇐45⇒[13]C s(ω2)(†)By Lemma3.(*)By Theorem3.3.(**)By S.Shelah in an unpublished note.34SAKA´E FUCHINOReferences[1] A.Dow and K.P.Hart,Applications of another characterization ofβN\N,Topology and itsApplications,122,1-2,105–133(2002)[2]R.Freese and J.B.Nation,Projective lattices,Pacific Journal of Math.75(1978),93–106.[3]M.Foreman,M.Magidor,and S.Shelah,Martin’s Maximum,saturated ideals and non-regular ultrafilters.Part I.AM127(1988),1-47.[4]S.Fuchino,Some remarks on openly generated Boolean algebras,Journal of Symbolic Logic,Vol.59(1994),302–310.[5]S.Fuchino and J.Brendle,Coloring ordinals by reals,preprint.[6]S.Fuchino and S.Geschke,Remarks on a paper by Juh´a sz and Kunen,preprint.[7]S.Fuchino,S.Geschke,S.Shelah and L.Soukup,On the weak Freese-Nation property ofcomplete Boolean algebras,Annals of Pure and Applied Logic110,No.1-3(2001),89–105.[8]S.Fuchino,S.Geschke and L.Soukup,The weak Freese-Nation property of P(ω),Archive ofMathematical Logic40,No.6(2001),425–435.[9]S.Fuchino,S.Koppelberg and S.Shelah,Partial orderings with the weak Freese-Nationproperty,Annals of Pure and Applied Logic,80(1996).[10]S.Fuchino and L.Soukup,More set theory around the weak Freese-Nation property,Funda-menta Mathematicae154(1997),159–176.[11]S.Geschke,Onσ-filtered Boolean algebras,Ph.D.Thesis,Berlin(1999).[12]Lutz Heindorf and Leonid B.Shapiro,Nearly Projective Boolean Algebras,Springer LectureNotes in Mathematics Vol.1596(1994).[13]I.Juh´a sz and K.Kunen,The Power Set ofω,Elementary submodels and weakenings of CH,Fundamenta Mathematicae170(2001),257–265.[14]I.Juh´a sz,L.Soukup,and Z.Szentmikl´o ssy,Combinatorial principles from adding Cohenreals,in Logic Colloquium95,Haifa,Israel,Springer(1998),79–103.[15]I.Juh´a sz,L.Soukup,and Z.Szentmikl´o ssy,What left from CH if we add Cohen reals,Topology Appl.(1998),165–174.[16]S.Koppelberg,General Theory of Boolean Algebras,Vol.1of:D.Monk with R.Bonnet(ed.),Handbook of Boolean Algebras,North-Holland(1989).[17]S.Koppelberg,Projective algebras,in:D.Monk with R.Bonnet(ed.),Handbook of BooleanAlgebras,Vol.3,North-Holland,(1989),741–774.[18]K.Kunen,Set-Theory,North-Holland(1980).Department of Natural Science and Mathematics,Chubu University.Kasugai Aichi 487-8501JAPANE-mail address:fuchino@isc.chubu.ac.jp。

2024年教师资格考试高中英语学科知识与教学能力模拟试卷与参考答案一、单项选择题（本大题有30小题，每小题2分，共60分）1、The sentence “They have been working on the project for three weeks now.” is an example of a(n)__________sentence.A. simpleB. compoundC. complexD. compound-complex答案：C解析：This sentence contains a main clause (“They have been working on the project”) and one or more subordinate clauses (“for three weeks now”). This structure is characteristic of a complex sentence.2、In the following dialogue, which sentence is a question?A. “I think we should start the meeting now.”B. “Where are we going for lunch?”C. “We should all bring our laptops to the meeting.”D. “Please make sure the presentation is ready by tomorrow.”答案：B解析：The sentence “Where are we going for lunch?” is asking for information about the location of the lunch, which makes it a question. The other sentences are statements.3、The following sentence is a sentence error. Which one is it?A. He isn’t working as a teacher because he doesn’t like teaching.B. She was able to finish the project on time because she worked hard.C. They don’t know what to do, so they’re asking for advice.D. We went to the beach on the weekend, but it rained all day.Answer: DExplanation: The correct sentence should be “We went to the beach on the weekend, but it rained all day.” The phrase “all day” should be followed by “and,” making the correct sentence “We went to the beach on the weekend, and it rained all day.”4、Choose the correct word form to complete the following sentence.The student’s performance in the class (improve/improving) over the past few months.Answer: has improvedExplanation: The correct answer is “has improved” because the sentence is referring to a change that has taken place over a period of time, which is indicated by “over the past few months.” The present perfect tense is used to describe past actions that have a present result.5、The following sentence contains a grammatical error. Which underlinedword should be corrected?A. I have always admired herB. I admire her alwaysC. Always, I admire herD. I admire her alwaysAnswer: CExplanation: The correct placement of the adverb “always” should be after the subject “I” and before the verb “admire” to modify the verb, not the subject. Therefore, option C is the correct answer.6、In the sentence “She spent a fortune on her new car,” “fortune” is a(n)__________word.A. abstractB. concreteC. countableD. uncountableAnswer: AExplanation: “Fortune” in this context is a noun referring to a large amount of money, which is an abstract concept. Abstract words are ideas, concepts, or qualities that cannot be perceived by the senses. Therefore, the correct answer is A.7、The following sentence is an example of which tense structure?A)Present perfect continuousB)Present perfect simpleC)Present perfect continuous with “already”D)Present perfect simple with “for”Answer: B) Present perfect simpleExplanation: The sentence “He has finished his homework” is an example of the present perfect simple tense. It is used to describe an action that started in the past and is completed at an unspecified time before now.8、In the following dialogue, what is the most suitable response to the question “How do you usually spend your weekends?”?A)“I usually go shopping on Saturdays and visit my friends on Sundays.”B)“I often watch movies on weekends and then go out for dinner with my family.”C)“I usually spend my weekends at home, either reading books or cooking.”D)“On weekends, I usually attend workshops or take part in community activities.”Answer: A) “I usually go shopping on Saturdays and visit my friends on Sundays.”Explanation: The question “How do you usually spend your weekends?” is asking about a regular pattern of behavior. Answer A provides a clear and consistent pattern of weekend activities, which is appropriate for the question. The other options either do not give a clear pattern or do not address the question directly.9.The teacher is using a realia (real object) to illustrate the use of the present perfect tense in a lesson. Which of the following realia would be most appropriate to demonstrate the concept of “has/have + past participle”?A) A calendar showing the date of a school eventB) A map of the school groundsC) A collection of textbooksD) A clock showing the current timeAnswer: A) A calendar showing the date of a school eventExplanation: The present perfect tense is used to describe actions that have a present result, often with a past cause. Using a calendar to show the date of a school event can illustrate this concept, as it represents an action that started in the past and has a present outcome (e.g., “The school play has already been performed”). The other options do not directly relate to the present perfect tense in the same way.10.In a lesson on cause and effect, the teacher wants to encourage students to use a variety of sentence structures. Which of the following sentence structures would best demonstrate the difference between a cause and an effect?A)Simple present tense: “The weather is sunny.”B)Simple past tense: “The sun shone yesterday.”C)Present perfect tense: “The flowers have bloomed.”D)Future perfect tense: “The flowers will have bloomed by the time the sun sets.”Answer: C) Present perfect tense: “The flowers have bloomed.”Explanation: The present perfect tense is often used to describe an effect that has occurred as a result of a cause that started in the past. In this case, “The flowers have bloomed” suggests that there was a cause (such as the ar rival of spring) that led to the effect (the blooming of the flowers). The other options do not explicitly demonstrate cause and effect relationships. The simple present tense (A) and simple past tense (B) are used for actions without a specific timereference, while the future perfect tense (D) is used to describe an action that will be completed at some point in the future.11.The following sentence is an example of which of the following sentence structure?A)SimpleB)CompoundC)ComplexD)Compound-ComplexAnswer: C) ComplexExplanation: A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The sentence “Although he studied hard, he still failed the exam” contains an independent clause (“he still failed the exam”) and a dependent clause (“Although he studied hard”).12.What is the main purpose of the following sentence in the context of teaching English?“The weather today is perfect for a picnic.”A)To provide weather informationB)To encourage students to engage in outdoor activitiesC)To set the scene for a storyD)To explain the importance of weather forecastingAnswer: B) To encourage students to engage in outdoor activitiesExplanation: The sentence is used to create a positive atmosphere and encourage students to think about outdoor activities, which is useful for alesson that focuses on vocabulary related to weather or outdoor activities.13.The teacher is demonstrating a new grammar point to the students. Which of the following is the best way to ensure the students understand the concept?A)Explain the grammar point using only the target language.B)Provide a detailed translation into the students’ first language.C)Use a simple, everyday example in the target language.D)Ask the students to translate the new grammar point into their first language.Answer: CExplanation: Using a simple, everyday example in the target language helps students to connect the new grammar point with their own experiences and understand it in a more practical context. This approach reduces the potential confusion that can arise from translating directly into their first language and allows for the development of language proficiency.14.In a lesson on American culture, the teacher wants to engage the students in a discussion about famous American authors. Which activity would be most appropriate for this purpose?A) A multiple-choice quiz about the authors.B) A role-play activity where students create their own dialogue between two of theauthors.C) A solo presentation by each student on one of the authors.D) A lecture about the authors’ biographical information.Answer: BExplanation: A role-play activity where students create their own dialoguebetween two of the authors is the most engaging and interactive choice. This allows students to practice speaking and listening skills, develop their creativity, and deepen their understanding of the authors’ works and personalities. The other options are less interactive and may not promote the same level of engagement and language skills development.15.Which of the following sentence structures is commonly used to express future actions?A. Present perfect tenseB. Future perfect tenseC. Simple future tenseD. Present perfect continuous tenseAnswer: CExplanation: The simple future tense is commonly used to express future actions. It is formed by using the base form of the verb followed by “will” or “shall.”16.In the sentence “The students are discussing the topic in the classroom,” which word functions as the main verb?A. DiscussingB. TopicC. ClassroomD. StudentsAnswer: AExplanation: In this sentence, “discussing” is the main verb because it is the action that the subject (“students”) is performing. The other words in the sentence, “topic” and “classroom,” are nouns that provide additional context, and “students” is the subject of the verb.17.In the following sentence, the word “enlightened” is used as an adjective. Which of the foll owing is the correct definition of “enlightened”?A. Educated and well-informed.B. Ignorant and uneducated.C. Lazy and unmotivated.D. Crazy and unpredictable.Answer: AExplanation: The word “enlightened” means educated and well-informed. It refers to someone who has a deep understanding of a subject or a wide range of knowledge.18.Choose the word that does not belong in the following list:A. GrammarB. VocabularyC. SyntaxD. TechnologyAnswer: DExplanation: Grammar, vocabulary, and syntax are all related to the study of language and how it is used. Technology, on the other hand, refers to theapplication of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, and it is not directly related to the study of language.19、Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of effective language teaching in high school English classes?A) Student-centered learningB) Over-emphasis on grammar rulesC) Authentic language materialsD) Encouragement of communicationAnswer: BExplanation: Effective language teaching in high school English classes emphasizes student-centered learning, where students are actively engaged in the learning process. It utilizes authentic language materials that reflect real-life communication and encourages students to communicate in English. Over-emphasis on grammar rules, without proper context and communication practice, is not considered an effective teaching strategy as it often leads to rote memorization rather than actual language use.20、In designing an English language arts lesson for high school students, which of the following is an essential element to incorporate?A) Sole reliance on textbooksB) Integration of technology and multimediaC) Limited exposure to different cultural perspectivesD) Heavy emphasis on standardized test preparationAnswer: BExplanation: When designing an English language arts lesson for high school students, it is essential to incorporate various elements that enhance learning and engagement. Integration of technology and multimedia can greatly enrich the learning experience by providing students with access to a wide range of resources, interactive tools, and authentic language samples. Relying solely on textbooks or limiting exposure to different cultural perspectives can limit students’ learning. Similarly, while standardized test preparation is important, it should not be the sole focus of instruction as it often prioritizes rote memorization over critical thinking and communication skills.21、Which of the following is an example of a modal verb that expresses ability?A)CanB)MustC)ShouldD)WouldAnswer: A) CanExplanation: Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express necessity, possibility, permission, or ability. In this case, “can” is used to express ability, such as in the sentence “She can speak three languages.” “Must” is used for strong obligation, “should” for advice or recommendation, and “would” for hypothetical situations or polite requests.22、When teaching reading comprehension, which of the following strategieswould best help students understand the main idea of a text?A)Asking students to memorize new vocabulary from the text.B)Encouraging students to focus on the details of each paragraph.C)Guiding students to identify the topic sentence and supporting details.D)Having students read the text aloud to practice pronunciation.Answer: C) Guiding students to identify the topic sentence and supporting details.Explanation: Identifying the topic sentence, which often states the main idea, and its supporting details, is a key strategy in comprehending the central theme of a text. This approach helps students to see the structure of the text and to distinguish between the main points and the finer details. Memorizing vocabulary (A), focusing on details (B), and practicing pronunciation (D) are all useful activities but do not directly aid in understanding the main idea of the text.These types of questions test the candidate’s knowledge of English grammar and pedagogical strategies for effective teaching.23、In the following sentence, which verb tense is used to express an action that began in the past and continues to the present?A. Present PerfectB. Simple PresentC. Present Perfect ContinuousD. Past ContinuousAnswer: C. Present Perfect ContinuousExplanation: The correct answer is C because the Present Perfect Continuoustense is used to describe actions that started in the past, continue up to the present, and may continue into the future. For example, “I have been teaching English for ten years.”24、Which of the following sentence structures is used to express a condition that is true in the present?A. If + past tense, would + verbB. If + past perfect, would + have + past participleC. If + present tense, would + verbD. If + present perfect, would + have + past participleAnswer: C. If + present tense, would + verbExplanation: The correct answer is C because the “If + present tense” structure is used to express a condition that is true in the present. This structure is used to talk about real a nd possible situations. For example, “If it rains, we will cancel the game.”25、Which of the following is NOT a strategy for teaching vocabulary in high school English classes?A) Using context clues to infer word meaningsB) Memorizing vocabulary lists without contextC) Encouraging students to use new words in their own sentencesD) Utilizing word associations and synonymsAnswer: BExplanation: Option B, “Memorizing vocabulary lists without context,” isgenerally not considered an effective strategy for teaching vocabulary in high school English classes. Memorizing words without understanding their use in context can lead to a shallow understanding of their meaning and how to appropriately use them in communication. Effective vocabulary instruction often involves using context clues, encouraging students to apply new words in their own sentences, and utilizing word associations and synonyms to deepen their understanding.26、In a lesson aimed at improving students’ listening comprehension, which of the following activities would be most beneficial?A) Having students read a passage silently and answer comprehension questionsB) Playing a recording of a conversation and asking students to summarize the main pointsC) Asking students to write an essay on a given topicD) Providing students with a list of vocabulary words to memorizeAnswer: BExplanation: Option B, “Playing a recording of a conversation and asking students to summarize the main points,” is the most beneficial activity in a lesson aimed at impro ving students’ listening comprehension. This activity directly addresses the skill of listening by engaging students in the process of actively listening to a recording and then analyzing and summarizing the information they heard. In contrast, option A focuses on reading comprehension, option C on writing skills, and option D on vocabulary memorization, all of whichare important but less directly related to improving listening comprehension.27、Which of the following sentences uses the subjunctive mood correctly?A)If he were here, he would help us.B)If she was younger, she could join the team.C)If they had known, they would have come.D)If I was rich, I would travel the world.Answer: A) If he were here, he would help us.Explanation: The correct form of the subjunctive mood is used in option A, where “were” is used instead of “was” for the present unreal condition. Options B and D should use “were” instead of “was,” and C is actually in the past perfect subjunctive which is correct but does not match the present hypothetical context of the question.28、Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject in the following sentence:“Either the judge or the defendants_______to appear in court tomorrow.”A)hasB)haveC)is havingD)are havingAnswer: A) hasExplanation: When the subject consists of two or more nouns connected by “or” or “either…or,” the verb agrees with the subject nearest to it. Here, “the defendants” is nearer but the singular “the judge” determines the ve rbform. Therefore, the singular form “has” is correct as “the judge” is singular.29.The teacher is about to introduce a new topic in the English class. Which of the following phrases would best signal the introduction of a new topic?A. “Let’s continue where we left off.”B. “Today, we are going to explore a new topic.”C. “Now, we need to wrap up our discussion.”D. “We’ll take a quick break before we move on.”Answer: BExplanation: The phrase “Today, we are going to explore a new topic.” clearly signals that the teacher is introducing a new topic in the lesson.30.In the context of teaching high school English, which of the following is the most effective way to encourage student participation in group discussions?A. Assigning each student a specific role in the group to avoid free-riding.B. Allowing students to choose their own topics for discussion.C. Providing detailed guidelines for the discussion, including the objectives and time limits.D. Allowing students to raise their hand to speak, but not interrupting others.Answer: CExplanation: Providing detailed guidelines for the discussion, includingthe objectives and time limits, can help ensure that students are prepared and engaged in the group discussions, leading to more effective participation.二、简答题（20分）II.Short-Answer QuestionsQuestion 2:Explain the importance of integrating technology into English language teaching (ELT) in the context of senior high school education, and provide an example of a technological tool that can be effectively used to enhance students’ reading comprehension skills.Answer:The integration of technology into English language teaching in senior high schools is paramount for several reasons. Firstly, it fosters a more engaging and interactive learning environment, which is crucial for maintaining students’ interest and motivation. By leveraging multimedia resources, teachers can present lessons in diverse and dynamic ways, making them more appealing to students who may have different learning styles and preferences.Secondly, technology enables personalized learning. With tools such as learning management systems (LMS) and intelligent tutoring systems, teachers can tailor instruction to meet the individual needs and abilities of each student. This ensures that students at all levels are challenged appropriately and receive the support they require to progress.Thirdly, technology expands access to authentic materials and culturalcontexts. By utilizing online resources and digital libraries, students can access a vast array of current and culturally relevant texts, videos, and podcasts. This exposure not only enriches their linguistic knowledge but also fosters cultural awareness and global citizenship.An example of a technological tool that can effectively enhance students’ reading comprehension skills is the use of interactive e-books or digital reading platforms. These platforms often include features such as highlighting, annotating, and embedded dictionaries, which allow students to actively engage with the text and deepen their understanding. Additionally, many digital reading tools incorporate multimedia elements, such as videos or audio recordings, that can provide context and clarify difficult concepts. Furthermore, some platforms offer comprehension quizzes or interactive questions that encourage students to reflect on and apply what they have read. By using these tools, teachers can create engaging reading experiences that foster critical thinking, vocabulary development, and overall comprehension skills.Analysis:This answer comprehensively outlines the importance of integrating technology into English language teaching in senior high schools. It begins by highlighting the role of technology in creating an engaging and interactive learning environment, which is essential for maintaining student interest and motivation. The answer then emphasizes the benefits of personalized learning, explaining how technology can help teachers tailor instruction to meet theunique needs of each student. Furthermore, the answer discusses the expansion of access to authentic materials and cultural contexts, which is crucial for developing linguistic knowledge and cultural awareness.The example provided—interactive e-books or digital reading platforms—is relevant and specific, demonstrating how technology can enhance students’ reading comprehension skills. The answer explains how these tools enable active engagement with the text, provide context and clarification, and incorporate multimedia elements to enrich the reading experience. Additionally, the inclusion of comprehension quizzes or interactive questions underscores the importance of reflection and application in developing reading comprehension skills. Overall, this answer provides a clear and compelling rationale for the integration of technology in ELT, supported by a relevant and practical example.三、教学情境分析题（30分）III.Teaching Situation Analysis (15 points)Scenario:You are teaching a high school English class and have just finished a unit on Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. You notice that while some students have grasped the themes and language of the play quite well, others are still struggling with understanding the context and the archaic language used by Shakespeare. Your next class period is dedicated to reviewing the play and ensuring all students have a good grasp of its content before moving on to thenext topic.Question:Design a 30-minute lesson plan that includes activities to help students who are struggling with understanding Romeo and Juliet. The activities should aim to improve their comprehension of the text and engage them through interactive methods. Your lesson plan should include:•Objectives for the lesson.• A brief description of the activities you would use.•How you will assess whether the students have understood the material better after the activities.•Consideration for differentiation to meet the needs of all learners.Answer and Analysis:Objectives:1.Students will demonstrate a better understanding of the themes and language in Romeo and Juliet by participating in group discussions and role-playing activities.2.Students will identify key quotes from the play and explain their significance within the context of the story.3.Students will engage with the text in a more personal way, enhancing their comprehension and appreciation of Shakespearean literature.Activities Description:1.Quote Cards Game (10 minutes) - Distribute index cards with significant quotes from Romeo and Juliet to pairs of students. Each pair must read the quote aloud and discuss its meaning and relevance to the plot or character development. They will then present theirinterpretation to the class.2.Role-Playing Scene (15 minutes) - Assign scenes from the play to groups of four students. Each group will prepare a modernized version of the scene where they translate the archaic language into contemporary speech. They will perform their scene for the class, followed by a short discussion about the translation choices made and how these affect the interpretation of the original text.Assessment Method:•Observe participation during the Quote Cards Game and Role-Playing Scene.•Evaluate the quality of the presentations and the depth of the subsequent discussions.•Conduct a short quiz at the end of the activity where students match modern translations of quotes to their original Shakespearean versions.Differentiation Considerations:•For students who need additional support, provide them with a list of vocabulary words and their meanings beforehand.•Pair advanced students with those who are struggling to facilitate peer learning.•Allow students to choose between presenting a scene or creating a visual representation of a key moment from the play as an alternative assessment method.This lesson plan aims to make the challenging text more accessible to students through active engagement and modernization, while also providing opportunities for formative assessment and differentiation based on individual student needs.This scenario and the corresponding lesson plan illustrate a practical approach to addressing diverse student needs when teaching complex literary works such as Romeo and Juliet.四、教学设计题（40分）Question:Design a 40-minute lesson plan for a high school English class, focusing on the theme of “Cultural Differences.” The class consists of 30 students, and you have access to a whiteboard, a projector, and a computer with internet access. Your objective is to help students understand the concept of cultural differences, recognize common stereotypes, and develop critical thinking skills to analyze these stereotypes.Answer:Lesson Title: Understanding Cultural Differences: Beyond Stereotypes Objective:By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:1.Define and recognize cultural differences.2.Identify common stereotypes related to cultural differences.3.Analyze and critically evaluate stereotypes.4.Discuss the importance of understanding cultural differences in building respectful relationships.Materials:•Projector and computer with internet access•Whiteboard and markers•Handouts with a list of cultural stereotypes•Group activity materials (e.g., paper, pens, sticky notes)Lesson Outline:1.Introduction (10 minutes)•Begin with a brief discussion about what cultural differences are and why they are important to understand.•Ask students to share their own experiences with cultural differences and stereotypes.2.Presentation (15 minutes)•Use the projector to display a PowerPoint presentation that covers the following topics:•Definition of cultural differences•Common stereotypes related to cultural differences (e.g., food preferences, communication styles, values)•The impact of stereotypes on personal and societal relationships3.Group Activity (10 minutes)•Divide the class into groups of four or five students.•Provide each group with a list of cultural stereotypes and sticky notes. •Instruct students to discuss the stereotypes, identify which ones are true and which ones are false, and explain their reasoning.•Each group will create a poster summarizing their findings and present it to the class.4.Class Discussion (5 minutes)。

A NSWER KEYPART FIVE: READINGS FOR WRITINGAnswers are provided starting below for the comprehension questions, the structure/technique questions, and the discussion questions that follow each of the 21 reading selections. In addition, a suggested brief outline is provided for each reading selection. As explained on page 11 of this manual, the outline highlights the thesis of each selection and the main support for that thesis. Suggested Answers for “Thank You”—Alex HaleyNote: The numbers in parentheses refer to relevant paragraphs in the selection.Reading Comprehension Questions, 577-5781. c2. b3. a Answers b and c are too narrow; answer d is too broad.4. d Answers a and c are too narrow; answer b is an idea not mentioned in theselection.5. a Paragraph 16. c Paragraph 287. True Paragraph 148. a Paragraph 149. a Paragraph 2210. c Paragraph 12Structure and Technique,5791. Which pattern or patterns of development does Haley use in his essay? Explain.Answer: Much of “Thank You” is a narration of the story of Haley’s letters. As is usually the case with narration, that story also includes description (especially in paragraphs 1, 4, 19).However, Haley’s conclusion reveals that his essay is meant to be an argument for saying “thank you.” In paragraphs 28–30, he writes of encouraging students to say “thank you.”And to readers—of letters written on his stationery and of this reading—he addresses words that summarize his argument: “Find the good—and praise it.”2. Paragraph 4 contains a vivid description of part of Haley’s Thanksgiving night onthe Murzim. What sensory details (sight, smell, hearing, taste, and/or touch) does he provide?What is the effect of all these details?Answer:Haley provides details that appeal to three senses. First, he appeals to the sense of touch when he writes of the “great, deep draughts” he breathed in and the feeling in his feet of “vibrations from the deep-set, turbine diesels.” He appeals to the sense of sight with the images of the “white cook’s hat and the long apron” and of the movement of water “resistingthe skin of a ship.”And he appeals to the sense of hearing with the words “that slightly hissing sound the sea makes.”The effect of the descriptive details is a peaceful scene that sets the mood for Haley’s thoughts about Thanksgiving and the people he should thank.3. Most of Haley’s essay is about the three thank-you letters he wrote. Why do you think heincluded the anecdote about the helpful man at the airport? How is it related to his point about giving thanks?Answer:By including the anecdote about the helpful airline man, Haley shows that he feels it is important to give thanks to people in everyday situations, not just to our elders.This anecdote provides a transition from his first three letters of thanks (which apply only to the author) to his implied argument that we all should remember to thank others.4. Writers’most common purposes are to inform, to entertain, and to persuade. Whichpurpose—or purposes—do you think Haley has in mind?Answer:The information about Haley’s experiences and conclusions supports his central purpose, which is to persuade readers of the importance of giving thanks (28 and 30). Critical Reading and Discussion,5791. Before Haley decides to write to his loved ones, what series of thoughts and images goesthrough his mind as he reflects on the meaning of Thanksgiving? What is the connection between these traditional images and what Haley finally realizes?Answer:After having cooked dinner on the ship, Haley first thinks about “the historic . . .Pilgrims, Indians”and the foods typically associated with Thanksgiving (5). Yet this conventional imagery is inadequate, and Haley seeks a way to “personally apply” the holiday(6). He then thinks about giving thanks through prayer to God (6–7), but again feelsdissatisfied with this approach (8). Finally, Haley comes up with a more concrete and personal way to celebrate Thanksgiving: to thank the people in his life for all they have done for him (9). By going beyond the images of the holiday, Haley expands the traditional meaning of Thanksgiving to include a personal one.2. Alex Haley was far from home when he decided to thank the important people in his life. Ifhe had remained at home, do you think he would have still thanked these people? Why or why not?Answer:Answers will vary. Some students may say that Haley would probably have continued to take the important people in his life for granted if he had not been far away.They might reasonably argue that he needed time and distance to really appreciate what they had done for him.3. How does Haley feel about the three responses to his thank-you letters? What conclusionsabout human nature does he draw from these responses?Answer:All three letters left Haley “not only astounded, but more humbled than before” (20).The fact that his father was “moved” to answer his letter showed Haley how profoundly the thank-you letter had affected his father (22). By quoting parts of Reverend Nelson’s letter, Haley implies that it brought him great satisfaction to have given the Reverend “welcome reassurance that his career had been appreciated” (23). Grandma’s letter evoked tears from Haley, who is moved by the gratitude that would cause her to spend hours responding to him(24).The three responses reveal something almost “mystical in human nature,”which Haley identifies as the secret “yearning . . . for more of their fellows to express appreciation for their efforts” (25).4. Haley is a world-renowned writer. Who might have influenced his decision to be a writer?What made these people such powerful role models in his life? In general, what would you say are the qualities of a good role model?Answer: Answers may vary, although one reasonable response is that all three people Haley thanked—as well as the other four who had died (10)—helped shape the person he has become and therefore influenced his decision to be a writer. The father’s insistence on the value and beauty of reading probably influenced Haley most profoundly (14). But Haley is also indebted to Reverend Nelson and Grandma, who trained him to be a good and moral human being with positive aspirations.Answers to the final question may vary, but students might cite, as qualities of a good role model, integrity, persistence, resilience, sensitivity, compassion, and the like.Thesis-and-Support OutlineThesis: Writing thank-you letters taught the author the value of showing appreciation.1. His father was touched to learn that he had truly helped his own son (22).2. His school principal was reassured of his own self-worth as a result of an appreciative letter(23).3. His grandmother was just as grateful to him as he was to her (24).Suggested Answers for “Shame”—Dick GregoryNote: The numbers in parentheses refer to relevant paragraphs in the selection.Reading Comprehension Questions, 584-5851. a2. d3. b Answers a, c, and d are too narrow.4. a Answers b, c, and d are too narrow.5. c Paragraph 66. True Paragraph 237. a Paragraph 58. b The entire incident with the Community Chest Fund shows Richard’spride; see also paragraph 28.9. b Richard’s teacher ignores his problems and humiliates him in front of theentire class; see paragraphs 5 through 26.10. b Helene cries over Richard’s humiliation; see paragraph 23.Structure and Technique, 5851. In paragraphs 1 and 2, Gregory mentions several steps he took to impress Helene Tucker.What were they? Why does he include them in his essay?Answer:In order to impress Helene, Gregory brushed his hair, got a handkerchief, washed his socks and shirt every night, shoveled the snow off her walk, tried to make friends with her mother and aunts, and left money on her stoop. He describes those steps in detail because, besides demonstrating his devotion to Helene, they give a clear picture of Gregory’s poverty.2. A metaphor is a suggested comparison. What metaphor does Gregory use in paragraph 5, andwhat is its purpose? What metaphor does he use in the second sentence of paragraph 7, and what does it mean?Answer:In paragraph 5, Gregory uses the metaphor that he was pregnant to suggest the effects of poverty on him—it gave him strange tastes, which pregnant people get. It also filled him (as pregnancy fills someone), but with negative things: poverty, dirt, “smells that made people turn away,” and so on.In the second sentence of paragraph 7, Gregory uses the metaphor of a flying eagle to represent the movement of money. (A picture of an eagle is engraved on one side of a quarter).3. In narrating the incidents in the classroom and in the restaurant, Gregory chooses toprovide actual dialogue rather than merely to tell what happened. Why?Answer:By using the exact words spoken by Helene, the teacher, and himself, Gregory givesa very clear picture of what happened by allowing the reader to “experience” it, rather thansimply hear a general summary. The dialogue between Helene and the teacher shows Helene as an ideal little student who received approval from the teacher. The dialogue between Gregory and the teacher, however, clearly demonstrates Gregory’s eagerness to impress Helene and his unsuccessful, embarrassing attempt to gain the teacher’s approval. If Gregory had merely described what had happened, we would have a much less vivid impression of the characters involved.4. At the end of the essay, Gregory shifts his focus from the classroom to the scene involving the winoat the restaurant. What is the connection between this closing scene and the rest of the essay?Answer:In the body of the essay, Gregory is narrating a time that he was shamed publicly and no one came to his defense. In the closing scene, Gregory realizes that he has done the same thing—that he, too, has witnessed a person being shamed without assisting him. He feels a new kind of “shame,” that of having failed to help another man in need.Critical Reading and Discussion,5861. When Gregory writes, “I never learned hate at home, or shame. I had to go to school forthat” (paragraph 1), he is using irony—an inconsistency between what is expected and what actually occurs. What does he mean by these two statements? What is the effect of his irony?Answer:Gregory means that although his home life was one of poverty and want, his home was not a place of inhumane values, such as hatred and shame. But at school, which on its surface was a more positive place, he was made to feel hatred and shame. The ironic statement intrigues the reader and makes him or her want to know more about what Gregory means.2. What are Gregory’s feelings about his teacher? What were your feelings about her as you readthis essay? What could the teacher have done or said that would not have made Gregory feel ashamed?Answer:Gregory seems sad and resentful that the teacher did not understand why he misbehaved in class and that she assumed he was stupid and a troublemaker. But he also wanted her approval badly, as seen by the Community Chest incident and the fact that he gota “big thrill” out of being chosen to clean the blackboard. Students’ suggestions about theteacher will vary. One possibility: She could have merely thanked Gregory in class and then spoken to him privately later if she doubted that he could contribute to Community Chest.3. Gregory shows how a childhood incident taught him shame. What other important lessons does Gregory learn in this essay? Explain.Answer:From paragraph 3, in which Gregory talks about his accomplishments later in life, we can conclude that he learned he could boost his self-esteem through his own efforts.Paragraph 5 shows that from his own experiences, he learned that children who are hungry and poor may feel invisible and so behave in ways that attract attention. From his experience with the wino, he learned that in order to feel good about himself, he would have to start standing up for other people who were shamed.4. At the end of his essay, Gregory says, “I waited too long to help another man.” Why do youthink he waited so long to assist the wino? What are some reasons people do not always help others who are in need (for example, ignoring a homeless person seated on the sidewalk)?Answer:Gregory probably had many reasons for not helping the wino sooner: embarrassment at drawing attention to himself, reluctance to part with his hard-earned money, not wanting to get in trouble with Mr. Williams, not knowing the wino and thus feeling the affair wasn’t his business, etc. People have similar reasons for not helping others in need. In addition, people who ignore a homeless man may feel that the man’s problems—maybe including substance abuse or mental illness—are so big and deep-rooted that they are not qualified to help him in any effective way.Thesis-and-Support OutlineThesis:Living poor was, for the author, a humiliating experience.1. He was embarrassed in front of his classmates and, worse, in front of Helene Tucker(7-23).2. Everybody knew he was a “worthy boy” who had no Dad and no money (28).3. His self-pity prevented him from helping another poor man, the wino (29-37). Suggested Answers for “I Became Her Target”—Roger WilkinsNote: The numbers in parentheses refer to relevant paragraphs in the selection.Reading Comprehension Questions,589-5901. d2. a3. d Answers a and c are too broad; answer b is not supported by the selection.4. d Answers a, b, and c are too broad.5. d Paragraph 36. a Paragraph 67. b Paragraph 78. b Paragraph 29. c Paragraph 610. d Paragraph 11 (We know that Miss Bean had not intended to knock thepencil from his hand because she gasped when the pencil went flying.) Structure and Technique,5911. Which pattern of essay development—comparison, narration, or description—does Wilkinsuse in most of his essay? Explain.Answe r: Wilkins primarily uses narration. Although description is woven throughout, he is generally telling the story of his family’s move to Grand Rapids and a series of events that occurred there.2. Which kind of transition signal—addition, time, or space—does Wilkins use to move hisessay smoothly from one event to the next? Find at least four different words that are examples of this signal.Answe r: Wilkins uses time signals, including “before” (paragraph 2), “later” (7), “after,” (8), “final,”(11), and “afterward”(11). Time signals are often used in narratives to clarify the time relationships between events.3. In the first paragraph, Wilkins chooses to provide some historical background for his story.Why do you think he chose the specific details mentioned there? What might have been lost if these details had been excluded from the essay?Answe r: The historical events Wilkins lists provide helpful context for the story he is about to tell. By telling readers that he is writing about the World War II era, when the symbolic beginning of the civil rights movement was more than ten years away, he helps readers understand how unusual it was in those days for a single black student to enroll in a formerly all-white school. If Wilkins had not included the details and readers had assumed the story happened more recently, they would have been surprised to read of an all-white school where blacks were considered a novelty.4. A title can offer interesting insights into an essay, especially if the title acquires unexpectedmeanings. Before reading this essay, what did you think the title “I Became Her Target”might refer to? What additional meanings do you think Wilkins intended?Answe r: The first impression most readers are likely to get of the title is that someone “targeted”Wilkins in an unpleasant way, as in “targeted for criticism.”Wilkins’s real meaning seems to be twofold: that Miss Bean made him a “target” for her attention because she wanted to force other students to recognize him as a colleague, and later he became the literal “target” of the eraser she threw.Critical Reading and Discussion,5921. What does Wilkins mean by the term nonstandard person(paragraph 3)? Do you think helater felt more like a “standard” person? Why or why not?Answe r: At first, it seemed that “standard” in the Grand Rapids school could only mean white.As a nonwhite student, Wilkins was made to feel less than normal, adequate, or accepted. By saying in paragraph 11 that he became “just another kid in school,” Wilkins indicates that he came to feel more “standard.”2. Wilkins mentions several ways in which Miss Bean treated him differently from the way hewas treated by the other teachers at Creston. How did her approach differ from theirs? What does this approach reveal about Miss Bean—as a teacher and as a person?Answe r: Unlike Wilkins’s other teachers, who chose to ease him in by ignoring him for a while, Miss Bean made him talk in class immediately. She also asked him questions that required him to do his own thinking, not merely give the “correct”answer. Her approach reveals she was an effective teacher: she realized that if she did not take the lead, the otherstudents would isolate Wilkins. Also, she knew the value of encouraging students to think for themselves and express their own opinions. In addition, her approach reveals she was a sensitive person, concerned about Wilkins’s success in his new school.3. Wilkins says that initially he was Miss Bean’s “incipient teacher’s pet” (paragraph 6). Buthow did Miss Bean’s behavior toward him go beyond mere favoritism? In what way did her treatment of Wilkins affect how his peers regarded him?Answe r: Through her attention to Wilkins, Miss Bean was inviting him to demonstrate to the class that he was an intelligent, normal kid. By forcing him to give answers, to “clean up [another student’s] mess”and to present his opinions, she made it more likely that other students would see him as a person rather than as a “dark presence.”4. In paragraph 7, Wilkins says, “Miss Bean became the first teacher ever to require me tothink.” Prior to Miss Bean’s class, what do you suspect Wilkins—and his classmates—were being taught to do in school? Describe a teacher who gave you “the sense that thinking was part of education.” In your opinion, what can teachers do to get students to think?Answe r: Wilkins’s comment suggests that his other teachers had primarily required him to memorize material and parrot it back. Answers to the rest of the question will vary.Thesis-and-Support OutlineThesis: A teacher helped the first black student in school to be accepted and to learnto think for himself.1. As a black newcomer to an all-white school in a bigoted neighborhood before the era ofcivil rights, the author felt shame for being different (1-3).2. Miss Bean immediately began to give Wilkins “human dimensions” by including him inclass discussion (4-6).3. By requiring Wilkins to give his opinion on facts learned in class, Miss Bean showed him“that thinking was part of education”and that he could “form opinions that had some value” (7-10).4. By (accidentally) knocking a pencil from Wilkins’s hand with a tossed eraser, Miss Beanmade Wilkins “just another kid in school” (11).Suggested Answers for “The Ambivalence of Abortion”—Linda Bird Francke Note: The numbers in parentheses refer to relevant paragraphs in the selection.Reading Comprehension Questions, 596-5971. b2. d3. a Answer b gives an incorrect idea of how the author feels about the abortion;answers c and d are too narrow.4. c Answers a and d are too narrow; answer b does not reflect the author’sconfused feelings about the abortion.5. c Paragraph 66. False Paragraphs 4, 12, 207. d Paragraph 138. a Paragraph 39. c Paragraph 2710. True Paragraphs 5, 10Structure and Technique,597-5981. Which method of introduction—broad-to-narrow, anecdote, or questions—does Francke use?Why do you think she chose this way to begin her essay?Answer:Francke uses an anecdote, the story of how she and her husband decided she should have an abortion. By doing so, she immediately shows the reader that she is writing about something that is a very personal issue for her. In addition, the anecdote sets the tone of ambivalence of the piece (“Oh, how we tried to rationalize it that night”).2. A rhetorical question is one for which no answer is expected. In paragraph 14, Franckeposes an extended rhetorical question. What does she achieve by using this technique?Answer:While telling the reader what thoughts went through Francke’s mind before the abortion, the question also reveals a major source of her doubts: she has a great love and respect for all living things. Also, by framing these ideas in question form, she helps the reader better understand the ambivalence she felt.3. A simile is a figure of speech in which a writer compares one thing to another very differentthing, using the word like or as to bring out a surprising relationship between the two. In paragraph 19, Francke uses a simile when she writes that her baby “was sucked up like ashes after a cocktail party.” Why does she use this particular simile? What view of abortion does it suggest?Answer:The image of ashes being vacuumed up suggests an unimportant bit of trash being cleaned up. Francke uses it to suggest a casual view of abortion in which the fetus didn’t matter.4. Repetition is one way of emphasizing an idea. In the final sentences of her essay, Franckeemploys repetition when she writes, “‘Of course we have room,’I cry to the ghost. ‘Of course, we do.’” What is she emphasizing by repeating the words “of course”? Where does she use repetition in paragraph 3, and what is she emphasizing there?Answer:By repeating “Of course,” she emphasizes that she regrets the abortion and wishes she and her husband could have welcomed the child into their lives. In paragraph 3, she repeats the word “agreed”: “There just wasn’t room in our lives now for another baby. We both agreed. And agreed. And agreed.”This repetition emphasizes the difficulty of the decision, the struggle Francke and her husband had to endure to come to their agreement. Critical Reading and Discussion,5981. In what ways are the staff at Women’s Services considerate to Francke and to the otherpatients? In what ways are they not considerate?Answer:They are considerate in terms of the patients’need for quick efficiency—they do their jobs well. They are cheerful and polite. They are less considerate by not acknowledging the mixed feelings their patients may have been having. By telling one scared patient, “By this afternoon you’ll be dancing a jig,” the aide brushes aside the woman’s fear. They do not appear to offer the women an opportunity to have second thoughts and cancel the abortion 2. Not everyone in this essay responds to abortion in the same way. What different responsesare apparent in Francke’s essay? In your opinion, what are the reasons for these differences?Answer:Francke herself felt sad and confused about her abortion. Other women at the center seemed “dazed,”while others seemed unmoved, as if “they were going right back to Bloomingdale’s.” Students’ answers to the second question will vary.3. At the end of Francke’s essay, the question about whether she supports abortion stillremains. From your sense of the essay, do you think Francke is for or against abortion after having had one? Why?Answer:Students’ answers will vary.4. Francke emphasizes her ambivalence toward abortion throughout the essay. Do you thinkambivalence is a valid position, or is it an easy way to avoid a difficult question? In general, should people have straightforward answers to complex questions? Explain.Answer:Answers will vary.Thesis-and-Support OutlineThesis:Having an abortion was a complex decision the author sometimes regrets having made.1. She and her husband had difficulty rationalizing their decision (1-3).2. Her experiences at the Women’s Services clinic were physically and emotionally revolting(4-22).3. She sometimes sees the “ghost” of her unborn baby and seems to regret her choice (27).Suggested Answers for “Smash Thy Neighbor”—John McMurtryNote: The numbers in parentheses refer to relevant paragraphs in the selection.Reading Comprehension Questions,604-4051. c2. b3. a Answers b and c are too broad; answer d is too narrow.4. d Answers a and c are too narrow; answer b contradicts the author.5. c Paragraphs 5 through 86. b Paragraphs 9 and 107. a Paragraph 188. c Paragraph 149. b Paragraph 1810. dStructure and Technique,605-6061. McMurtry uses several patterns of development in his essay: comparison-contrast,cause-effect, description, narration, and argumentation. Where does he use each of those patterns?Answer:McMurtry uses comparison-contrast in paragraphs 5–8, where he compares football and war, and 9–10, where he contrasts his early joy in football with what the game became.He uses cause-effect in paragraphs 15 and 17–18, talking about the game’s effect and players and audience. Description is found in numerous places, such as paragraph 11, in which he describes his injuries. Narration occurs in in paragraph 2, where McMurtry tells the story of his injury and hospitalization. The entire piece is argumentation—everything the author says is meant to support his argument that football in its present state is too violent. In addition to supporting his case forcefully throughout, he uses two specific argumentation strategies: 1) in paragraph 15, he states an opposing view of football, and 2) he then rebuts that view in paragraphs 16–18.2. McMurtry uses terms such as “body wreckage,”“body shattering,”and “skilledmasochism”to describe organized football. Find three other phrases the author uses to describe football (beginning with paragraph 9). What effect does McMurtry hope this language will have on the reader?Answer:“Brutal circus,”“crippling bodily moves,”“joyless drill,”“people-smashing,”and “angry antagonism” are among the descriptive phrases McMurtry uses. He wants the reader to conclude that football in its present form causes too much harm.3. In paragraph 11, McMurtry provides a series of details about the injuries he has sustainedplaying football. List some of these details. Why do you think he includes these personal details in his essay?Answer:The details McMurtry provides include torn knee ligaments, broken nose, broken jaw, torn ankle ligaments, fractured ankle, fractured ribs, torn cartilage, dislocated fingers and toes, and dislocated shoulder. McMurtry includes such details to give a powerful picture of the toll football has taken on his body and also to show that he is writing about a topic with which he has had considerable experience.4. In “Smash Thy Neighbor,”McMurtry repeatedly describes his own personal experienceswith football. What do these anecdotes contribute to the essay? How do they relate to the larger point he is trying to make?Answer:The anecdotes make it clear that even a thoughtful, intelligent man like McMurtry could become so nearly irrational in his attitude towards football: that he would do things to his opponents that he never would in his other life; that he would play despite injuries that threatened his health; that he became vicious and inhumane. By sharing his own experiences, he makes a persuasive point that organized football has very negative effects.Critical Reading and Discussion,6061. What is McMurtry’s current profession? How might his present position have influenced hisopinions about football?Answer:In paragraph 1, McMurtry says he is a university philosophy teacher. As a scholar and philosopher, McMurtry has probably spent a good deal of time thinking about his former life as a professional athlete. As a philosopher, he would know the works of Aristotle (cited in paragraph 15) and be capable of seeing the difference between the role of stage tragedy and bloody athletic contests.2. The author makes a comparison between war and football. Do you think this is a faircomparison? Why or why not?Answer:Answers will vary.3. According to McMurtry, what qualities of our society are reflected in football? What is youropinion of his analysis?Answer:In paragraph 14, McMurtry cites a Harvard study that says such qualities as “impersonal acceptance of inflicted injury,”the devotion of “organizational goals,”the “ability to turn oneself on and off,” and the desire to win are prized by our society, especially in business. Students’ opinion of the analysis will vary.4. In paragraphs 15–18, McMurtry points out—and then refutes—the belief that football benefitssociety. Do you believe that football and sports in general are harmful or helpful to society?Explain.Answer:Answers will vary.Thesis-and-Support Outline。

词汇学复习试题一第二部分非选择题Ⅱ.Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.（10%）16.Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, elevationand _______.17. The language used in England between 450 and 1150 is called _____________.18. CCELD is a __________ dictionary.19 .In the phrase "the mouth of the river",the word "mouth" is _______motivated.20.Physical situation or environment relating to the use of words is ________ context.Ⅲ.Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1)types of meaning changes; 2)types of meaning;3)language branches and 4)meaning and context.（10%）A B21.Scandinavian（） A. mill（place where things are made）22.Germanic（） B .grammatical23.extension（） C. double meaning24.narrowing（） D .Swedish25.linguistic（） E .comprehend/understand26.ambiguity（） F. Dutch27.participants（）G. degermined28.difference in denotation（）H. pigheaded29.appreciative（）I. non-linguistic30.pejorative（）J. iron（a device for smoothing clothes）Ⅳ.Study the following words or expressions and identify 1）types of bound morphemes underlined, and 2）types of word formation or prefixes.（10%）31.predict（）32.motel（）33.potatoes（）34.blueprint（）35.preliminaries（）36.Southward（）37.demilitarize（）38.hypersensityve（）39.retell（）40.multi-purposes（）Ⅴ.Define the following terms.（10%）41.acronymy42.native words43.elevation44.stylistic meaning45.monolingral dictionaryⅥ.Answer the following questions. Your answers should the clear and short. Write your answers in the space given below.（12%）46.How many types of motivation are there in English? Give ONE example for eachtype.47.What are the major sources of English synonyms? Illustrate your points.48.What are the clues generally provided in verbal context?Ⅶ.Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below.（18%）49.Analyze the morphological structures of following words and point out the typesof the morphemes.Recollection, nationalist, unearthly50.Pick out the idioms in the following extract and explain its origin and the effect ofusing this form."Well, it's the old story of the stitch in time," he said.复习一答案Ⅱ.(10%)16.transfer 17.OLD English 18.monolingual 19.semantically 20.extralinguistic/non-linguisticⅢ.(10%)21.D 22.F 23.A 24.J 25.B 26.C 27.I 28.E 29.G 30.HⅣ.(10%)31.bound root 32.（head+tail）blinding 33.inflectional affix/morpheme 34.a+n35.full conversion 36.suffix 37.reversativ 38.prefix of degree 39.prefix40.number prefixⅤ.(10%)41.The process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.42.Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britian in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes.43.The process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.44.The distinctive stylistic features of words which make them appropriate for different context.45.A dictionary written in one language, or a dictionary in which entries are defined in the same language.Ⅵ.(12%)46.There are four types of motivation:1）Onomatopoeic motivation, e.g. cuckoo, squeak, quack, etc.2）Morphological motivation, e.g. airmail, reading-lamp, etc.3）Semantic motivation, e.g. the mouth of the river, the foot of the mountain, etc. 4）Etymological motivation, e.g. pen, laconic, etc.47.Key points:borrowing; dialects and regional English; figurative and euphemistic use of words; coincidence with idiomatic expressions.48.Key points:definition; explanation; example; synonymy; antonymy; hyponymy; relevant details and word structure.Ⅶ.(18%)49.1）Each of the three words consists of three morphemes, recollection （re+collect+ion）,nationalist（nation+al+ist）,unearthly（un+earth+ly）.2）Of the nine morphemes, only "collect","nation" and "earth" are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3）All the rest re-,-ion,-al,-ist,un- and -ly are bound as none of them can stand alone as words.50.1）the stitch in time ----- a stitch in time saves nine（3分）2）proverbs are concise, forcible and thought-provoking（1分）3）using an old saying is more persuasive（2分）4）the short form saves time, more colloquial（2分）5）indicates intimacy or close relationship（1英语词汇学复习试题二II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book. (15 % )31. A world is a-------form of a language that has a given sound and syntactic function.32. In the Middle English period, the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of----------Words into English.33. The basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity is a called a -----------.34. The method of creation words by removing the supposed suffixes is called-------------.35. Words such as ― vicious, tyrant, determined, famous, notorious‖ usually indicate the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. They have---------- meaning in themselves.36. A word which is related to other words is related to them in----------.37. Car which used to b e a ― two- wheel cart drawn by horses and used in------------- ― has taken on the meaning ― automobile‖ with the development of modern car industry.38. In the sentence ― Copernicus believed in a heliocentric universe, rather than in the geocentric theory. ― , the word ― heliocentric ― is explained by the clue of ------------ structure.39. Due to structural ---------- of idioms, the word order of the idiom ― by twos and threes‖ cannot be turned into ― by threes and twos‖.40. Against the traditional practice of lexicography, --------- creates an extra column arranged alongside the definitions.III. Define the following terms. (15%)41. archaisms42. stem43. grammatical meaning44.amelioration45. rhetoric characteristics of idiomsIV. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. Write your answers in the space given below. (20 % )46. What are the three periods in view of the development of English vocabulary?47. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples.48. The word ― happy‖ has two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being negative and the other opposite. What are they?49. Can you determine the meanings of the following sentences? Explain and make some alterations in the context so as to pin down the meaning.(a) The fish is ready to eat.(b) I like Mary better than Jean.V. Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below. (20 % )50. Comment on the following groups of words to illustrate semantic features and grammatical features of compounds.Group 1 : ‖ a green hand‖, ― flowerpot‖Group 2: ― bad- mouth‖, ― new- borns‖51. Analyze and comment on the following sentences based on the concept that antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.[ A ] How tall is his sister?[ B ] How short is his sister?英语词汇学复习试题二答案二31 minimal free 32 French 33 root 34 back- formation 35 affective36 sense 37 war 38 word 39 stability 40 CCELD三41 Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.42 A stem can be defined as a from to which affixes of any kind can be added.43 Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.44 Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.45 Apart from the stylistic features, idioms manifest apparent rhetorical colouring in such respects as of phonetic manipulation, lexical manipulation and figures of speech. 四46 The three periods of the development of English are 1) Old English, which is the language used between 450and 1150 and which has a vocabulary of 50000-60000 words; 2) Middle English, which refers to the language spoken from 1150-1500;3) Modern English, which is divided by early modern English(1500-1700) and late modern English (1700 up to now).47 When adjectives are concerted into the nouns, some are completely changed, thus known as full conversion, and other are partially changed, thus known as partial conversion. Adjective which are fully converted can achieve a full noun status, e.g. , having all the characteristics of nouns,, that is , they can take‖ a/an‖ or ―-s/-es‖ to indicate singular or plural forms: a native, a Republican, a pair of shoes, finals. Adjectives which are partially converted can still keep adjective features. They should always be used with‖ the‖, and they cannot take‖-s/-es‖ to show plural forms. Moreover, the words can have comparative or superlative degrees: the poorer, the poorer, the young, the very unfortunate.48 Of the two antonyms of the word ― happy‖, the negative one is ― unhappy‖, theopposite one is ― sad‖.49 Yes. On a grammatical basis, both sentence can have two interpretations. The first sentence may mean ― The fish is cooked or served, so ready for people to eat‖ or ―The fish is ready to eat things‖. However, in the context of‖ What a nice smell! The fish is ready to eat ―,‖fish‖ definitely means the former. To achieve clarity, we can say ― The fish is ready to be eaten‖. The second sentence can be regarded as an elliptical one, which gives rise to ambiguity:‖ I like Marry better than I like Jean‖ or ―I like Mary better than Jean like Mary‖. To achieve clarity , we can either say ― I like Mary better than Jean dos e‖ or ― I like Mary better than I do Jean‖ or ― I like Mary better as Jean is untidy‖, etc.五Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. For instance,‖ a green hand‖ is an‖ in experienced person‖, not a hand that is green in colour. The meaning of such example cannot be easily inferred from the two components of the compound. Nevertheless, a lot of compounds are transparent, that is, the meaning can inferred from the separate el ements of compound. The compound ‖ flowerpot‖ can be an example. But the two elements are inseparable and the change of element will result in the loss of original identity.A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. ― Bad-mouth‖ used as a verb can take the third person singular‖-s‖ and the past tense marker‖-ed‖, e.g., ―He bad-mouthed me.‖ Compounds can show their plural forms by taking inflectional‖-s‖ at the end,e.g., ― new-borns‖. Of course, there are exceptions such as brothers-in-law, lookers-on. In spite of this their single grammatical role is apparent.51 Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively. In many pairs, we find that one member is more specific than the other and the meaning of the specific is included in that of the general. So far as the meaning is concerned, sentence A includes the meaning of B. The use of ― tall‖ does not exclude the possibility of ― his sister being very short‖. But sentence B is much more restricted in sense and is considered semantically abnormal unless the speaker is particularly interested in how short his sister is.英语词汇学复习试题三Ⅱ. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book. (10%)16. The name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo is___________.17. Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English is a___________ dictionary.18. When a new word appears for the first time, the author usually manages to givehints or ___________ in the context to help the readers.19. Radiation and ___________ are the two coinages which the development of word meaning follows from monosemy to polysemy.20. Middle English refers to the language spoken from 1150 to___________.Ⅲ. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) word origin, 2) word formation, and 3) types of synonyms or antonyms. (10%)A B( ) 21. skill A. back-formation( ) 22. babysit B. blending( ) 23. telequiz C. French origin( ) 24. composition/compounding D. Scandinavian origin( ) 25. government E. clipping( ) 26. same/ different F. relative synonyms( ) 27. gent G . Germanic( ) 28. English H. absolute synonyms( ) 29. change/ alter I. Contradictory terms( ) 30. big/ small J. contrary termsⅣ. Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) types of bound morphemes underlined, 2) types of meanings, 3) processes of meaning development, and 4) formation of compounds. (10%)31. neck→primary meaning: that part of man joining the head to the body;a secondary meaning: the narrowest part of anything.( ) 32. contradict ( )33. mother: love, care( )34. upcoming ( )35. window shopping( ) 36. radios ( )37. property developer( ) 38. candidate →earlier meaning: white -robed;later meaning: a person proposed for a place, award etc.( )39. handsome ⎪⎩⎪⎨⎧m an typewriter overcoat( )40. northward ( ) Ⅴ. Define the following terms. (10%)41. encyclopedia42. borrowed words43. blending44. extension45. phrasal verbⅥ. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. Write your answers in the space given below. (12%)46. What is the difference between prefixation and suffixation? Explain with two examples.47. What is extra-linguistic context?48. What is polysemy? Illustrate your points.Ⅶ. Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below. (18%)49. Study the following sentence and try to guess the meaning of the word in italics. Then explain what contextual clues help you to work out the meaning. Carnivores are very dangerous. Not long ago, a tiger escaped from the zoo and killed a dog in the street and ate it.50. Connotative meaning is not stable. Comment on this statement with one example.词汇学复习试题三答案II Complete the following statements with proper words Or expressions according to thecourse book．16．extension 或generalization 17．specialized18．clues 19．concatenation 20．1500III.Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according tO 1)word origin，2)word formation，and 3)types of synonyms or antonyms．21．D 22．A23．B 24．H25．C 26．I27．E 28．G29．F 30．J IV．Study the following words or expressions and identify 1)types of bound morphemesunderlined，2)types of meanings，3)processes of meaning development，and 4)formation ofcompounds．31．radiation 32．bound root33．connotative meaning 34．adv+v-ing35．n+v-ing 36．inflectional affix／inflectional morpheme37．n+v-er 3.concatenation39．collocative meaning 40．suffix／derivational affixV．Definethefollowingterms．41．An encyclopedia provides encyclopedic information concerning each headword；it is notconcerned with the language per se.42．Borrowed words,also，known，as loan words，are words taken over from foreign languages．43．It refers to the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word with a partof another word．44．Extension is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has nowbecome generalized．45.idiom composed of a verb plus a preposition and／or a particle．VI.Answer the following questions．Your answers should be clear and short．Write youranswers in the space given below．46．Prefixation does not generally change the word-class of the stem；it only modifies its meaning.e.g．treat--maltreatSuffixation，On，the other hand，changes the word-class instead of its meaning.e.g．employ——employer47.(1)Known as non-linguistic context or context of situation．(2)componentsa.participants(addresser and addressee)writer and readerspeaker and listener／hearerb.time and placec.cultural background48.要点：1)a common feature peculiar to all natural languages．2)have more than one sense．3)The problem of polesemy Can be dealt with from two angles：diachronic approach andsynchronic approach．VII．Analyze and comment on the following．Write your answers in the space given below．49(1)tiger is a hyponym，of carnivore(2)carnivore is a superordinate of tiger(3)tiger feeds on meat as known by all(4)carnivore may feed on meat(5)therefore，a carnivore is a meat-eating animal50.(1)connotative meaning，known as connotation，refers to the overtones or associationssuggested by the conceptual meaning．(2)connotative meanings are not given in the dictionary．but associated with the word in actualcontext to particular readers or speakers．Thus they are unstable.varying considerablyaccording to culture，historical period and the experience of the individual．(3)For example，home may remind one child of warmth，safety or love，while to another child who isoften scolded or beaten at home,it may mean indifference，hatred，or even hell．英语词汇学复习试题四第二部分非选择题II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book（10％）16. The same idiom may show _____ differences when it is used in different meanings including affective meaning.17. LDCE is a _____ dictionary.18. Antonyms are classified on the basis of _____.19. The opposite of semantic elevation in meaning change is called _____.20. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but have limited _____.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1）types of meaning changes;2）types of meaning;3）language branches and 4）features of idioms（10％）21. grammatical meaning ( ) A. Scottish22. reading-lamp ( ) B. neither fish, flesh, nor fowl23. pen ( ) C. morphologically motivated24. alliteration ( ) D. head of a state25. difference in connotation ( ) E. answer/ respond26. elevation ( ) F. etymologically motivated27. degradation ( )G. garage ( a place for storing cars)28. narrowing ( )H. thing (any object or event)29. extension ( )I. part of speech30. Celtic ( )J. knave (a dishonest person)IV. Study the following words and expressions and identify 1）types of bound morphemes underlined;2）types of word formations;3）types of meaning and 4）types of meaning of idioms.（10％）31. heart and soul ( )32. father—male parent ( )33. mother—female parent ( )34. city-bred ( )35. lip-reading to lip-read ( )36. headache ( )37. antecedent ( )38. preview ( )39. receive ( )40. called ( )V. Define the following terms（10％）41. specialized dictionary42. collocative meaning43. transfer44. morpheme45. old EnglishVI. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short Write your answers in the space given below.（12％）46.What's the fundamental difference between radiation and concatenation? Illustrate your points.47. What is dismembering?48. What is collocative meaning? Give one example to illustrate your point.VII. Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below.（18％）49. The 'pen' is mightier than the 'sword'.Explain what 'pen' and 'sword' mean respectively using the theory of motivation. 50. Study the following sentence, paying special attention to the words in italics. If you find anything wrong, please explain why and then improve the sentence.(100 words)The police were ordered to stop drinking about midnight.英语词汇学复习试题四参考答案第二部分非选择题II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book. (10%)16. stylistic 17.monolingual 18.semantic opposition 19. degradation 或pejoration 20.productivity and collocabilityIII. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) types of meaning changes;2)types of meaning;3)language branches and 4) features of idioms. (10%)21. I 22. C 23. F 24. B 25. E26. D27. J28. G29. H 30. AIV. Study the following words and expressions and identify 1) types of bound morphemes underlined;2) types of word formation；3）types of meaning and 4) types of meaning of idioms.(10%)31. adverb idiom/ idiom adverbial in nature 32. conceptual meaning33. conceptual meaning34. n+v-ed 35. backformation 36. n+v 37. bound root 38. prefix 39. bound root40. inflectional affix/morphemeV. Define the following terms.(10%)41. Specialized dictionary refers to a dictionary which concentrates on a particular area of language or knowledge. (内容1.5分；语言0.5分)42. Collocative meaning is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. (内容1.5分；语言0.5分)43. Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.44. the minimal meaningful unit of a language.45. the language used in England from 450 to 1150.VI. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. Write your answers in the space given below.(12%)46. 要点：Radiation Concatenationi) primary meaning i) first senseii）次要意义由主要意义辐射ii）由此意义连续转换；特点为链接iii）名词语义互不依赖iii）最后意义与第一意义失去联系的迹象47. 要点：（1）break up an idiom into pieces（2分）（2）an unusual case of using idioms（1分）（3）in literature or popular press for special effect（1分）注：语言扣分不得超过1分（语法扣1分，拼写扣0.5分）48. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by words before or after the word in discussion. For example, 'pretty' and 'handsome' share the conceptual meaning of 'good looking', but are distinguished by the range of nouns they collocate with:pretty handsomeVII. Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below. (18%)49. 答案要点1）Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.2）Semantic motivation, one of the four major types of motivation, explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.(3分)3）In this sentence, 'pen' reminds one of the tool to write with, thus suggesting writing; 'sword' reminds one of the weapon to fight with, thus suggesting war.(4分)50.要点：（1）it is ambiguous（2分）（2）ambiguity caused by the structure（2分）（3）stop drinking can be understood as1）police stop drinking by themselves (1分)2）police stop people drinking (1分)（4）improvement（3分）1）The police were ordered to stop people drinking about midnight.2）The police were ordered to stop drinking by themselves about midnight.英语词汇学复习试题五第二部分非选择题Ⅱ.Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.(10%)16._________________meaning refers to the part of speech, tenses of verbs, etc.17.The word __________has the old meaning "servant" and the elevated meaning "head of a ministry".18.The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary or ______________.19.When a word with more than one meaning is used in unclear context, it creates _______________.20.Almost all affixes are __________morphemes because few can be used as independent words.Ⅲ.Match the words in Column A with those in Column B according to 1)rhetorical features of the idioms; 2)sense relations; 3)assimilation degree; 4)characteristics of the basic word stock and 5)motivation.(10%)A B21.reiteration ( ) A. high and low22.repetition ( ) B. pick and choose23.juxtaposition ( ) C. face to face24.perfect homonym ( ) D. Failure is the mother of success.25.personification ( ) E. hiss26.portus ( ) F. bear; beare ( ) G. twitter28.heart ( ) H. cat29.birds ( ) I. port30.snakes ( ) J. heart and soulⅣ.Study the following words and expressions and identify 1)types of context clues;2)types of word formation; 3)types of word-meaning changes and 4)rhetoricalfeatures of idioms.(10%)31.making a restatement of a new word or concept in familiar words ( )32.sitcom ( )33.the usual amenities such as a pub, a post office and a school ( )34.form cradle to grave ( )35.might and main ( )36.fax ( )37.disobey,impolite, ( )38.hussy:"housewife"→"a woman of low morals"( )39.disease:"discomfort"→"illness"( )40.fond:"foolish"→"affectionate"( )Ⅴ.Define the following terms.(10%)41.dictionary42.pejoration43.idioms nominal in nature44.Germanic45.allomorphⅥ.Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. Write your answers in the space given below.(12%)46.What are the stylistic features of idioms?47. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point.48. How do you distinguish inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?Ⅶ.Analyze and comment on the following. Write your answers in the space given below.(18%)ment on the following pairs of sentences in terms of superordinate and subordinates.a. The man said he would come to our school next week.b. The visiting scholar said he would visit our university next Monday.50.Analyes the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes.unbearable, international, ex-prisoner英语词汇学复习试题五参考答案Ⅱ.Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.(10%)16. Grammatical 17. minist 18. conventional 19. ambiguity 20. boundⅢ.Match the words in Column A with those in Column B. (10%)21.B 22.C 23.A 24.F 25.D26.I 27.H 28.J 29.G 30.EⅣ.Study the following words and expressions and identify 1)types of context clues;2)types of word formation; 3)types of word-meaning changes and 4)rhetoricalfeatures of idioms.(10%)31.explanation32.head+head blending33.hyponymy/hyponym34.figure of speech; metonymy35.phonetic manipulation/alliteration36.back clipping37.affixation, prefixation or negative prefixes38.degradation39.narrowing40.elevationⅤ.Define the following terms.(10%)41. Dictionary is a book which presents in alphabetical order the words of a language, with information as to their spelling, pronunciation, meaning usage, etc.42. Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.43.(1)Each idiom has a noun as the key word.(2)Each functions as a noun/also knows asnoun idioms.44.a term used to refer to a branch of the Indo-European language family, which consists of English, German, Dutch, etc.45.one of the variants that realize a morphemeⅥ.Answer the following questions.(12%)46.(1)Many idioms were created in different professions, so they were trade-or profession-related, colloquial and informal.(2)Now most become a part of the common core, neither formal nor informal.(3)There are still many colloquialisms, slang expressions, literary expressions comparativelysmall in number.47.A)Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases.B)Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation; it's the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.48.Inflectional affixes are affixes (1) attached to the end of words; (2) to indicate grammatical relationships, while derivational affixes are affixes; (3) added to other morphemes; (4) to create new words.Ⅶ.Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short Write your answers in the space given below.(18%)49.要点：Superordinate Subordinate1) man scholar2) come visit3) school university4) week Monday50.1)Each of the three words consists of three morphemes unbearable(un+bear+able), international (inter+nation+al), ex-prisoner(er+prison+er).2)Of the nine morphemes, only bear, nation and prison are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3)All the rest un-,-able,inter-,-al, ex-and-er are bound as none of them can stand alone as words.英语词汇学复习试题六。

the connection between雅思答案The connection between people and plants has long been the subject of scientific research. Recent studies have found positive effects. A study conducted in Youngstown，Ohio，for example, discovered that greener areas of the city experienced less crime. In another，employees were shown to be 15% more productive when their workplaces were decorated with houseplants.The engineers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology（MIT）have taken it a step further changing the actual composition of plants in order to get them to perform diverse，even unusual functions. These include plants that have sensors printed onto their leaves to show when they’re short of water and a plant that can detect harmful chemicals in groundwater. ＂We’re thinkin g about how we can engineer plants to replace functions of the things that we use every day,＂explained Michael , a professor of chemical engineering at MIT.One of his latest projects has been to make plants grow（发光）in experiments using some common vegetables. team found that they could create a faint light for three-and-a-half hours. The light，about one-thousandth of the amount needed to read by，is just a start. The technology, he said, could one day be used to light the rooms or even to turn tree into self-powered street lamps.in the future，the team hopes to develop a version of the technology that can be sprayed onto plant leaves in a one-off treatment that would last the plant’s lifetime. The engineers are also trying to develop an on and off＂switch＂where the glow would fade when exposed to daylight.Lighting accounts for about 7% of the total electricity consumed in the US. Since lighting is often far removed from the power source（电源）—such as the distance from a power plant to street lamps on a remote highway-a lot of energy is lost during transmission（传输）.Glowing plants could reduce this distance and therefore help save energy.32. What is the first paragraph mainly about?A. A new study of different plants.B. A big fall in crime rates.C. Employees from various workplaces.D. Benefits from green plants.33. What is the function of the sensors printed on plant leaves by MIT engineer?A. To detect plants’ lack of waterB. To change compositions of plantsC. To make the life of plants longer.D. To test chemicals in plants.34. What can we expect of the glowing plants in the future?A. They will speed up energy production.B. They may transmit electricity to the home.C. They might help reduce energy consumption.D. They could take the place of power plants.35. Which of the following can be the best title for the text?A. Can we grow more glowing plants?B. How do we live with glowing plants?C. Could glowing plants replace lamps?D. How are glowing plants made pollution-free?答案32. D 33.A 34. C 35. C。

初二年级英语议论文写作单选题50题1. When writing an argumentative essay about whether students should be allowed to use mobile phones at school, which of the following can be a strong argument?A. Mobile phones are very popular among students.B. Mobile phones can be used to play games during breaks.C. Mobile phones can help students search for information for study.D. Mobile phones have different colors and styles.答案：C。

解析：在议论文中，论点需要有说服力。

A选项只是陈述手机在学生中很流行，这与是否应该在学校使用手机没有直接关联。

B选项提到手机可用于课间玩游戏，这反而可能成为不允许使用手机的理由。

C选项指出手机能帮助学生搜索学习资料，这是支持学生在学校使用手机的有力论点。

D选项手机有不同颜色和样式与论点毫无关系。

2. For an argumentative essay on the topic of whether it is good to have more PE classes in school, which one is a relevant argument?A. PE classes make students tired.B. PE classes can improve students' physical health.C. Some students don't like sports.D. PE teachers are very strict.答案：B。

英语六级作文陈述分论点的连接词In writing an English Cet-6 essay, it is important to connect different points effectively to ensure the logical flow of the essay. Transition words and phrases play a crucial role in creating smooth transitions between ideas and arguments.Firstly, transition words are essential for introducing an idea or point. Words such as "Firstly", "To begin with", and "Initially" can be used to signal the beginning of a new argument. For example, "Firstly, it is important to consider the impact of climate change on the environment."Secondly, transition words can be used to add information or provide further explanation. Words like "Moreover", "Furthermore", and "In addition" can help to expand on a point that has already been made. For instance, "Moreover, recent studies have shown a direct correlation between air pollution and respiratory diseases."Additionally, transition words can be used to compare or contrast different ideas. Phrases like "On the other hand", "In contrast", and "Similarly" can be used to show the relationship between different arguments. For example, "On the other hand,some experts argue that renewable energy sources are the key to combatting climate change."Furthermore, transition words are useful for showing cause and effect relationships. Words such as "As a result", "Therefore", and "Consequently" can be used to explain the consequences of a particular action or event. For instance, "Consequently, the government has implemented stricter regulations to reduce carbon emissions."In conclusion, transition words and phrases are essential for connecting different points in an English Cet-6 essay. By using these words effectively, writers can ensure that their arguments are well-structured and easy to follow for the reader.。

TP1121-1May 1997 A definitive guide to earthing and bondingin hazardous areasby LC Towle BSc CEng MIMechE MIEE MInstMCTechnology DirectorThe MTL Instruments Group plc1 IntroductionThis document details what has proved to be acceptable practice for earthing and bonding of electrical apparatus used in hazardous areas. The subject is not complex, but partially because it is relevant to more than one area of electrical expertise a systematic approach to the subject is desirable. There are numerous codes of practice which specify how earthing and bonding should be carried out, but the fundamental requirements are independent of the geographic location of the installation and hence there should be no significant difference in requirements.T his document predominantly describes what is acceptable practice in the United Kingdom and Europe. If a national code of practice exists and differs fundamentally from this document then it should be questioned. It may be considered expedient to comply with such a code but it is important to be assured that doing so results in a safe installation.Some parts of this note state what are well-known basic principles to practising electrical and instrument engineers.They are restated primarily for the sake of completeness, and ease of reference .2 DefinitionsOne of the major causes of difficulty is that the terms bonding and earthing are used interchangeably. In this document the terms are defined as follows.Earthing is the provision of a specific return path for fault currents so as to operate protective devices in a very short time.Bonding is the interconnection of two adjacent pieces of conducting material so as to prevent a potential difference between them which would be a hazard to people or be capable of causing an ignition.Occasionally a system is referenced to the ground on which it stands by using mats of copper or rods driven into the ground. For the purpose of differentiating this process from that of earthing and bonding in this document, this process will be referred to as grounding.3 The reasons for earthing and bondingThe basic reasons for earthing and bonding are quite simply:a) To provide a dedicated reliable low-impedance return path for fault currents so that the fault can be detected and the source of power removed as quickly as possible.b) To prevent potential differences whichwould create a possible electrocution hazardto personnel or produce sparking capable ofcausing ignition.c) To minimise the effect of lightning strikeseither directly on the installation or adjacentto it.d) To control or prevent the build-up ofelectrostatic discharges.e) To minimise the effect of electricalinterference and provide a signal reference forinstrumentation systems.f) To satisfy segregation and define fault-pathrequirements necessary to ensure the safetyof explosion-proof apparatus.It is desirable to remove fault currents asquickly as possible (less than a second) so asto prevent the dissipation at the point of faultfrom causing a fire or explosion. The majorityof gases require a temperature in excess of200°C to spontaneously ignite and a similartemperature can cause fires and will destroyconventional insulation.It is interesting that the potential differencewhich is not acceptable from the electrocutionrequirement is not significantly different fromthat required to ignite gases.The sensitivity ofthe human body to electricity is quite complexsince it is both frequency and time dependent.There are many excellent references on thesubject, one of which is ‘Touch Voltages inElectrical Installations’ by BD Jenkins. Asimplified analysis is represented by figure 1.This suggests that limiting the current betweenthe body’s extremities to 5mA can be achievedby restricting the available voltage to 25V rmsover a separation of perhaps 2.5m.Similarly the familiar ignition curves from theCENELEC apparatus standard, figure 2, suggestthat a voltage in excess of 10V is necessary tocreate a spark capable of causing ignition. Therequirements for spark prevention andelectrocution are not therefore significantlydifferent.Minimum igniting currentsapplicable to electricalapparatus with cadmium,zinc, magnesiumor aluminium5A2A1A500mA200mA100mA50mA20mA10mA10V20V50V100V200V500VIIIAIIBIICFigure 2 Minimum igniting current curvesThe requirements of both bonding andearthing from an electrical viewpoint are notsignificantly more onerous on a hazardousplant than those of a conventional plant. Theconsequences of a failure may be moredangerous on a hazardous plant andconsequently additional precautions toincrease the reliability of the bonding andearthing are usually taken.The following sections examine each of thefundamental requirements in more detail.14 EarthingThe primary purpose of earthing is to provide a well-defined reliable return path for any fault current which may develop. The concept is best illustrated by considering the self-contained situation illustrated in figure 3 where the electricity is generated locally.The fault current is returned to its source and not to ground. The return path has to provide a possible path wherever the fault develops and hence is usually connected to the metallic structure at any convenient point along its path.Ideally a fault should cause sufficient current to flow to operate the protective devices in a relatively short time. A fault which has significant impedance would perhaps not allow enough current to flow so as to operate the protective fuses, and the resultant heat could create a hazard. In almost all installations providing power to hazardous areas it is not usual to rely on fuses for adequate electrical protection. A combination of earth leakage and out-of-balance current monitoring is almost always used.During the time that the protective network takes to operate, the plant may be transiently at risk and consequently it is important to reduce this time as far as possible.T his transient risk has always been accepted in Zone 1 and 2 locations but is possibly not acceptable in the continuously hazardous location of Zone 0. Where explosion-proof equipment must be used in Zone 0 then the difficult problem of minimising the transient fault current must be addressed.5 BondingBonding is the process which ensures that adjacent conducting materials are reliably connected together.A n effective bond provides a path for structural currents and ensures that the interconnected objects are at the same potential.Figure 4 illustrates how all the equipment is bonded to the structure, thus ensuring that no appreciable voltage difference which could be detrimental to personnel safety is created. The bond is effectively in parallel with the human and the fault current is divided between them. An effective bond will have a resistance of 20mΩ and therefore would need a fault current of 1250A to generate the 25V which is the maximum desirable to ensure personnel safety. Since there are invariably a number of parallel plant bonds, the probability of such a significant current flowing through a particular bond is very small.When both bonding and earthing are complete, then fortunately they reinforce one another. The bond provides an alternative return path and the earthing conductor duplicates the function of the bond. The system becomes as illustrated in figure 5, creating an effective interconnected web of return path and bonding. This has the merit that safety is no longer dependent on a single conductor or connection. The resultant equipotential plane is not significantly different from that created23by the German practice of systematic interconnection of all system structures and deliberate earth mats. T he merit of the German system is that adequate provision is made for easy connection to the equipotential plane which makes a clear statement of the desirable practice so much easier. If a plant is being constructed on a clear site then serious consideration to adopting the German techniques should be given.A side-effect of having an effective equipotential plane is that its inductance is quite low which has a beneficial effect in reducing problems associated with high-frequency transmission and the fast rise-time transients of lightning but does not significantly affect mains frequency currents.6 GroundingThe primary reasons for connecting electrical circuits and structures to the earth mats which attempt to make a connection to the surface of the planet are to provide a return path for the electrical supply to a plant, and to minimise the effect of lightning strikes.There are a number of ways in which electrical supplies on plants are derived but a very common system is that illustrated in figure 6.The electrical power for the installation is fed at some relatively high distribution voltage from the grid system and connected at the plant by a distribution transformer which provides a 440V 3-phase star-connected system.The centre point of the star is the system neutral and is connected to a speciallyconstructed mat which connects to the ground.This connection provides a return path for any fault current which is derived from the grid distribution system. T he return path is not well defined. T he route may be via the pylon earths,the protective conductor and any other electrical conductor which happens to be convenient. The impedance of this path is not too critical since the high distribution voltage will drive a detectable current through a relatively high resistance connection.A secondary effect of referencing the neutral to ground is to provide a parallel return path through the ground for any fault currents which would normally flow through the structure. It is not usual to rely on such paths for electrical protection in hazardous areas since they are not well defined. If for some reason part of a plant is not adequately bonded, then if it makes some connection to the ground it becomes partially protected. T his is not a satisfactory state of affairs but is preferable to having no interconnection.In general, with the possible exception of lightning protection which is discussed in the next section, the connection to ground is not important in discussing electrical protection on hazardous plants.7 LightningThis enthralling subject is worthy of considerable discussion and a much fuller picture can be derived from reading the application notes produced by Telematic Ltd and listed in the references at the end of thisdocument. A brief analysis follows which10m 0.1µ(10kV)45The problems of multiple earthing should not be exaggerated and are predominantly operational. A conductor in parallel with a well-bonded structure will carry only a part of the structural current (tens of milliamps continuous). It is not likely to become hot or generate an incendive spark when broken because it will have a low inductance. Multiple earthing of intrinsically safe circuits is not permitted because of the ill-defined nature of the resultant circuits and only partially because of concern that such a circuit could be hazardous.The primary cause of low frequency interference within electrical equipment is also stray capacitive currents. It is necessary in all electronic equipment to provide a well-defined return path for any unwanted currents which are induced into the circuit. The predominant problem is created by capacitance between the primary and secondary of mains transformers and is illustrated in figure 12.In modern circuits using switch-mode power supplies the inter-winding capacitance is much smaller but the frequency is higher, hence the problem is still significant. The currents are relatively small (250µA) and provided a well-defined return path is available through the less sensitive parts of the circuitry via the link XY ,they cause no problem. If however this link is omitted then this current may follow the path indicated, through the sensitive input circuit,field wiring and capacitance to the wiring screen, creating an interference problem.Because this problem is increased by the connection of the field wiring it is frequently mis-diagnosed as being caused by pick-up in the field wiring. T he cure is however to securely connect the 0V rail of the computer to the neutral star point, thus providing a return path for these currents and also providing a well-defined electrically quiet reference potential for the computer.There is usually a small current induced in the field wiring. A possible form is illustrated in figure 13. If screened cable is used then the unwanted current can be returned to the neutral star point without passing through any sensitive part of the circuit. If unscreened cable is used then the unwanted current impinges upon the field wiring and finds it way back to the neutral star point via the sensitive input circuitry of the computer, which creates an interference problem.The interference current is small and hence the return path does not need to be of low resistance. However the earthing lead is normally made robust for mechanical reliability reasons. If screened cable is used for safety reasons then the screen and its earthing cable have to be sufficiently electrically robust to carry the possible fault current for sufficient time to ensure that the fault is cleared. Inpractice, the use of a robust cable (10mm 2) does not increase the installation cost appreciably and avoids the need to deeply consider all the possible implications.10 Explosion-proof equipmentAll explosion-proof equipment relies for its safety integrity on being adequately electrically protected so that electrical overloads do not generate excessive heat or incendive sparks.This document concentrates on intrinsic safety,where there tends to be more emphasis on the requirements of electrical protection and earthing. This is largely because of historical background to the development of the technique but is justified to some extent because of the use of intrinsically safe equipment in the more hazardous location of Zone 0. The possibility of working on circuits without isolating them and the requirement that some monitoring equipment has to remain functional in the presence of major gas releases or catastrophic circumstances also leads to further concern.The earthing of shunt diode safety barriers illustrates the fundamental requirements very well and hence is discussed in considerable detail. The shunt diode safety barrier was introduced to remove the necessity to certify complex safe-area equipment. It is designed to permit the normal operation of the circuit, and if a fault occurs within the safe-area equipment it should prevent the passage of a level of energy which can cause ignition or a level of power which can cause excessive temperature rise. A more detailed description of the operation of shunt diode barriers and also galvanic isolators is given in TP1113 ‘Shunt diode safety barriers and galvanic isolators – a critical comparison’.The protection technique of shunt diode barriers is illustrated by figure 14. A fault current derived from the mains phase voltage invades the safe-area side of the barrier. Part of the current may flow through the fuse of the barrier, rupturing it; but a significant part of it would flow through the 0V rail of the barrier system, being limited in magnitude only by the impedance of the fault circuit, and its duration determined by the fuse or other fault-current limitation protecting the phase providing the fault current. The return path provided to the neutral star point ensures that the fault current does not enter the hazardous area, by presenting a lower-impedance path along which the current prefers to flow.Barrier-protected intrinsically safe circuits are earthed at the barrier busbar only, and elsewhere are insulated from the plant structure. The field mounted instrument illustrated in figure 14 would normally have its enclosure bonded to the structure and its internal electronics isolated from the case and directly connected to the barrier. (The level of isolation required is to be capable of withstanding a 500V test. It is however advisable to avoid doing a 500V test on an installation where there is any possibility of a flammable gas being present).6Figure 14 Safe-area barrier fault currentDuring the short time that the fault current is flowing, a voltage drop occurs in the return path between the points X1 and X. T his voltage difference is transferred to the field mounted instrument since the enclosure is bonded to the structure at the same potential as the point X and the internal electronics directly connected to the point X1. Since this voltage difference occurs in the hazardous area it is desirable that it should be less than 10V so that the probability of an incendive spark is acceptably low. If the fault current from the 240V supply is 100A (a fault circuit impedance of 2.4Ω) then the impedance between X and X1 should be less than 0.1Ω. It is important to recognise that this is the resistance of the conductor between the barrier busbar and the neutral star point. The resistance of the connection to ground is not important sincethe fault current does not return to ground, itreturns to the neutral star point. Various codesof practice suggest that a value of 1Ω isacceptable but this is possibly too high.The lower value is usually readily achievable,since the barrier earth connection is alwaysquite short and is a robust cable to ensure itsmechanical integrity. For example, a 10mm2copper conductor has a resistance of 2.8mΩ/m. Hence a 25m cable would have a resistanceof 70mΩ and so would satisfy the requirement.It is interesting that a mains supply fault inthe hazardous area, as illustrated in figure 15,produces a similar potential difference createdby the fault current flowing through the plantstructure. The multiple return paths and crossbonding must create a low resistance returnpath of the same order as the barrier earthconductor so as to avoid significant voltagedifferences.The use of galvanic isolators as interfaceschanges the earthing requirements from beinga primary contributor to the method ofprotection, to a secondary one. Figure 16shows the fault being removed in a relatively shorttime by having a well-defined return path on thesafe-area side of the isolator.Voltage elevation ofthe safe-area side of the isolator is not transferredto the hazardous area, but a prolonged mains faultwould damage the components on the safe-areaside, or more probably damage the computer inputcircuit. In these circumstances the earth return isnot vital to safety and is primarily essential foroperational and electrical protection reasons.811 Combined earthing for interference avoidance and intrinsic safety purposesIn almost all circumstances the 0V rail of the computer and the barrier busbar are linked by the method of measurement and hence the earth returns are combined.Fig. 17 reiterates the normal practice of returning the computer 0V and the screens of the field wiring separately from the structural and power system to the neutral star point. T his system ensures a defined fault return path for any power faults or induced interference currents and prevents the power system currents generating a common mode voltage on the 0V rail of the computer.The introduction of the shunt diode barrier does not appreciably change the circumstances,as illustrated by figure 18 . The earth returns are combined by linking the computer 0V rail and screens to the barrier busbar, and the earth return path should meet the resistance requirement of at least 1Ω but preferably 0.1Ω.When isolators are used, the barrier busbar is omitted and the screens of the field wiring are connected to the 0V rail of the system as indicated in figure 19.In these circumstances the earth return from the 0V rail has to be of the same standard as for shunt diode safety barriers since the transient potential differences developed across it appear as voltage differences between the cable screens and the structure within the hazardous area.Protection against transients caused by lightning and power surges also impinges upon earthing and bonding requirements. A simplified view is that surge protection devices (SPDs)act in much the same way as shunt diode safetybarriers in that they protect equipment by910the neutral star point. Atypical installation might be a remote tank farm with only a limitedrequirement for power. Such a location would usually have a local distribution centre which would have a local earth mat which sets the potential of the local earth plant as illustrated in figure 24. The supply to the distribution centre has a fault return path to the neutral star point, provided by a specific conductor, the cable armour, and supplemented by an ill-defined path between the earth mats. Even with sensitive overload protection a modest fault current would generate a significant faultvoltage between the neutral star point at the distribution transformer and the plant reference potential at the local distribution centre. This potential difference is evenly distributed over a long distance and providing that the return path is sufficiently robust to avoid local heating,does not cause any problem.The barrier busbar should in these circumstances be connected to the local distribution centre busbar, and not connected by an isolated lead to the distant neutral star point. This local connection ensures that noFigure 24 Location with remote neutral star pointlarge voltage develops between the plant structure and the instrumentation circuits. The 0.1Ω requirement applies to the connection between the barrier busbar and the local distribution centre ground. The return path to the neutral star point is still necessary for electrical protection reasons, but in these circumstances voltage drop across the return path does not affect safety. T he final installation therefore complies with the two basic requirements of minimising the voltage differences within the hazardous area and having a secure return path for any fault current.Similar circumstances occur in numerous other situations. For example, when associated safe-area apparatus is mounted within flameproof enclosures then the circuits are usually bonded to the enclosure for optimum safety of the installation. In all circumstances, if an installation requires a long return path conductor from the barrier busbar, then it is being connected at the wrong point. The installation should be redesigned so as to minimise the fault difference voltage in the hazardous area.16 PME (protective multiple earth) installationIn this type of distribution system the neutral return conductor and the protective bonding conductor are combined, largely to reduce the cost of the installation. Figure 25 gives a much-simplified diagram of a fairly complex and ill-defined situation.The neutral is connected to the highly conductive strata in the ground via an earth rod at the distribution transformer, and also at each user installation, as illustrated. If all the connections are good (1 to 2Ω) and the system is working as designed, each user provides a load as indicated, the return current flows partially in the ground and partially in the neutral, and the system is reasonably safe.There are many possible faults, but consider a break in the neutral at the point indicated. The loads and earth resistances in parallel are equivalent to 3.3Ω; the conductive soil rises to 58V with respect to the transformer earth rod and the garage earth rises to 77V . This in itselfis not dangerous, unless by some unsuspected route, e.g. the traditional wire fence on wooden supports, the reference potential can be transferred to the garage forecourt.There are other possibly more frightening dangers if – coincident with a neutral fault –the other installations are not adequately earthed. In these circumstances all the fault current flows via the garage earth connection,probably the immersed storage tanks. The whole situation is so ill-defined that a safety analysis is very difficult and the very low probabilities of intrinsic safety fault counts become almost insignificant.Because of the increased probability of mains surges on PME installations then consideration should be given to fitting a mains surge suppressor on all such installations.On these installations safety must rely implicitly on the high-current capability , low-resistance bonding of the installation. The intrinsically safe system should be connected at one point to the PME system where the incoming neutral is connected to the local ground. Connected in this way , the intrinsically safe system does not modify the risk on the particular site. If instrument signals are transmitted from a PME site, then the outgoing signals should be isolated so that the site voltage distribution is not affected by the signal leads. Some consideration of the need to fit surge suppression should be given. This isolation should preferably be in a safe area on the site.There are a few installations, usually when the electrical power requirements are low and the installation is remote, when fitting a power isolation transformer creates a much safer system from a PME supply.Figure 26 shows a gas pipeline outstation system which demonstrates this principle.The PME earth connection must provide a reasonable connection back to the supply system or it does not comply with PME installation requirements. If possible it should be positioned a short distance away from the instrumentation point.The PME supply on this type of installation will usually require to be fitted with some form of surge suppression.The section of the pipeline being monitored should normally be isolated and an effective bypass should be connected to provide a path for any currents passing along the pipeline. T he isolated section then becomes the reference potential for the hazardous area.The section of the pipeline is frequently connected to an earth mat as shown, which in practice contributes very little and may confuse the cathodic protection being applied to the remainder of the pipeline. The barrier 0V is then referenced to the isolated pipe section and also returned to the centre tap of the isolation transformer so as to provide a return path for any fault current which flows.Earthing and bonding of a gas pipe monitoring stationIf land lines are used for the telemetry system then some form of isolation is normally provided in the telemetry output and surge suppression applied as indicated.In some locations remote outstations are powered by solar panels. This simplifies the situation considerably by removing the PME supply and the mains isolating transformer, but the interconnections are otherwise identical.In these small tightly-bonded locations then there is little point in using isolated interfaces, and the use of barriers reduces the power consumption from the restricted battery supply.17 Isolated intrinsically safe circuitsIn some situations there is a historic preference for fully isolated circuits in intrinsic safety since an initial connection to ground would apparently have no effect. This is no doubt traceable back to the original bell signal transformer circuit. It is however possible that fully isolated circuits could be charged to a potential which would store sufficient energy in their capacitance to ground to make a short to ground incendive (0.01µF is incendive when charged to 200V in hydrogen). This apparently significant problem does not create a hazardous situation in practical installations, possibly because the majority of ‘floating’ circuits are held at or near to ground potential by stray capacitance and/or leakage resistances. All the codes of practice known to the author permit fully-floating intrinsically safe circuits and hencethis hazard is largely ignored.Fortunately the majority of ‘fully isolated’circuits such as fire detection circuits areconnected to ground via a high value resistorconnected for earth leakage detectionpurposes. Quite a high value of resistance(100kΩ) will serve to prevent a circuit beingcharged in normal circumstances.T he referencepotential in these circumstances should bechosen so as not to be subject to high voltageinvasion.The use of earth leakage detection foranticipating field wiring faults, and also formonitoring the performance of circuits wherehigh operational reliability is very important, isa well established technique.18 Intermediate suppliesUsually there are some questions as to whetherthe supplies connected to the safe-areaterminals of interfaces should be earthed or not.In almost all circumstances earthing or bondingone side of a power supply is advisable since itdefines a path for capacitive interferencecurrents and makes the analysis of whathappens under fault conditions much easier.With all floating systems, the analysis of possiblesneak paths caused by multiple earthing is analmost impossible task.Battery supplies form one of the more commonsources of intermediate power, usually as tricklecharged back-up for mains supply failure. Over-heating and emission of oxygen and hydrogencreate significant problems and if possible it isadvisable to avoid locating batteries in ahazardous area. The need for adequateventilation and good installation andmaintenance requires attention in any type ofinstallation, so as to avoid the hazards associatedwith standby batteries. Floating batteries,particularly where the battery output is takento several circuits via extensive field wiring,usually create numerous sneak path possibilitiesand hence are best avoided. If floating batterysystems must be used then the use of shuntdiode safety barriers is possible but verydifficult. The use of isolators with three-portisolation is the preferred option.19. ShipsIn general the primary source of power in shipsis generated as a floating system with earthleakage monitoring in order to give maximumavailability of the critical systems under faultand emergency conditions. However, from anexplosion safety viewpoint the hull of the ship isthe reference potential and the safety requirementis met by preventing significant voltage differencesbetween the hull and the intrinsically safe circuits.The usual solution is as illustrated in figure27 where a mains power supply (usually110V) is developed from the floating supplyand referenced to the hull. The installationcan then utilise the code of practice relatingto land based installations.。