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Chapter 2 Pragmatics 语用学

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现代语言学前五章课后习题答案

现代语言学前五章课后习题答案

Chapter 1 Introduction1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage. 请解释以下语言学的定义:语言学是对语言的科学研究。

Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic investigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.语言学研究的不是任何特定的语言，而是一般的语言。

语言研究是科学的，因为它是建立在对真实语言数据的系统研究的基础上的。

只有在语言学家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出严肃的语言学结论:观察语言的实际使用方式，提出一些假设，并用语言事实检验这些假设的正确性。

1.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?语言学的主要分支是什么?他们每个人都研究什么?Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified语音学——语音是如何产生和分类的Phonology-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning音系学——声音如何形成系统和功能来传达意义Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words形态学——词素如何组合成单词Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences句法学-词素和单词如何组合成句子Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)语义学——意义的研究(抽象)Pragmatics-The study of meaning in context of use语用学——在使用语境中对意义的研究Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society社会语言学——研究与社会有关的语言Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind心理语言学:研究与大脑活动有关的语言Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning应用语言学——语言学原理和理论在语言教学中的应用1.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?现代语言学与传统语法有何不同?Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.现代语言学是描述性的，它的研究是基于真实的，主要是口语数据。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。

格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称作合作原则。

2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。

②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。

①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。

pragmatics(2)语用学资料讲解

pragmatics(2)语用学资料讲解
• Except lying, people flout a maxim to observe it in a further degree. Conversational implicature can only be induced in accordance to CP.
• Maxim of Quality: Try to make your contribution one that true:
– Do not say what you believe to be false. – Do not say something if you lack adequate
• but the imperatives in the CP are descriptive rather than prescriptive.
Violation of the maxims
• However, CP, like unwritten laws, is regulative and can be violated.
conversation, in which implicated messages are frequently involved.
• In daily conversations people do not usually say things but tend to imply them. The word “implicature” is used to refer to the extra meaning that is not explicitly expressed in the utterance. In making a conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the cooperative principle : “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”

pragmatics定义

pragmatics定义

pragmatics定义Pragmatics，即语用学，是语言学的一个分支领域，研究的是语言在实际使用中的意义和效果。

它关注的是人们如何根据语境和目标来理解和运用语言，以达到交际的目的。

在本文中，我们将探讨语用学的定义、重要概念和应用领域。

让我们来定义一下语用学。

语用学研究的是语言的使用，而不仅仅是语言的结构和形式。

它关注的是人们是如何根据具体的语境来理解和运用语言的。

在语用学中，我们研究的是语言的意义，即语言的含义和使用者的意图之间的关系。

在语用学中，有一些重要的概念需要我们了解。

第一个概念是"言外之意"，即指的是人们在交际中所传达的除了字面意义之外的意思。

例如，当一个人说"天气好"时，他可能的言外之意是希望对方与他一起出去玩。

这个概念在理解他人的意图和进行有效的沟通时非常重要。

第二个概念是"会话合作原则"，它由语言学家Grice提出。

会话合作原则指的是在交际过程中，人们通常会遵循一些准则，以确保交流的顺利进行。

这些准则包括：合作原则、量原则、质原则和关联原则。

合作原则要求人们相互合作，尽力使对方理解自己的意思；量原则要求提供足够的信息，既不多也不少；质原则要求提供真实和可靠的信息；关联原则要求在交际中保持话题的连贯性。

语用学在现实生活中有许多重要的应用领域。

其中之一是交际策略。

交际策略是指人们在交际过程中采取的一些技巧和方法，以实现自己的交际目的。

例如，当一个人想要请求帮助时，他可以使用委婉语言来表达请求，以增加对方的接受度。

交际策略的研究可以帮助人们更好地理解和运用语言，从而提高交际的效果。

另一个应用领域是语言教学。

语用学可以帮助教师更好地教授语言，使学生能够真正地理解和运用语言。

通过教授学生一些常见的交际策略和语用规则，学生能够更好地掌握语言的意义和使用方式。

这有助于提高他们的语言水平和交际能力。

语用学还在法律、广告和政治等领域有广泛的应用。

语言学知识_语用学

语言学知识_语用学

语用学一．语用学（Pragmatics）的定义：语用学是用以研究语言使用者如何使用句子成功进行交际的学问。

语用学（Pragmatics）与语义学（Semantics）虽然都涉及对语言意义的研究，但是语义学（Semantics）只是将语言视作一个独立的系统来研究，而语用学（Pragmatics）则是将语言置于语境（context）之中。

所以，语用学（Pragmatics）与语义学（Semantics）本质区别在于是否将语境（context）因素纳入考量范围之内。

二．句子意义与话语意义（Sentence Meaning Vs. Utterance Meaning）：1) 句子意义（Sentence Meaning）：句子意义指的是独立于语境的句子本身所传达的字面意义。

2）话语意义（Utterance Meaning）：话语意义指的是将句子的意义置于特定语境中以表达言者某种意图的意义。

三．指示现象（Deixis）：指示现象指的是说话人利用语言形式表达说话内容所涉及的人员、事物、时间、地点等方面。

指示现象是连接语言形式及其发生语境的桥梁。

指示语主要分为以下三类：1）人称指示语（person deixis）：用于表达言语交际的参与者。

2）空间指示语（spatial deixis）：用于指代言语活动中所涉及的人、物或事的相对位置。

3）时间指示语（temporal deixis）：用于表达言语交际活动中的时间点和时间段。

四．言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）：1) 约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）的言语行为模式：英国哲学家约翰·奥斯汀（John Austin）于20世纪50年代提出的言语行为模式区分了言有所述（constative）和言有所为（performative）。

随后，他又对原先的理论进行了发展，放弃了言有所述（constative）和言有所为（performative）的区分，发展出了新的言语行为模式。

语用学 pragmatics

语用学 pragmatics

语用学pragmatics语用学：语用学(pragmatics)是对人类有目的的行为所作的研究(广义)，对有目的的语言活动的研究(狭义)。

源起符号学(semiotics)。

符号学：符号学是系统地研究语言符号和非语言符号的学科。

有三个分支--符号关系学、语义学、语用学。

符号关系学(syntactics)研究符号之间的形式关系。

语义学(semantics)研究符号与符号所代表的事物之间的关系。

语用学(pragmatics)研究符号与符号解释者之间的关系。

语用学与语义学的联系和区别：语用学和语义学都是符号学的分支。

语义学主要指狭义的语义学，即逻辑语义学，它研究句子和词语本身的意义，研究命题的真值条件(truth conditions)。

语用学研究言语使用上的意义，研究传递语言信息的适宜条件(felicity conditions)。

语义学揭示的意义是二元关系的句子意义(sentence meaning)，解决"Whatdoes Xmean?"的问题。

语用学揭示的是三元关系的说话人意义(Speaker meaning)，解决"What did you mean by X?"的问题。

语境(context)：最狭义的语境是指语言的上下文。

语境还必须包括语言外的因素。

语境因素包括语言知识、语言外知识；语言知识包括对所使用的语言的掌握、对语言交际上文的了解；语言外知识包括背景知识、情景知识、相互知识，背景知识包括百科全书式的知识(常识)、特定文化的社会规范、特定文化的会话规则，情景知识包括交际的时间、地点、交际的主题、交际的正是程度、交际参与者的相互关系。

语境是一个动态的、发展的概念。

交际本身就是一个动态的过程，在交际过程中，语境也随之而变。

有些语境因素相对来说比较稳定，例如背景知识、交际的时间、地点等，但有些因素却会变化，特别重要的是相互知识这一因素，它在交际过程中不断扩大，原来不为双方所共有的知识完全可能在交际过程中变为相互知识，成为进一步交际的基础。

语用学名词定义

语用学名词定义

语用学名词定义语用学（pragmatics)语言学、哲学和心理学的一个分支学科，研究脉络如何影响人运用和理解语言。

语用学分析研究影响语言行为（如招呼、回答、应酬、劝说）的标准和支配轮流发言的规则。

语用学还研究语言用于成事的方式。

例如，「我允诺」用于特定语境中就是允诺。

语用学yǔyòngxué[pragmatics]符号学的一个分支，研究符号或语言词句与其使用之间的关系。

语用学是语言学各分支中一个以语言意义为研究对象的新兴学科领域，是专门研究语言的理解和使用的学问，它研究在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。

语用学因其本身的目的性和价值性而不同于语法研究，它是关于人类语言本身的研究。

在语言的使用中，说话人往往并不是单纯地要表达语言成分和符号单位的静态意义，听话人通常要通过一系列心理推断，去理解说话人的实际意图。

要做到真正理解和恰当使用一门语言，仅仅懂得构成这门语言的发音、词汇和语法是远远不够的。

语用学的另一核心概念就是意义。

何兆熊先生（1987）在他的语用学概要一书中指出：―在众多的语用学定义中，有两个概念是十分基本的，一个是意义，另一个是语境。

‖从发展的观点看，语用学的崛起是语义研究的发展和延伸的结果，因此可以说语用学是一种对意义的研究。

但语用学所研究的意义不同于形式语义学所研究的意义，它所研究的是语言在一定的语境中使用时体现出来的具体意义。

由此可知，语境对意义的作用在语用学研究中十分重要。

研究在一定的上下文里语言的使用，包括所产生的字面意义和蕴涵意义，以及可能产生的效果的学科。

语用学的概念首先是美国哲学家C.W.莫里斯（1901～1979）和R.卡纳普（1891～1970）在20世纪30年代前后提出的。

60年代，英国哲学家J.L.奥斯汀（1912～1960）和J.塞尔勒（1932～)先后发表了―语言行为‖的理论；美国语用学家P.格赖斯提出了―会话中合作原则‖的理论。

Pragmatics语用学

Pragmatics语用学

IV.Reference 指称
In discussing deixis, we assumed that the use of words to refer to people and things was a simple matter. However, words themselves don’t refer to anything. People refer. We have to define reference as an act by which a speaker(or writer) uses language to enable a listener(or reader) to identify something.
Terms
a. Linguistic context(co-text)(语言语境\上下文语境): It refers to that which occurs before and \or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. It often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc. b. Physical context(客观环境语境): Our understanding of much of what we read and hear is tied to the physical context, particularly the time and place, in which we encounter linguistic expressions. c. Deixis(指示语): It comes from the Greek word deixis which means “pointing” via language. d. Reference(指称): It is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to. e. Inference(推理): It refers to any additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be meant.

英语语用学pragmatics

英语语用学pragmatics

context

For example, “ It is cold in here.” from semantics, it simply expresses the semantic proposition of “the low temperature in a certain place”. They do not consider the following factors as “who speaks it to whom , when, where, why etc. In other words , they do not include context in the study of meanings
Definitions of Pragmatics
Definition 1: Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language. 语用学是对在一种语言的结构中被语法化 或被编码的那些语言和语境之间的关系 的研究。
Austin’s new model

Later,he gave up his distinction between constatives and performatives and set up his new model-a speaker might be performing 3 acts at the same time when speaking: locutionary act言内行 为,illocutionary act言外行为 and perlocutionary言后行为.

语用学Pragmatics An Introduction

语用学Pragmatics An Introduction
A look at history 1.Recent signs of the growing interest 2.Reasons for recent development The importance of being a user
3
Recent signs of growing interest
12
Definitions
Speaker’s perspective: PragmaticsБайду номын сангаасis the study of speaker meaning. (George Yule, 1996:3) Pragmatics is the study of how people use language for successful communication. (Kempson, 1977:84)
7
Pragmatics: definition and delimitation
A definition Component, perspective or function?
8
A definition
Pragmatics cannot be restricted to purely linguistic matter; it should deal with users in social context Definition by the author The limitations of the definitions The complementarity by Leech
5
The importance of being a user
modern
producers

Pragmatics 语用学教学PPT

Pragmatics 语用学教学PPT

• 交际目的 • 交际目的是各种各样的。或是陈明一种心理， 希望对方明知；或是提出一种问题，希望能 够得到解答；或是表达一种请求，希望对方 照办；或是抒发一种感情，希望引起共鸣。 不同的交际目的制约着人们的交际行为。
• 交际过程
– 改变语音形式， “一”作 “幺”；“0‖作 “洞”。 – 重复话语：如电影《英雄儿女》中：“我是王 成，我是王成！为了祖国，为了人民，请向我 开炮！” – 增加羡余成分：我明天早上，早上九点到！请 到机场接我！ – 放慢语速，加大音量。
• 交际对象 • 言语交际离不开交际对象。交际对象是具有各种个 性特征的。如性别、年龄、身份、地位、生活环境、 职业经历、思想性格、修养爱好、文化水平、社会 心理、处境心情等。这些个性特征都会不同程度地 制约着言语交际。 • 交际对象涉及双方的关系亲疏、地位高低、辈分尊 卑、年龄长幼等因素。一般说来，交际双方关系越 密切，地位、年龄、辈分相当，所需的礼貌成度就 越低；双方关系越疏远，越陌生，双方地位、辈分、 年龄相差越大，越要客气。“礼貌的其中一个功能 便是创造交际双方之间的社会距离。”
• 意义：提醒、催促、或是对听话人不守时间的批评。若考虑 到双方的关系：上下级关系，师生关系，父母子女之间、恋 人之间等，则可以理解的意思还多些。 • 一个人老想着出国，老对别人讲要办好手续了，但老也没见 他出国，有人就说，“你怎么还没走？” • 意义：关心、调侃或嘲讽。 • 下班时间早过了，某人还在办公室里忙乎，值班人员过来锁 门，说：“你怎么还没走？” • 意义：值班人员可能是出于爱护，也可能是出于生气，还可 能是某种猜测（是不是有什么不能在办公时间处理的不可告 人的什么事情，是不是在等什么人的电话，等等。） • 一个普通老百姓来到某个部门办事，被某个态度不好的工作 人员拒之门外，过了半天，那个工作人员看见老百姓还在门 口，于是说：“你怎么还不走？” • 意义：可以比较肯定地认为，这是一种不太友好的态度，是 让对方赶快走开的意思。

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics：语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ，but it studies language in general）2。

General linguistics：普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics。

（language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ）nguage：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。

4.descriptive (描述性)：A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use。

5。

prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors。

i.e。

what they should say and what they should not to say.6。

synchronic（共时语言学)：the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7。

diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3）speech（口语）Writing（书面语)These the two media of communication。

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义

自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。

二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）is linguisticsDefinition （语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, ., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴）—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics tothe research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学)Some important distinctions in linguistics —71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描述性）Modern linguistics, ., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。

语言学Pragmatics语用学24页PPT

语言学Pragmatics语用学24页PPT
语言学Pragmatics语用学
21、没有人陪你走一辈子，所以你要 适应孤 独，没 有人会 帮你一 辈子， 所以你 要奋斗 一生。 22、当眼泪流尽的时候，留下的应该 是坚强 。 23、要改变命运，首先改变自己。
24、勇气很有理由被当作人类德性之 首，因 为这种 德性保 证了所 有其余 的德性 。--温 斯顿． 丘吉尔 。 25、梯子的梯阶从来不是用来搁脚的 ，它只 是让人 们的脚 放上一 段时间 ，以便 让别一 只脚能Biblioteka 够再往 上登。谢谢你的阅读
❖ 知识就是财富 ❖ 丰富你的人生
71、既然我已经踏上这条道路，那么，任何东西都不应妨碍我沿着这条路走下去。——康德 72、家庭成为快乐的种子在外也不致成为障碍物但在旅行之际却是夜间的伴侣。——西塞罗 73、坚持意志伟大的事业需要始终不渝的精神。——伏尔泰 74、路漫漫其修道远，吾将上下而求索。——屈原 75、内外相应，言行相称。——韩非

【密训】00830 现代语言学

【密训】00830 现代语言学

现代语言学（课程代码：00830）Chapter1:Introduction1.Define the following terms:1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2).General linguistics（普通语言学）:The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3).Applied linguistics（应用语言学）:In a narrow sense,applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.In a broad sense,it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.4).Synchronic study（共时性研究）:The study of a language at some point in time.e.g.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare's time is a synchronic study.5).Diachronic study（历时性研究）:The study of a language as it changes through time.A diachronic study of language is a historical study,which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.e.g.a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare's time is a diachronic study. 6).Language competence（语言能力）:The ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.A transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.7).Language performance（语言行为）:performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 8).Langue（语言）:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow;Langue is relatively stable,it does not change frequently.9).Parole（言语）:Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use;parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules;parole varies from person to person,and from situation to situation.10).Language（语言）:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11).Arbitrariness（任意性）:It is one of the design features of language.It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12).Productivity（多产性）:Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13).Duality（二元性）:Language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure,or two levels,one of sounds at the lower or basic level,and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).Displacement（移位性）:language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far-away places.In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15).Cultural transmission（文化传递性）:While we are born with the ability to acquire language,the details of any language are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned.16).Design features（普遍特征）:It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication2.Explain the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language,but languages in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，真实的)language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things:observing the way language is actually used,formulating some hypotheses,and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.3.What are the branches of linguistics?What does each of them study?(语言学的主要分支是什么。

《语用学Pragmatics》课件 第二周

《语用学Pragmatics》课件 第二周
This assumption may lead us to think that a name or proper noun like “Shakespeare” can only be used to identify one specific person, and an expression containing a common noun, such as “the cheese sandwich”, can only be used to identify a specific thing, this belief is mistaken.
yet foreign enough to see its peculiarities. 3. Names Jonathan Swift wrote an eighteenth cetury satire
called Gulliver’s travels.
Assignments
1. What are the anaphoric expressions in the following utterance? Dr. Dang gave Jane some medicine after she asked him for it.
sense
reference
referent
Word---meaning---entity
word
meaning
entity
Some exceptions
(1) 许多词在世界上没有所指对象，例“神， 鬼，love, dragon”
(2) 并非所有的词语苟能用来指称事物，例 “和，因为，所以“
In technical terms, the second or subsequent expression is the anaphor and the initial expression is the antecedent.
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月 上 柳 梢 头 人 约 黄 昏 后
钱冠连：《汉语文化语用学》 语境是指言语行为赖以表
现的物质和社会环境。
Context
Linguistic knowledge
Extra-linguistic knowledge

1.
2. 1. 2.
3.
Linguistic knowledge Knowledge of the language they use Knowledge of what has been said before Extra-linguistic knowledge Knowledge about the world in general Knowledge about the specific situation Knowledge about each other

The International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) has been in existence since 1985.
Review
不 见 去 年 人 ， 泪 湿 春 衫 袖 。
今 年 元 夜 时 ， 月 与 灯 依 旧 。
月 上 柳 梢 头 ， 人 约 黄 昏 后 。
Physical Context (situational context)

If you see the word BANK on the wall of a building in a city, the „physical‟ location will influence your interpretation.
Extra-linguistic knowledge
Background knowledge Common sense Social norms Conversation rules
Situation knowledge
Time place
Topic formality
Relation Bt. users
For example: Bank
The word bank is a homonym. How do we usually know which meaning is intended in a particular sentence? On the basis of linguistic context: In a sentence together with words like steep or overgrown She has to get to the bank to cash a check.

2.1.2 Context
Context
Linguistic Context (Co-text)
Physical Context (Situational Context)
Linguistic context (co-text)

Definition: The co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. This surrounding co-text has a strong effect on what we think the word means.

Contextual Meaning: meaning in context
The
meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is , who the hearer is, when and where it is used.
Definition of Pragmatics
去 年 元 夜 时修
2.2 Reference
Definition: In pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference. In semantics, it is often assumed that the words we use to identify things are in some direct relationship to those things.

For example
(1) a: Where is the fresh salad sitting? b: He‟s sitting by the door. (2) a: Can I look at your Shakespeare? b: Sure, it‟s on the shelf over there. We can use names associated with things to refer to people and names of people to refer to things.
Chapter Two Pragmatics
2.1 Introduction
A: I have a fourteen year old son. B: Well that‟s all right. A: I also have a dog. B: Oh I‟m sorry.

Harvey Sacks (1992) A is trying to rent an apartment from B.
Context & language use
Context governs the speaker‟s use of language. Context determines the hearer‟s interpretation of what is said to him.

2.1.3 Grammatical analysis vs Pragmatic analysis
First, grammatical studies look for rules while pragmatic studies look for principles. Rules are black and white. E.g. “He studies linguistics”. Principles are not black and white. Principle 1: we should tell the truth. Principle 2: we should be polite in our speech. Express some polite beliefs and then tell the truth in very soft, gentle words.
For example
Driving by a parking lot, you may see a large sign:
Heated Attendant PARKING
The sign is advertising a place where you can park your „heated attendant‟. You can park your car in this place, that it‟s a heated area, and that there will be an attendant to look after the car. You use the meanings of the words, in combination, and the context in which they occur, and you try to arrive at what the writer of the sign intended his message to convey.
2.3 Deixis

1.
2.
1. 2.
Definition: Deixis means “pointing” via language. Any linguistic form used to do this “pointing” is called a deictic expression. For example: Here/there, this/that, now/then I, we, you, he, her, and them

Example 2
BABY & TODDLER SALE
Our commonsense interpretation would be that the advertiser intended us to understand his message as relating to the sale of baby clothes and not of babies. When we hear or read pieces of language, we normally try to understand not only what the words mean, but also what the speaker or writer intended to convey.

Example 2:
A.
B. C.
D.
My American friend thinks I‟m very British. British summer is always beautiful. He became a British subject when he came here from London in 1995. He is always careful to call himself British rather than English.