Types of English WritingNarration1. Definition :Narration tells a story. Narratives can be fact or fiction. Narratives can be told in first or third person. Narratives, like description, can be objective or subjective. In most cases narration is used for a purpose, we do not write a narrative for its own sake. Rather, we tell a story to prove a point.2. Basic elements:Context: when, where, and to whom the action of a narrativeSelection of details: it is important to remember only those details that help bring out the main idea of the narrative are useful and effective. When selecting details, therefore, you should keep in mind the purposes of writing in mind.3. Patterns:Narratives usually have a beginning, a middle and an end. The setting is often given in the beginning; the middle describes the sequence of events that make up your narrative; the significance of your story is brought out in the end.4. Sample writing:1. Use Flashbacks and Flashforwards: Narratives do not have to be related in a straight chronological pattern. Flashbacks can be effective in introducing background information, so that the opening can be more dramatic.Original:In 1999 I started working at Roy's Grill two nights a week. The owner, Roy Taylor, required all restaurant employees, even the busboys, to attend a Red Cross first aid class. I thought it was unnecessary but I needed the job and did appreciate that Roy, a former paramedic, had a good point. One night I was stacking plates when a flash of fire shot the length of the kitchen. Sandy, the night cook, lay on the floor, his arms and face already swelling with burns. I dropped the plates into the rack, told a waitress to call 911 and immediately ran to help.Improved:I was stacking plates in Roy's Grill one night when flames shot across the length of the kitchen. Sandy, the night cook, lay on the floor, his arms and face already swelling with burns. I dropped the plates into the rack, told a waitress to call 911 and immediately ran to help. When I began working at Roy's Grill, the owner required all restaurant employees, even the busboys, to attend a Red Cross first aid class. I thought it was unnecessary, but I needed the job and did appreciate that Roy, a former paramedic, had a good point.2. Add Dialogue: In writing a narrative you may tempted to retell a story or relate an event by putting everything in your own words:As soon as I reached Sandy, he begged me to help him. I assured him that he would be OK. I asked a waiter to get clean towels and some ice water. Sandy asked me to call his mother. He told me she had a bad heart and was afraid she might die if a policeman or doctor called her. I assuredhim I would have Roy call. Sandy nodded, telling me Roy should call. His mother knew and trusted him.It is more effective to add dialogue. Using people's actual words can speed the process of telling the story and allow people to speak for themselves. Their personality, attitudes, social background, age, and lifestyle can be reflected by their tone and choice of words:"Help me, man. Help me," Sandy repeated as I knelt beside him."It's OK. You'll be OK," I told him as I looked at his injuries.I spotted a waiter in the doorway and shouted to him, "Get me clean towels and some ice water right away.""Call my Mom, man," Sandy cried out. "Please, call my Mom. She's got a bad heart. If some cop or doctor calls her and tells her I'm hurt, she could die, man. Please, you gotta let her know but don't scare her. Please."I nodded, "OK, I'll tell Roy to call her."Sandy nodded, "Good, she knows him. She trusts him. If he tells her I'm OK, she'll believe it."5. Practice: write a narrative by choosing one of the topics below, no less than 120 words.● A childhood event that shaped your attitudes about a person, school, a sport.●An incident that exposed you to danger.●Your first day at a job.●The key play of an important game.● A story repeatedly told by a friend or family member.●The incident that caused you to quit a job, and a relationship, or make a decision.● A band's breakthrough performance.●The turning point in a person's career or organization's history.●Your first experience in cyberspace.Description1. Definition:Description usually means giving the sensory impressions a writer has received from an experience.It's painting a word picture so that the reader "sees" exactly what you are describing.We describe well when we 1) observe accurately, 2) choose the most appropriate level of detail, and 3) choose the most accurate words for our purpose.2. Basic elements:a descriptive essay has one, clear dominant impression. If, for example you aredescribing a snowfall, it is important for you to decide and to let your readerknow if it is threatening or lovely; in order to have one dominant impression it cannot be both. The dominant impression guides the author's selection ofdetail and is thereby made clear to the reader in the thesis sentence.∙ a descriptive essay can be objective or subjective, giving the author a wide choice of tone, diction and attitude. For instance, an objective description ofone's dog would mention such facts as height, weight, coloring and so forth. A subjective description would include the above details, but would also stressthe author's feeling toward the dog, as well as its personality and habits.∙the purpose of a purely descriptive essay is to involve the reader enough so he or she can actually visualize the things being described. Therefore, it isimportant to use specific and concrete details.3. Techniques:∙The writer should know what he is talking about.There is no substitute for that.∙The writer should have a clear purpose in sharingthe information. If he has such a purpose, he willeasily decide what to include and what to leaveout. A clear purpose will also help him decide onthings like the order in which he provides hisinformation and what he will emphasize.∙The writer should hold in mind a clear idea ofwhat his audience already knows and what itneeds to know. It usually helps to choose one ora few people a writer actually knows who matchthe characteristics of the target audience.∙The writer should use the format of his writing asan aid to clarity. He might use lists wheneverpossible. He should certainly keep hisparagraphs fairly short so that his reader's eyesare not fuddled. He should use frequent headingsfor sub-topics so a reader doesn't have to searchrandomly to return to the information he needs.Sometimes long sentences cannot be avoided,but the writer should read them aloud or, better,have someone else read them back to him so thathe knows a sentence flows and does not trick theeye.∙The writer should recognize and use thetraditional patterns of organization discussed inthe next unit of lessons whenever those patternsdo not distort his material. Easily recognizedpatterns of organization improve the usefulnessof a piece of exposition.4. Sample writing:Humidity breathed in the girl's face and ran its greasy fingers through her hair. As she stood looking down the long, deserted road, she could see heat vapor rising in the distance, creating a rippled, watery effect. She frowned and lifted her hair off her neck. A drop of perspiration slid down her spine.5. Practice: write a description by choosing one of the following directions.1) Get a printed map to diagram how to get from one place (school to home, city to city, etc.) to another. Then try to write or dictate directions for traveling somewhere from their home, using directional words.2) You are a dog, cat or other animal in need of a home. Write a letter to your future owner, describing what type of home and what kind of care you need.3) Some people prefer dogs while some like cats as their pets. Other people prefer birds, snakes, fish, rabbits, pigs, horses or other animals as their pets. What do you think would be the perfect pet to have? Describe in your writing your ideas about a perfect pet. Make sure you give plenty of details so that the person reading your writing can picture it in their mind and will know lots of things about it.4) You are holding a family photograph. As you look at the photograph you are suddenly transported back into the time and setting of the picture. Describe the picture and explain the interesting things that happened on the day the picture was taken.5) You have just arrived in a distant place far away, and everyone "back home" can't wait to hear what it is like! Write a clear description of this place--whether real or imaginary---to give your readers a vivid picture of what it is like in this far-away land.6) You are on a vacation. In your writing, describe your surroundings: what you see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. Where are you? Who is with you? What do you feel?7) Think about someone you know who is successful. Write an essay to describe: In what ways is this person successful? How much of this person's success is due to luck, and how much is due to hard work? Use details that support your ideas.ExpositionI.DefinitionExposition is perhaps the type of writing that is most frequently used by a student, a scientist, or a professional. Exposition means expounding or explaining. An expository paper explains or explores something, such as the process of making a machine, the causes of a natural or social phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the solution of a problem.We have seen that description mainly deals with appearances and feelings, andnarration with events and experiences. Unlike these two types of writing, exposition mainly deals with processes and relationships. It answers questions of how something works, how something happens, what the outcome of a certain event may be, or why a certain situation exists. We are writing a descriptive essay when we describe the appearance of an object; but we are writing an expository essay when we explain how it is made, how it is used, and how it may change. When we narrate a historical event, we tell what happened, when and where it happened, and who took part in it. In an expository paper, we discuss its cause and effect, its nature, and its significance in history.II.StrategiesDon‟t be intimidated by the term exposition. It is the most common kind of writing and appears in any place where you look for explanations. Books that you read on philosophy, economics, history, politics as well as newspaper articles are largely expository. There are a variety of ways to develop an expository essay. You can explain things by example, process analysis, comparison and contrast, classification and division, or an analysis of their causes and effects. It is true these strategies are often combined in writing; but writers usually depend on a primary strategy to develop ideas.Generally speaking, expository essays have the following characteristics: Significant: Even though you are not expected to present something that will astound the reader or shock the world, you must offer the reader something worth reading and worth knowing. After all, the purpose of exposition is to provide useful information. But a good expository paper is more than a collection of facts, figures, and details. It must interpret the facts and contain personal insights.Clear: If you understand your own idea and want to convey it to others, you are obliged to render it in clear, orderly, readable and understandable prose. It is true that certain ideas are inherently complicated and difficult, but your job is to lessen the difficulty and complication for the reader. How do you achieve clarity? First, follow a strict organizational pattern –an introduction with the thesis, body paragraphs that support the thesis, and a brief conclusion. Second, develop the points with adequate support and organize them logically and emphatically. Last, try to use exact words and avoid ornamental or ambiguous words.Objective: Often you have to write from your personal experiences; almost inevitably you have to analyze a problem or a situation. If treated properly, they add interest to your paper. But you should try to present things as truthfully as you can. Do not distort the facts. Otherwise, the information and analysis will be biased and unreliable. Such writing turns the reader away.Economical: Your writing should contain no unnecessary words or sentences. Make sure that every word tells. You should not demand the energy and test the patience ofthe reader.Interesting: However complex the subject may be, your writing should not bore the reader. While informing him, try to promote pleasure at the same time. Give your reader something fresh, something that will delight him. Often the examples that come conveniently to you may be the ones too often used or already overused by others. Essays containing such examples won‟t be very attractive. Fresh points and examples can better engage the reader‟s interest and reinforce your statement.III.Patterns1. Necessary components of expositionAn effective exposition includes three basic parts: introduction, thesis statement, and the concluding paragraph.Introduction: You may open your discussion directly with a thesis statement followed by the body paragraphs. However, this kind of opening sometimes sounds too abrupt and the reader may not be ready to accept what you say in the paper. So more often, especially in academic writing, you want to invite people to read your essay by writing a few sentences before you state your thesis. Unless your essay is 8-10 pages long (3-5 pages are usually considered short ones), the introduction can be just a single paragraph containing the thesis statement. The thesis is usually placed at the end of the introduction after related or background information has been given.Specifically, the introduction prepares the reader by performing the following tasks:●Announcing and limiting the subject●Providing necessary information related to the topic●Leading to and setting up the thesis statement●Arresting the reader‟s attentionThere are many possibilities for starting your expositor essay. You can use an anecdote, a personal experience, a description, a question, a quotation, an analogy, a definition, or a shocking statement as the introduction. One common way of introducing your essay is to provide background information. In this case, you start with the broadest general statements. Each of the subsequent sentences ought to be more specific than the previous one, leading the reader into the thesis statement.The thesis statement: The thesis statement declares the main purpose of controlling ideas of your entire essay. Ideally it is a one-sentence summary of the whole essay. In some ways, it is similar to the topic sentence. But the topic sentence covers only one paragraph while the thesis controls a whole essay.With professional writing, the thesis can be distributed across several sentences, particularly if it is complex and highly qualified. And sometimes, the thesis may be implied, not directly stated. This is because the professional writer is able to maintaintight control over the essay development without an explicit statement. For you, student writers, the thesis statement is a matter of serious consideration always in exposition.Here are the features of an effective thesis statement:●It is the most important statement –the writer‟s attitude or opinion on the subject– in the introduction.●It is expressed in clear and specific terms.●It may indicate the pattern of organization.●It often contains controlling ideas or subdivisions that will be used in the topicsentences of the essay.Concluding paragraph: Most essays conclude with an ending paragraph that leaves the reader with some final thoughts on the topic. It is no less important than the introductory paragraph. It follows logically from the body paragraphs, reminds the reader of the discussion, and leaves the reader with a sense of completion. While giving your essay a final shape, the concluding provides you a single last chance to show your thesis is valid. Restating the thesis in fresh terms or summarizing the key points are the most common forms of reminding the reader of what you have said. 2. Different patterns of exposition(1)ExemplificationExemplification is to prove a point by example. It is the most common，and often the most efficient, pattern of exposition. Indeed, it is hard to write a good paper of any kind without using at least some examples. Good examples help to clarify a writer‟s t hought by making the general specific, and the abstract concrete. They also add interest and help to persuade or convince the reader. Often a part of a paper is developed with examples; it is also possible to develop the whole paper by examples.A successful exemplification paper depends on a wise selection of sufficient examples which are specific and typical, interesting and relevant – the examples may be either personal experiences or second-hand information from reliable sources; and an expert arrangement of these examples should be grouped together and arranged climactically.(2)Process AnalysisWhenever we investigate how we do things –what steps to follow –we are analyzing a process. As in narration, process analysis usually arranges a series of events in time order and relates them to one another. But it has a different emphasis. It examines or analyzes the various stages leading to the final result or final product. Whereas narration tells mainly what happens, process analysis tries to explain or analyze – in detail –how it happens.There are two types of process analysis essays: directional and informative. The directional type provides instructions on how to do something. You show or tell thereader how to do something or how something should be done. This type of essay is often referred to as “How-to essay.” How-to essays often sound personal. You imagine that your reader is sitting next to you, listening to your instructions.The directions are frequently given in the form of polite commands. You may stick to the imperative mood and the present tense most of the time. Occasionally you may use the second person pronoun to avoid monotony. You can also give the instructions indirectly by using the third person. Whatever person you use, avoid shift and remain consistent.The informative type of process analysis, on the other hand, tells how something works, or how something is done or made. Much of the knowledge we have accumulated comes in this form. When writing an essay of this type, you don‟t expect the reader to perform the same action. Providing information is your chief purpose so that the reader understands the subject better.Compared with the directional type, the informative type is less detailed. Since the reader does not perform the action, it is unnecessary to go through every little detail of the process.When organize a process paper, you may follow the guiding rules:●Evaluate the audience and select details accordingly.●When necessary, describe unfamiliar materials and define uncommonterms.●Rely strictly on chronological order and do not use flashbacks.●Avoid unnecessary change in tense, person, voice, and tone.(3)Division and ClassificationDivision and classification are two different ways of sorting things out. Division is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts. Classification, on the other hand, is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Its purpose is to group these things systematically.Division and classification are useful organizational strategies in writing. The former stresses the distinction between things, whereas the latter emphasizes the similarities. The two methods can be used separately, but they often go together. Division deals with the whole and classification, the parts. The whole is composed of parts, and parts make up the whole; the whole and the parts are closely related.When using division or classification in your writing, keep in mind the following guidelines:●Choose an appropriate principle of division/classification suited to yourpurpose.●Apply your principle consistently and thoroughly, and avoid overlapping.(4)Comparison and ContrastA comparison explains how things are similar, and a contrast, how they are different. People make comparison and contrasts every day, though they may not be aware of it. When you compare and contrast, you put side by side a pair of things alike in nature and examine their similarities and differences. When you compare, youpoint out the ways that two persons, places, or things are similar; when you contrast, you discuss how they differ. Sometimes you need to treat both, but with different emphasis.Although the main function of comparison and contrast is to clarify and explain, you should have a specific purpose in mind. The particular purpose determines the approach you take to writing. You may want to inform the reader of certain interesting or significant similarities or differences you have observed. Sometimes, you aim at demonstrating the superiority of one thing by contrasting it with another –for example, showing that one product is better than the other. You try to convince the reader of the point by examining both products through comparison and contrast. You present the attractions as well as the weaknesses of each. Your judgment is revealed through this process.(5)Cause and EffectA cause-effect essay is a piece of expository writing showing or explaining the cause and/or effect of something. Causal analysis explains the cause-effect relationship between two or more subjects. When we discuss the condition producing something, we are analyzing the cause; when we discuss the result produced by something, we are analyzing the effect.Every day we try to figure out the causes for something. When a problem arises, we start to examine the cause for it. When a significant change in our lives occurs, such as the success of someone or something, we try to look at the factors that contributed to that change understanding causes is not an idle pastime. We need to know why the fire broke out in order to prevent the reoccurrence. We would like to know what it takes to be successful, so that we can try to be successful.Writing a clear and meaningful causal analysis paper requires examining the topic carefully in order to be complete and logical. Since student essays are ordinarily between 300 and 500 words in length, these essays, generally speaking, can only deal effectively and thoroughly with an analysis emphasizing one or the other – causes or effects.Causal relationships involve complexities. When we are analyzing something, we usually find that there are numerous contributing factors, or multiple causes; just how many factors are at work depends on the complexity of the problem. Each cause may or may not be sufficient to produce the effect.When writing causal analysis, presenting too many possibilities will only confuse the reader. Focusing on the major causes or effects is critical. Although loosely related causes or effects might be interesting to consider, most readers prefer to see explanations of what you think are the main ones. In your prewriting, be sure to include all the factors that you might use, but choose carefully which ones to develop in the paper. You need to recognize that some causes are more central or more important in bringing out an event than others. You need to give the reader your own evaluation.Determining causes and effects is a complex process. When writing the paper, try to remember the following logical requirements:●Do not over-simplify causes.●Beware especially of making a mistake in logic.●Distinguish between direct and indirect causes and effects and betweenmajor and minor causes and effects.●Do not omit links in a chain of causes and effect.●Be objective and support the analysis with solid, factual evidence.IV.Sample writingSample 1Americans generally like a lot of physical space in their organizational lives. Many American clichés point to this: “Give me some space,” “Get out of my face,” “Back off.” This tr anslates into a typical distance of about three feet when addressing others in business situations. Very little touching takes place. When it does occur, it is usually somewhat conspicuous and a source of sensitivity. Handshakes last only a second or so. If two passengers remain after a crowded elevator has emptied, they immediately take dance-like steps to their respective corners. In many cultures, the social and business distance is much closer than it is in the United States. It is customary in parts of Latin America and the Middle East for business associates to embrace each other, to kiss each other lightly on the cheek, and to put only one foot or so between them in a business discussion. Indeed, a distance of about a foot between business associates is customary in many cultures.Nonverbal communication is critical in decoding rites, gestures, forms of politeness, the concept of “face,” silence, and pauses. Decoding, like all ways of finding the real meaning, often proves difficult because it is done through our filters of domestic norms and habits. What constitutes cultural interpretation. For example, the Latins touch more than Americans or Canadians, who in turn touch more than the Swedes or British. The languages of gestures varies widely too. While, Americans, Canadians, and most Europeans understand the “thumbs up” gesture to mean “all right,” Greeks and Southern Italians decode this gesture in a way Americans would normally reserve for the middle finger.Sample 2Swimming is a good exercise for our health. It does not only strengthen the muscles but also make the body pliable and slender. An increasing number of people realize this now and try to learn swimming. Unfortunately many find it hard and give it up halfway. In fact, as long as you master the preliminary skills of swimming and practice it continually, you‟ll find swimming easy and enjoyable.Before going into water, some warm-up exercise on the bank is necessary. You can start from learning to regulate your balance of breath. Draw a deep breath, then breathe it out as slowly as you can. This exercise helps you stay under water longer and prevents drowning. Keeping doing this for a few minutes and then combine it with practicing the upper limbs. Take breaststroke for example. Put the palms together in front of your chest and push forward. Part the palms and swing them sideways withyour fingers close to each other. That‟ll bring your palms back to the chest. Repeat the cycle.Now you are ready to practice the movements in water. You must be brave. Fear of water is the main barrier in learning swimming. To overcome the fear, you can wear a life jacket which can make floating easier. Simply put into practice what you learned with your arms. Breathe in with every pushing forward; breathe out during the course of circling your arms. In the meanwhile, lift your body horizontally and move your legs in the same way as frogs do in water. You may find with a pleasant surprise that you can swim.Repeat the series of actions until you are confident in throwing away the life jacket. Once you have learned this basic movement, it is easy to try floating on water, a must for a swimmer.Like other skills, swimming requires courage, persistence and practice. “Practice makes perfect.” Usually it takes two weeks to a month to learn swimming. When you can swim freely, you‟ll enjoy the voluptuous touch of water on your body. But don‟t forget the tips. Before you become a skilled swimmer, stay in the shallow water. Second, whenever and wherever you swim, be sure to be in the sight of people. After all, safety comes first.Sample 3Basically, there are two types of coupons you see in the ads. One type is an in-store coupon which is valid in a particular store. You can‟t use it in other stores. This is because the store wants to promote the particular item within a certain period of time. Most of those are available in supermarkets, coupon books and ads which are going around locally. (Usually, this type of coupon has no indication at the upper left-hand corner of the coupon.) The other type is a manufacturer‟s coupon which you can use at any store. The manufacturer wants to promote the particular item within a certain period of time. Most of those are available in inserts you find in the Sunday newspaper.Sample 4The PC and MAC are similar in several ways, even though users of either computer would rather die than admit even a small resemblance. Both machines will run graphics in much the same way. Each employs a mouse and a graphical interface or Windows-like environment in a similar fashion to run programs such as PageMaker or Microsoft Word. The final likeness is that both the PC and the MAC incorporate technology that allows them to “talk” to each other. In just a few more years, the PC and MAC will become even more alike, and users will be less adamant about the unique qualities of their computers.Sample 5Selfishness or egoism is by no means rare today. In work units, in public places,。
