建筑外文

building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people fordwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings,parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well.Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to theirwork .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy commun ication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include adining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise thekitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towardslight ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。

建筑英语词汇大全一、建筑基础词汇1.1 建筑类型（Building Types）•Building: 建筑物•House: 房屋•Office Building: 办公楼•Skyscraper: 摩天大楼•Warehouse: 仓库•Hospital: 医院•School: 学校•Hotel: 酒店•Shopping Mall: 购物中心•Museum: 博物馆1.2 建筑组成（Building Components）•Foundation: 基础•Wall: 墙体•Roof: 屋顶•Floor: 地板•Staircase: 楼梯•Ceiling: 天花板•Window: 窗户•Door: 门•Column: 柱子•Beam: 横梁1.3 建筑结构（Building Structures）•Structure: 结构•Frame: 框架•Wall Structure: 墙体结构•Roof Structure: 屋顶结构•Reinforced Concrete: 钢筋混凝土•Steel Frame: 钢结构•Timber Frame: 木结构•Masonry: 砌体结构二、建筑施工词汇2.1 建筑施工工艺（Construction Techniques）•Excavation: 挖掘•Concrete Pouring: 浇筑混凝土•Formwork: 模板•Reinforcement: 钢筋•Masonry Work: 砌筑工作•Roofing: 屋面施工•Plumbing: 水暖工程•Electrical Wiring: 电气布线•Finishing Work: 室内装饰2.2 施工机械设备（Construction Machinery）•Excavator: 挖掘机•Bulldozer: 推土机•Crane: 起重机•Concrete Mixer: 混凝土搅拌机•Scaffolding: 脚手架•Jackhammer: 打桩机•Generator: 发电机•Welding Machine: 焊接机2.3 施工人员（Construction Personnel）•Engineer: 工程师•Architect: 建筑师•Foreman: 领班•Construction Worker: 建筑工人•Electrician: 电工•Plumber: 水电工•Carpenter: 木工•Painter: 油漆工三、建筑材料词汇3.1 建筑常用材料（Common Building Materials）•Concrete: 混凝土•Brick: 砖块•Steel: 钢材•Wood: 木材•Glass: 玻璃•Tiles: 瓷砖•Cement: 水泥•Asphalt: 沥青•Insulation: 绝缘材料3.2 建筑涂料材料（Building Coating Materials）•Paint: 油漆•Varnish: 清漆•Primer: 底漆•Solvent: 溶剂•Pigment: 颜料•Resin: 树脂•Sealer: 封孔剂•Epoxy: 环氧树脂3.3 建筑装饰材料（Building Decorative Materials）•Wallpaper: 壁纸•Tile: 瓷砖•Laminate: 层压板•Carpet: 地毯•Curtain: 窗帘•Ceiling Tile: 吊顶板•Molding: 装饰线条•Chandelier: 吊灯•Decoration: 装饰品四、建筑项目管理词汇4.1 建筑项目管理流程（Construction Project Management Process）•Planning: 规划•Design: 设计•Budgeting: 预算•Procurement: 采购•Construction: 施工•Quality Control: 质量控制•Project Schedule: 项目进度•Risk Management: 风险管理•Project Closeout: 项目收尾4.2 建筑项目管理人员（Construction Project Management Personnel）•Project Manager: 项目经理•Project Coordinator: 项目协调员•Quantity Surveyor: 工料测量员•Site Supervisor: 现场主管•Contract Administrator: 合同管理员•Safety Officer: 安全员•Quality Inspector: 质量检验员•Stakeholder: 利益相关者以上是一份简要的建筑英语词汇大全，涵盖了建筑基础、建筑施工、建筑材料和建筑项目管理等方面的词汇。

外文资料：Prestressed Concrete BuildingsPrestressed concrete has been widely and successfully applied to building construction of all types.Both precast pretensioned members and cast-tensioned structures are extensively employed,sometimes in competition with one another, most effectively in combination wit each other.Prestressed concrete offers great advantages for incorporation in a totalaspects of these, that is, structure plus other building. It is perhaps the “integrative”functions,which have made possible the present growth in use of prestressed concrete buildings.These advantages include the following:Structural strength; Structure rigidity;Durability;Mold ability,into desired forms and shapes;Fire resistance;Architectural treatment of surfaces;Sound insulation;Heat insulation; Economy; Availability, through use of local materials and labor to a high degree.Most of the above are also properties of conventionally reinforced concrete. Presrressing,however,makes the structural system more effective by enabling elimination of the technical of difficulty,e.g.,cracks that spoil the architectural treatment.Prestressing greatly enhance the structure efficiency and economy permitting longer spans and thinner elements.Above all,it gives to the architect-engineer a freedom for variation and an ability to control behavior under service conditions.Although prestressed concrete construction involves essentially the same consideration and practices as for all structures, a number of special points require emphasis or elaboration.The construction engineer is involved in design only to a limited extent. First,he muse be able to furnish advice to the architect and engineer on what can he done. Because of his specialized knowledge of techniques relating to prestressed concrete construction, he supplies a very needed service to the architect-engineer.Second, the construction engineer may be made contractually responsible for the working drawings;that is,the layout of tendons,anchorage details,etc.It is particularly important that he gives careful attention to the mild steel and concrete details to ensure these are compatible with his presressing details.Third, the construction engineer is concerned with temporary stresses, stresses at release, stresses in picking, handling and erection, and temporary condition prior to final completion of the structure, such as the need of propping for a composite pour.Fourth,although the responsibility for design rests with the design engineer, nevertheless the construction engineer is also vitally concerned that the structure be successful form the point of view of structural integrity and service behavior. Therefore he will want to look at the bearing and connection details, camber, creep, shrinkage,thermal movements,durability provisions,etc.,and advise the design engineer of any deficiencies he encounters.Information on new techniques and especially application of prestressing to buildings are extensively available in the current technical literature of national and international societies.The International Federation of Prestressing(I.F.P)has attempted to facilitate the dissemination of this information by establishing a Literature Exchange Service,in which the prestressing journals of some thirty countries are regularly exchanged.In addition,an Abstract is published intermittently by I.F.P The Prestressed Concrete Institute(USA)regularly publishes a number of journals and pamphlets on techniques and applications, and proceduresare set up for their dissemination to architects and engineers as well as directly to the construction engineer. It is important that he keep abreast of these national and worldwide developments, so as to be able to recommend the latest and best that is available in the art,and to encourage the engineer to make the fullest and most effective use of prestressed concrete in their buildings.With regard to working drawings, the construction engineer must endeavor to translate the design requirements into the most practicable and economical details of accomplishment,in such a way that the completed element or structure fully complies with the design requirement;for example, the design may indicate only the center of gravity of prestressing and the effective prestress force. The working drawing will have to translate this into tendons having finite physical properties and dimensions.If the center of gravity of pre-stressing is a parabolic path then,for pre-tensioning,and approximation by chords is required,with hold-down points suitably located.The computation of pre-stress losses,form transfer stress to effective stress, must reflect the actual manufacturing and construction process used,as well as thorough knowledge of the properties of the particular aggregates and concrete mix to be employed.With post-tensioning, anchorages and their bearing plates must be laid out in their physical dimension. It is useful in the preparation of complex anchorage detail layouts to use full-scale drawings, so as to better appreciate the congestion of mild steel and anchorages at the end of the member. Tendons and reinforcing bars should be shown in full size rather than as dotted lines. This will permit consideration to be given as to how the concrete can be placed and consolidated.The end zone of both pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete memberssubject to high transverse or bursting stresses. These stresses are also influenced by minor concrete details,such as chamfers.Provision of a grid of small bars (sometimes heavy wire mesh is used), as close to the end of a girder as possible, will help to confine and distribute the concentrated forces. Closely spaced stirrups and/or tightly spaced spiral are usually needed at the end of heavily stressed members.Recent tests have confirmed that closeness of spacing is much more effective than increase in the size of bars. Numerous small bars, closely spaced, are thus the best solution.Additional mild-steel stirrups may also be required at hold-down points to resist the shear. This is also true wherever post-tensioned tendons make sharp bends. Practical consideration of concretion dictates the spacing of tendons and ducts. The general rules are that the clear spacing small be one-and-one-half times the maximum size of coarse aggregate. In the overall section, provision must be made for the vibrator stinger.Thus pre-stressing tendons must either be spaced apart in the horizontal plane, or, in special cases, bundled.In the vertical plane close contact between tendons is quite common.With post-tensioned ducts,however,in intimate vertical contact,careful consideration has to be given to prevent one tendon form squeezing into the adjacent duct during stressing.This depends on the size of duct and the material used for the duct.A full-scale layout of this critical cross section should be ually,the best solution is to increase the thickness ( and transverse strength ) of the duct, so that it will span between the supporting shoulders of concrete.As a last rest\ort it may be necessary to stress and grout one duct before stressing the adjacent one.This is time-consuming and runs the risks of grout blockage due to leaks from one duct to the other. Therefore the author recommendsthe use of heavier duct material,or else the respacing of the ducts.The latter,of course, may increase the prestressing force required.中文翻译：预应力混凝土建筑预应力混凝土已经广泛并成功地用于各种类型的建筑。

建筑学Modern-Architecture现代建筑⼤学毕业论⽂外⽂⽂献翻译及原⽂毕业设计（论⽂）外⽂⽂献翻译⽂献、资料中⽂题⽬：现代建筑⽂献、资料英⽂题⽬：Modern Architecture⽂献、资料来源：⽂献、资料发表（出版）⽇期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译⽇期： 2017.02.14建筑学毕业设计的外⽂⽂献及译⽂⽂献、资料题⽬：《Advanced Encryption Standard》⽂献、资料发表（出版）⽇期：2004.10.25外⽂⽂献：Modern ArchitectureModern architecture, not to be confused with 'contemporary architecture', is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.1. OriginsSome historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions.Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his ‘fireproof’ design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, "Dark satanic mills" of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.2. Modernism as Dominant StyleBy the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box." Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a "style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[1] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and thebuilders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.中⽂译⽂：现代建筑现代建筑,不被混淆与'当代建筑' , 是⼀个词给了⼀些建筑风格有类似的特点, 主要的简化形式,消除装饰等. 虽然风格的设想早在20世纪,并⼤量造就了⼀些建筑师、建筑教育家和展品,很少有现代的建筑物,建于20世纪上半叶. 第⼆次⼤战后的三⼗年, 但最终却成为主导建筑风格的机构和公司建设.1起源⼀些历史学家认为进化的现代建筑作为⼀个社会问题, 息息相关的⼯程中的现代性,从⽽影响了启蒙运动,导致社会和政治⾰命.另⼀些⼈认为现代建筑主要是靠技术和⼯程学的发展, 那就是获得新的建筑材料,如钢铁, 混凝⼟和玻璃驱车发明新的建筑技术,它作为⼯业⾰命的⼀部分. 1796年, shrewsbury查尔斯bage⾸先⽤他的'⽕'的设计, 后者则依靠铸铁及砖与⽯材地板. 这些建设⼤⼤加强了结构,使它们能够容纳更⼤的机器. 由于作为建筑材料特性知识缺乏,⼀些早期建筑失败. 直到1830年初,伊顿Hodgkinson预计推出了型钢梁, 导致⼴泛使⽤钢架建设，⼯业结构完全改变了这种窘迫的⾯貌,英国北部领导的描述, "⿊暗魔⿁作坊"的地⽅如曼彻斯特和西约克郡. ⽔晶宫由约瑟夫paxton的重⼤展览, 1851年,是⼀个早期的例⼦,钢铁及玻璃施⼯; 可能是⼀个最好的例⼦,就是1890年由William乐男爵延长和路易沙利⽂在芝加哥附近发展的⾼层钢结构摩天楼. 早期结构采⽤混凝⼟作为⾏政⼿段的建筑表达(⽽⾮纯粹功利结构) ,包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近,劳埃德赖特的统⼀宫, 建于1926年瑞⼠巴塞尔附近的鲁道夫斯坦纳的第⼆哥特堂,.但⽆论原因为何, 约有1900多位建筑师,在世界各地开始制定新的建筑⽅法,将传统的先例(⽐如哥特式)与新的技术相结合的可能性.路易沙利⽂和赖特在芝加哥⼯作,维克多奥尔塔在布鲁塞尔,安东尼⾼迪在巴塞罗那, 奥托⽡格纳和查尔斯景mackintosh格拉斯哥在维也纳,其中之⼀可以看作是⼀个新与旧的共同⽃争.2现代主义风格由1920年代的最重要⼈物,在现代建筑⾥确⽴了⾃⼰的名声. 三个是公认的柯布西耶在法国, 密斯范德尔德罗和⽡尔特格罗⽪乌斯在德国. 密斯范德尔德罗和格罗⽪乌斯为董事的包豪斯, 其中欧洲有不少学校和有关团体学习调和⼯艺和传统⼯业技术.赖特的建筑⽣涯中,也影响了欧洲建筑的现代艺术,特别是通过⽡斯穆特组合但他拒绝被归类与他们. 赖特与格罗⽪乌斯和Van der德罗对整个有机体系有重⼤的影响.在1932年来到的重要moma展览,是现代建筑艺术的国际展览,艺术家菲利普约翰逊. 约翰逊和合作者亨利-罗素阁纠集许多鲜明的线索和趋势, 内容相似,有⼀个共同的⽬的,巩固了他们融⼊国际化风格这是⼀个重要的转折点. 在⼆战的时间包豪斯的代表⼈物逃到美国,芝加哥，到哈佛⼤学设计⿊⼭书院. 当现代建筑设计从未成为主导风格单⼀的住宅楼，在成为现代卓越的体制和商业建筑, 是学校(专业领导)的唯⼀可接受的, 设计解决⽅案,从约1932年⾄约1984年.那些从事国际风格的建筑师想要打破传统建筑和简单的没有装饰的建筑物。

建筑用英语咋说
在国际交流中，掌握一些关于建筑的英语词汇是十分重要的。

本文将带您了解一些常用的建筑英语词汇，以及它们在不同场景下的使用。

1. 房屋
英语中关于房屋的词汇有很多，下面是一些常见的例子：
•House: 房子，通常指独立的住宅。

•Apartment: 公寓，通常指一栋大楼中的多个住宅单元。

•Building: 楼房，可以指任何类型的建筑物，常用于大型建筑或商用建筑。

•Cottage: 小屋，一般是指乡村或农村地区的小型住宅。

•Villa: 别墅，通常是指别致豪华的住宅。

•Bungalow: 平房，只有一层的小型住宅。

这些词汇可以用于描述不同类型的房屋或是在谈论房屋相关的话题时使用。

2. 建筑材料
在谈论建筑时，了解一些常见的建筑材料也是必要的。

以下是一些常用的建筑材料的英文名称：
•Brick: 砖
•Concrete: 混凝土
•Steel: 钢
•Wood: 木材
•Glass: 玻璃
•Tile: 瓷砖
•Cement: 水泥
•Stone: 石头
这些词汇可以在描述建筑材料时使用，例如。

常见的建筑术语的英文翻译集之一以下是一些常见的建筑术语的英文翻译集合之一：1. 建筑设计- Architectural Design2. 建筑结构- Building Structure3. 建筑材料- Building Materials4. 建筑施工- Building Construction5. 建筑成本- Construction Cost6. 建筑风格- Architectural Style7. 建筑师- Architect8. 建筑规划- Building Planning9. 建筑模型- Architectural Model10. 建筑面积- Building Area11. 建筑高度- Building Height12. 建筑容积率- Plot Ratio13. 建筑法规- Building Codes and Regulations14. 建筑节能- Energy Efficiency in Buildings15. 建筑智能化- Intelligent Buildings16. 绿色建筑- Green Buildings17. 可持续建筑- Sustainable Buildings18. 建筑声学- Architectural Acoustics19. 建筑光学- Architectural Optics20. 室内设计- Interior Design21. 景观设计- Landscape Design22. 结构设计- Structural Design23. 给排水设计- Water Supply and Drainage Design24. 暖通空调设计- HVAC Design25. 电气设计- Electrical Design26. 消防设计- Fire Protection Design27. 智能化系统设计- Intelligent System Design28. 施工组织设计- Construction Organization Design29. 施工图设计- Construction Drawing Design30. 装饰装修设计- Decoration and Finishing Design31. 建筑声学设计- Architectural Acoustics Design32. 建筑光学设计- Architectural Optics Design33. 建筑热工设计- Architectural Thermal Design34. 建筑美学设计- Architectural Aesthetic Design35. 建筑环境设计- Architectural Environment Design36. 建筑风水学- Feng Shui37. 建筑日照分析- Solar Analysis for Buildings38. 建筑通风分析- Ventilation Analysis for Buildings39. 建筑声环境分析- Acoustic Environment Analysis for Buildings40. 建筑光环境分析- Daylighting Environment Analysis for Buildings41. 建筑热环境分析- Thermal Environment Analysis for Buildings42. 建筑面积计算- Building Area Calculation43. 建筑楼层高度- Storey Height44. 建筑消防设计- Fire Protection Design for Buildings45. 建筑结构安全评估- Structural Safety Evaluation for Buildings46. 建筑抗震设计- Seismic Design for Buildings47. 建筑防洪设计- Flood-resistant Design for Buildings48. 建筑工程招标- Building Engineering Tendering49. 建筑工程施工许可- Construction Permission for Building Projects50. 建筑工程造价咨询- Engineering Cost Consulting for Building Projects51. 建筑工程监理- Project Supervision for Building Projects52. 建筑工程验收- Acceptance of Building Projects53. 建筑工程质量检测- Quality Detection of Building Projects54. 建筑工程质量评估- Quality Evaluation of Building Projects55. 建筑工程质量保修- Quality Guarantee of Building Projects56. 建筑工程档案- Construction Project Archives57. 建筑工程安全- Construction Safety58. 建筑工程管理- Construction Project Management59. 建筑工程合同- Construction Contract60. 建筑工程保险- Construction Insurance61. 建筑工程材料- Construction Materials62. 建筑工程机械- Construction Machinery63. 建筑工程劳务- Construction Labor64. 建筑工程施工组织设计- Construction Organization Design for Building Projects65. 建筑工程施工图设计- Construction Drawing Design for Building Projects66. 建筑工程施工进度计划- Construction Progress Plan for Building Projects67. 建筑工程施工质量控制- Construction Quality Control for Building Projects68. 建筑工程施工安全管理- Construction Safety Management for Building Projects69. 建筑工程施工现场管理- Construction Site Management for Building Projects70. 建筑工程施工成本管理- Construction Cost Management for Building Projects71. 建筑工程施工环境保护- Environmental Protection in Building Construction72. 建筑工程施工节能管理- Energy-saving Management in Building Construction73. 建筑工程施工水土保持- Soil and Water Conservation in Building Construction74. 建筑工程施工质量控制要点- Key Points of Construction Quality Control for Building Projects75. 建筑工程施工安全控制要点- Key Points of Construction Safety Control for Building Projects76. 建筑工程施工质量验收规范- Acceptance Specification for Construction Quality ofBuilding Projects77. 建筑立面设计- Façade Design78. 建筑剖面设计- Section Design79. 建筑立面分析图- Façade Analysis Diagram80. 建筑剖面分析图- Section Analysis Diagram81. 建筑结构分析图- Structural Analysis Diagram82. 建筑平面图- Floor Plan83. 建筑立面图- Façade Drawing84. 建筑剖面图- Section Drawing85. 建筑轴测图- Axonometric Drawing86. 建筑渲染图- Architectural Rendering87. 建筑模型制作- Model Making88. 建筑绘画- Architectural Drawing89. 建筑表现图- Architectural Representation90. 建筑动画- Architectural Animation91. 建筑摄影- Architectural Photography92. 建筑信息模型- Building Information Modeling (BIM)93. 建筑环境评估- Building Environmental Assessment94. 建筑节能评估- Building Energy Efficiency Assessment95. 建筑可持续性评估- Building Sustainability Assessment96. 建筑健康评估- Building Health Assessment97. 建筑设备系统设计- Building Equipment System Design98. 建筑电气系统设计- Electrical System Design for Buildings99. 建筑给排水系统设计- Water Supply and Drainage System Design for Buildings 100. 建筑暖通空调系统设计- HVAC System Design for Buildings一般建筑术语英文翻译之二101. 建筑燃气系统设计- Gas System Design for Buildings102. 建筑消防报警系统设计- Fire Alarm System Design for Buildings103. 建筑智能化系统集成设计- Intelligent System Integration Design for Buildings 104. 建筑幕墙设计- Curtain Wall Design105. 建筑石材幕墙设计- Stone Curtain Wall Design106. 建筑玻璃幕墙设计- Glass Curtain Wall Design107. 建筑绿化设计- Greening Design for Buildings108. 建筑景观设计- Landscape Design for Buildings109. 建筑室内环境设计- Indoor Environmental Design for Buildings110. 建筑声学装修设计- Acoustic Decoration Design for Buildings111. 建筑光学装修设计- Optical Decoration Design for Buildings112. 建筑材料装修设计- Decorative Materials Design for Buildings113. 建筑历史与理论- Architectural History and Theory114. 建筑美学史- History of Architectural Aesthetics115. 现代建筑设计- Modern Architectural Design116. 后现代建筑设计- Postmodern Architectural Design117. 当代建筑设计- Contemporary Architectural Design118. 解构主义建筑设计- Deconstructivist Architectural Design119. 装饰艺术建筑设计- Art Deco Architectural Design120. 功能主义建筑设计- Functionalist Architectural Design121. 结构主义建筑设计- Structuralist Architectural Design122. 新古典主义建筑设计- Neoclassical Architectural Design123. 折衷主义建筑设计- Eclectic Architectural Design124. 绿色建筑设计- Green Architectural Design125. 人文主义建筑设计- Humanist Architectural Design126. 新地域主义建筑设计- New Regionalist Architectural Design127. 参数化建筑设计- Parametric Architectural Design128. 数字建筑设计- Digital Architectural Design129. 未来主义建筑设计- Futurist Architectural Design130. 智能化建筑设计- Intelligent Building Design131. 生态建筑设计- Ecological Architectural Design132. 城市设计- Urban Design133. 景观设计- Landscape Design134. 城市规划- Urban Planning135. 城市更新- Urban Renewal136. 城市改造- Urban Transformation137. 城市意象- Urban Image138. 城市设计理论- Urban Design Theory139. 城市生态设计- Urban Ecological Design140. 城市交通设计- Urban Transportation Design141. 城市基础设施设计- Urban Infrastructure Design142. 城市天际线设计- Urban Skyline Design143. 城市夜景设计- Urban Nightscape Design144. 城市滨水区设计- Urban Waterfront Design145. 城市开放空间设计- Urban Open Space Design146. 城市街道景观设计- Urban Streetscape Design147. 城市公园设计- Urban Park Design148. 城市居住区设计- Urban Residential District Design149. 城市商业区设计- Urban Commercial District Design150. 城市文化区设计- Urban Cultural District Design151. 城市行政中心设计- Urban Governmental District Design152. 城市会展中心设计- Urban Exhibition and Convention Center Design 153. 城市体育馆设计- Urban Stadium Design154. 城市图书馆设计- Urban Library Design155. 城市博物馆设计- Urban Museum Design156. 城市大剧院设计- Urban Theater Design157. 城市机场设计- Urban Airport Design158. 城市火车站设计- Urban Train Station Design159. 城市地铁站设计- Urban Subway Station Design160. 城市公交车站设计- Urban Bus Stop Design161. 城市景观照明设计- Urban Landscape Lighting Design162. 城市标识系统设计- Urban Signage System Design163. 城市公共艺术装置设计- Public Art Installation Design164. 城市家具设计- Urban Furniture Design165. 城市花坛设计- Urban Flower Bed Design166. 城市儿童游乐设施设计- Urban Playground Design167. 城市植栽设计- Urban Planting Design168. 城市排水系统设计- Urban Drainage System Design169. 城市防洪系统设计- Urban Flood Control System Design170. 城市消防系统设计- Urban Fire Protection System Design171. 城市应急救援系统设计- Urban Emergency Rescue System Design172. 城市废弃物处理系统设计- Urban Waste Management System Design 173. 城市给水系统设计- Urban Water Supply System Design174. 城市污水处理系统设计- Urban Wastewater Treatment System Design 175. 城市雨水排放系统设计- Urban Stormwater Management System Design 176. 城市空调系统设计- Urban Air Conditioning System Design177. 城市供暖系统设计- Urban Heating System Design178. 城市燃气供应系统设计- Urban Gas Supply System Design179. 城市电力供应系统设计- Urban Electrical Power Supply System Design180. 城市智能化管理系统设计- Urban Intelligent Management System Design 181. 城市绿色建筑认证体系- Green Building Certification Systems182. 城市绿色建筑评价体系- Green Building Evaluation Systems183. 可持续城市发展理论- Sustainable Urban Development Theory 184. 生态城市理论- Eco-city Theory185. 低碳城市理论- Low-carbon City Theory186. 紧凑城市理论- Compact City Theory187. 智慧城市理论- Smart City Theory188. 韧性城市理论- Resilient City Theory189. 多规合一城市规划体系- Integrated Urban Planning System 190. 城市设计哲学- Urban Design Philosophy191. 城市设计心理学- Urban Design Psychology192. 城市设计社会学- Urban Design Sociology193. 城市设计地理学- Urban Design Geography194. 城市设计经济学- Urban Design Economics195. 城市设计生态学- Urban Design Ecology196. 城市设计符号学- Urban Design Semiotics197. 城市设计现象学- Urban Design Phenomenology198. 城市设计未来学- Urban Design Futures Studies199. 城市设计艺术史- Urban Design Art History200. 城市设计与公共政策- Urban Design and Public Policy。

0813建筑学一级学科简介一级学科（中文）名称：建筑学（英文）名称： Architecture一、学科概况建筑学是一门古老的学科。

伴随着文明的出现，人类即开始了大规模的建筑活动。

古代的埃及、西亚、希腊、罗马、中国、印度和拉美等地区都是建筑文化发展的源泉。

世界各国、各民族的建筑构成了人类建筑文化的整体。

古希腊作为欧洲文明的摇篮，其建筑活动在建筑史上占有重要的地位。

古罗马建筑直接继承和发展了古希腊建筑的成就，维特鲁威的《建筑十书》是流传下来最早的建筑学著作，为建筑的构成以及建筑的坚固、适用、美观的三要素奠定了基础。

中世纪的哥特式建筑在结构、材料、技术上又产生了新的特点和成就。

15世纪文艺复兴时期以来，出现了专业的建筑师，并为传统建筑学确立了完整的理论和概念。

中国建筑有着悠久的历史和文化传统，独特的木构架系统和艺术风格，精炼的建筑法式和富有哲理的设计思想，灵活多变的处理技巧和丰富多彩的装饰，成为世界建筑的重要组成部分。

18世纪下半叶，随着工业革命的进程加速，城市迅猛发展，建筑类型大量增加，建筑功能日趋复杂。

20世纪初出现了现代主义建筑以及与之相适应的包豪斯建筑教育学派。

德国建筑师格罗皮乌斯、密斯·范·德·罗、法国建筑师勒·柯布西耶和美国建筑师赖特是其中的杰出代表。

其主要建筑思想和设计理念体现在：第一，将建筑的使用功能作为设计的出发点，强调建筑形式与内容的一致性；应用现代科学技术提高建筑设计的科学性。

第二，注意发挥现代建筑材料和建筑结构的技术和艺术特点，反对不合理的外加建筑装饰，突出技术和艺术的高度统一。

第三，将建筑设计重点放在空间组合和建筑环境的创造上。

第四，重视建筑的社会性和经济性，强调建筑同公众社会生活的密切关系。

现代主义建筑强调建筑形式与功能的统一，重视新技术、新结构、新材料以及建筑的社会性和经济性，标志着建筑学完成了一次重大飞跃。

从20世纪50年代开始，针对现代主义建筑中出现的某些忽视精神生活的需求、忽视民族和地区文化差异的倾向，特别是某些建筑师的设计手法公式化的倾向，重新探讨继承传统和发展创新等问题，在建筑风格上又出现了多元化倾向，其中后现代建筑较为活跃。

Architecture in a Climate of ChangePage52-Page62Low energy techniques for housingIt would appear that,for the industrialised countries,the best chance of rescue lies with the built environment because buildings in use or in the course of erection are the biggest single indirect source of carbon emissions generated by burning fossil fuels,accounting for over 50 per cent of total emissions.If you add the transport costs generated by buildings the UK government estimate is 75 per cent.It is the built environment which is the sector that can most easily accommodate fairly rapid change without pain.In fact,upgrading buildings, especially the lower end of the housing stock,creates a cluster of interlocking virtuous circles. Construction systemsHaving considered the challenge presented by global warming and the opportunities to generate fossil-free energy,it is now time to consider how the demand side of the energy equation can respond to that challenge.The built environment is the greatest sectoral consumer of energy and,within that sector,housing is in pole position accounting for 28 per cent of all UK carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.In the UK housing has traditionally been of masonry and since the early 1920s this has largely been of cavity construction.The purpose was to ensure that a saturated external leaf would have no physical contact with the inner leaf apart from wall ties and that water would be discharged through weep holes at the damp-proof course level.Since the introduction of thermal regulations,initially deemed necessary to conserve energy rather than the planet,it has been common practice to introduce insulation into the cavity.For a long time it was mandatory to preserve a space within the cavity and a long rearguard battle was fought by the traditionalists to preserve this‘sacred space’.Defeat was finally conceded when some extensive research by the Building Research Establishment found that there was no greater risk of damp penetration with filled cavities and in fact damp through condensation was reduced.Solid masonry walls with external insulation are common practice in continental Europe and are beginning to make an appearance in the UK.In Cornwall the Penwith Housing Association has built apartments of this construction on the sea front, perhaps the most challenging of situations.The advantages of masonry construction are:● It is a tried and tested technology familiar to house building companies of all sizes.● It is durable and generally risk free as regards catastrophic failure–though not entirely.A few years ago the entire outer leaf of a university building in Plymouth collapsed due to the fact that the wall ties had corroded.● Exposed brickwork is a low maintenance system; maintenance demands rise considerably if it receives a rendered finish.● From the energy efficiency point of view,masonry homes have a relatively high thermal mass which is considerably improved if there are high density masonryinternal walls and concrete floors.Framed constructionVolume house builders are increasingly resorting to timber-framed construction with a brick outer skin,making them appear identical to full masonry construction.The attraction is the speed of erection especially when elements are fabricated off site. However,there is an unfortunate history behind this system due to shortcomings in quality control.This can apply to timber which has not been adequately cured or seasoned.Framed buildings need to have a vapour barrier to walls as well as roofs. With timber framing it is difficult to avoid piercing the barrier.There can also be problems achieving internal fixings.For the purist,the ultimate criticism is that it is illogical to have a framed building clad in masonry when it cries out for a panel,boarded,slate or tile hung external finish.Pressed steel frames for homes are now being vigorously promoted by the steel industry.The selling point is again speed of erection but with the added benefit of a guaranteed quality in terms of strength and durability of the material.From the energy point of view,framed buildings can accommodate high levels of insulation but have relatively poor thermal mass unless this is provided by floors and internal walls.Innovative techniquesPermanent Insulation Formwork Systems (PIFS) are beginning to make an appearance in Britain.The principle behind PIFS is the use of precision moulded interlocking hollow blocks made from an insulation material,usually expanded polystyrene.They can be rapidly assembled on site and then filled with pump grade concrete.When the concrete has set the result is a highly insulated wall ready for the installation of services and internal and exterior finishes.They can achieve a U-value as low as 0.11 W/m2K.Above three storeys the addition of steel reinforcement is necessary. The advantages of this system are:● Design flexibility; almost any plan shape is possible.● Ease and speed of erection;skill requirements are modest which is why it has proved popular with the self-build sector.Experienced erectors can achieve 5 m2 per man hour for erection and placement of concrete.● The finished product has high structural strength together with considerable thermal mass and high insulation value.Solar designPassive solar designSince the sun drives every aspect of the climate it is logical to describe the techniques adopted in buildings to take advantage of this fact as‘solar design’. The most basic response is referred to as‘passive solar design’.In this case buildings are designed to take full advantage of solar gain without any intermediate operations.Access to solar radiation is determined by a number of conditions:● the sun’s position relative to the principal facades of the building(solar altitude and azimuth);● site orientation and slope;● existing obstructions on the site;● potential for overshadowing from obstructions outside the site boundary.One of the methods by which solar access can be evaluated is the use of some form of sun chart.Most often used is the stereographic sun chart in which a series of radiating lines and concentric circles allow the position of nearby obstructions to insolation,such as other buildings,to be plotted.On the same chart a series of sun path trajectories are also drawn(usually one arc for the 21st day of each month); also marked are the times of the day.The intersection of the obstructions’outlines and the solar trajectories indicate times of transition between sunlight and shade. Normally a different chart is constructed for use at different latitudes (at about two degree intervals).Sunlight and shade patterns cast by the proposed building itself should also be considered.Graphical and computer prediction techniques may be employed as well as techniques such as the testing of physical models with a heliodon.Computer modelling of shadows cast by the sun from any position is offered by Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) with its‘Suncast’program.This is a user-friendly program which should be well within normal undergraduate competence. The spacing between buildings is important if overshading is to be avoided during winter months when the benefit of solar heat gain reaches its peak.On sloping sites there is a critical relationship between the angle of slope and the level of overshading.For example, if overshading is to be avoided at a latitude of 50 N,rows of houses on a 10 north-facing slope must be more than twice as far apart than on 10 south-facing slope.Trees can obviously obstruct sunlight.However,if they are deciduous,they perform the dual function of permitting solar penetration during the winter whilst providing a degree of shading in the summer.Again spacing between trees and buildings is critical.Passive solar design can be divided into three broad categories:● direct gain;● indirect gain;● attached sunspace or conservatory.Each of the three categories relies in a different way on the‘greenhouse effect’as a means of absorbing and retaining heat.The greenhouse effect in buildings is that process which is mimicked by global environmental warming.In buildings,the incident solar radiation is transmitted by facade glazing to the interior where it is absorbed by the internal surfaces causing warming.However,re-emission of heat back through the glazing is blocked by the fact that the radiation is of a much longer wavelength than the incoming radiation.This is because the re-emission is from surfaces at a much lower temperature and the glazing reflects back such radiation to the interior.Direct gainDirect gain is the design technique in which one attempts to concentrate the majority of the building’s glazing on the sun-facing facade.Solar radiation is admitted directly into the space concerned.Two examples 30 years apart are the author’s housein Sheffield,designed in 1967 and the Hockerton Project of 1998 by Robert and Brenda Vale.The main design characteristics are:● Apertures through which sunlight is admitted should be on the solar side of the building, within about 30 of south for the northern hemisphere.● Windows facing west may pose a summer overheating risk.● Windows should be at least double glazed with low emissivity glass (Low E) as now required by the UK Building Regulations.● The main occupied living spaces should be located on the solar side of the building.● The floor should be of a high thermal mass to absorb the heat and provide thermal inertia,which reduces temperature fluctuations inside the building.● As regards the benefits of thermal mass,for the normal daily cycle of heat absorption and emission,it is only about the first 100 mm of thickness which is involved in the storage process.Thickness greater than this provides marginal improvements in performance but can be useful in some longer-term storage options.● In the case of solid floors,insulation should be beneath the slab.● A vapour barrier should always be on the warm side of any insulation.● Thick carpets should be avoided over the main sunlit and heatabsorbing portion of the floor if it serves as a thermal store.However,with suspended timber floors a carpet is an advantage in excluding draughts from a ventilated underfloor zone. During the day and into the evening the warmed floor should slowly release its heat, and the time period over which it happens makes it a very suitable match to domestic circumstances when the main demand for heat is in the early evening.As far as the glazing is concerned,the following features are recommended: ● Use of external shutters and/or internal insulating panels might be considered to reduce night-time heat loss.● To reduce the potential of overheating in the summer,shading may be provided by designing deep eaves or external louvres. Internal blinds are the most common technique but have the disadvantage of absorbing radiant heat thus adding to the internal temperature.● Heat reflecting or absorbing glass may be used to limit overheating.The downside is that it also reduces heat gain at times of the year when it is beneficial. ● Light shelves can help reduce summer overheating whilst improving daylight distribution.Direct gain is also possible through the glazing located between the building interior and attached sunspace or conservatory;it also takes place through upper level windows of clerestory designs.In each of these cases some consideration is required concerning the nature and position of the absorbing surfaces.In the UK climate and latitude as a general rule of thumb room depth should not be more than two and a half times the window head height and the glazing area should be between about 25 and 35 per cent of the floor area.Indirect gainIn this form of design a heat absorbing element is inserted between the incident solar radiation and the space to be heated;thus the heat is transferred in an indirectway.This often consists of a wall placed behind glazing facing towards the sun,and this thermal storage wall controls the flow of heat into the building.The main elements● High thermal mass element positioned between sun and internal spaces,the heat absorbed slowly conducts across the wall and is liberated to the interior some time later.● Materials and thickness of the wall are chosen to modify the heat flow.In homes the flow can be delayed so that it arrives in the evening matched to occupancy periods. Typical thicknesses of the thermal wall are 20–30 cm.● Glazing on the outer side of the thermal wall is used to provide some insulation against heat loss and help retain the solar gain by making use of the greenhouse effect.● The area of the thermal storage wall element should be about 15–20 per cent of the floor area of the space into which it emits heat.● In order to derive more immediate heat benefit,air can be circulated from the building through the air gap between wall and glazing and back into the room.In this modified form this element is usually referred to as a Trombe wall. Heat reflecting blinds should be inserted between the glazing and the thermal wall to limit heat build-up in summer.In countries which receive inconsistent levels of solar radiation throughout the day because of climatic factors (such as in the UK),the option to circulate air is likely to be of greater benefit than awaiting its arrival after passage through the thermal storage wall.At times of excess heat gain the system can provide alternative benefits with the air circulation vented directly to the exterior carrying away its heat,at the same time drawing in outside air to the building from cooler external spaces.Indirect gain options are often viewed as being the least aesthetically pleasing of the passive solar options,partly because of the restrictions on position and view out from remaining windows,and partly as a result of the implied dark surface finishes of the absorbing surfaces.As a result,this category of the three prime solar design technologies is not as widely used as its efficiency and effectiveness would suggest.Attached sunspace/conservatoryThis has become a popular feature in both new housing and as an addition to existing homes.It can function as an extension of living space,a solar heat store,a preheater for ventilation air or simply an adjunct greenhouse for plants.On balance it is considered that conservatories are a net contributor to global warming since they are often heated.Ideally the sunspace should be capable of being isolated from the main building to reduce heat loss in winter and excessive gain in summer.The area of glazing in the sunspace should be 20–30 per cent of the area of the room to which it is attached.The most adventurous sunspace so far encountered is in the Hockerton housing development which will feature later.Ideally the summer heat gain should be used to charge a seasonal thermal storage element to provide background warmth in winter.At the very least,air flow paths between the conservatory and the main building should be carefully controlled.Active solar thermal systemsA distinction must be drawn between passive means of utilising the thermal heat of the sun, discussed earlier,and those of a more‘active’nature Active systems take solar gain a step further than passive solar.They convert direct solar radiation into another form of energy.Solar collectors preheat water using a closed circuit calorifier.The emergence of Legionella has highlighted the need to store hot water at a temperature above 60 C which means that for most of the year in temperate climes active solar heating must be supplemented by some form of heating.Active systems are able to deliver high quality energy.However,a penalty is incurred since energy is required to control and operate the system known as the ‘parasitic energy requirement’.A further distinction is the difference between systems using the thermal heat of the sun,and systems,such as photovoltaic cells, which convert solar energy directly into electrical power.For solar energy to realise its full potential it needs to be installed on a district basis and coupled with seasonal storage.One of the largest projects is at Friedrichshafen.The heat from 5600 m2 of solar collectors on the roofs of eight housing blocks containing 570 apartments is transported to a central heating unit or substation.It is then distributed to the apartments as required.The heated living area amounts to 39 500 m2.Surplus summer heat is directed to the seasonal heat store which,in this case, is of the hot water variety capable of storing 12 000 m3.The scale of this storage facility is indicated by Figure 5.9.The heat delivery of the system amounts to 1915 MWh/year and the solar fraction is 47 per cent.The month by month ratio between solar and fossil-based energy indicates that from April to November inclusive,solar energy accounts for almost total demand,being principally domestic hot water.In places with high average temperatures and generous sunlight,active solar has considerable potential not just for heating water but also for electricity generation.This has particular relevance to less and least developed countries.环境变化影响下的建筑学房屋设计中的低能耗技术显而易见，在工业化国家，最好的营救机会依赖于建筑环境，因为不论是在使用的建筑或者是在建设的建筑，都是最大的、单一的、间接地由化石燃料的燃烧所引起的碳排放的源头，而这些站了所有排放的50%。

From Spacelab to B : Architecture-less Architecture?Frank KaltenbachThe person responsible for the thematic organization of this year’s Architecture Biennate in Venice – a huge show featuring 56 participating countries – was Aaron Betsky, former head of the Netherlands Architecture Institute (NAI) and director of the Cincinnati Art Museum. Building on the provocative thesis that “buildings are the tombs of architecture”, Betsky chose as his theme “Out There: Architecture Beyond Building”. For the exhibition, the architects were to be freed from the daily burdens of their profession so that they could develop as artists, discuss anew the essence of architecture, and find approaches to addressing the challenges of the future.1 21 Urban linkage via a cable railway in Caracas, Urban-Think Tank, Alfredo Brillembourg, Hubert Klumpner2 foumation [Re] formation: A Nomadic Garden, Barkow Leibinger3 Lotus, Zaha Hadid Architects4 Protoyping the future: three houses for the subconscious, Asymptote Architecture5 The Changing Room, Couture of Architecture, UNStudioThe show in the Arsenale, the erstwhile rope-manufacturing centre for the Venetian navy, begins in fact with a time tunnel. Between the convex curvatures of two projection screens, the newcomer finds himself in an interstellar world. To the accompaniment of the rousing Star Wars theme, the familiar starry sky is overlaid by growing fractal shapes until they eventually take over. The set is illustrated by simultaneously running scenes from Fritz Lang’s 1926 Metroplis to Stanley Kubick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey. Thus primed by the visions and utopias of the past, the visitor is confronted with the futuristic design that the present has to offer: a metamorphosis of abstract objects in there variations (fig, 4) that design stars Hani Rashid and LiseAnne Couture of Asymptote call Prototyping the future: three houses for the subconscious. They are aesthetic objects that question the formal idea of what we call a house. The outer-space angle is addressed next. In the interactive style of the 1960s, visitors slip under an astronaut ’s helmet. They are prompted to grasp the control levers, whereupon their heartbeats become visible the capsule does one learn that the idea for this space capsule originated in 1969; it is a reconstruction of the Asteoballon by Coop Hmmelb(l)au. The message here might be that the dreams of yesteryear are now finally coming to fruition.Like a sleek wild animal, the next installation looms in the visitor ’s path. Eventually its spell draws him in close to touch the fine surface of yellow-gold metallic lacquer. Zaha Hadid ’s furniture installation Lotus defies convention. It brings to mind luxury cars, or an unfolding lotus blossom (fig. 3).3 45Is the future of architecture the architecture the architecture of motion? Ben van Berkel and Caroline Bos take on the phenomenon of flowing space .Colored a neutral white, the loop of their Changing Room winds its way like a one-to-one scale paper model among the historic brick columns. The floor becomes wall becomes ceiling becomes floor again. This three-dimensional motion is intensified in the interior by video projections and by the flow of the visitors streaming through (fig. 5).On a screen Diller Scofidio + Renfro show scenes of a film taken from the vantage point of a Venetian gondola. Only the gondola is not on the Grand Canal at all, but rather in one of the reproduction Venices in the hotels of Las Vegas. The issue of the reproducibility of original locations raises the question of what the authenticity of a place such as Venice really means.The aspect of impermanence and the infinite variety of possibilities are exemplified in the installation by Frank Barkow and Regine Leibinger. Their laser-cut stainless-steel pipes can be interpreted as abstract models of city high-rises, the arrangement of which is spontaneously altered by the viewers. It is a statement in favor of the use of digital technologies, not to generate images, but to escape the narrow confines of standardized construction materials (fig. 2),The Golden Lion for the Best Installation Project went to the digitally produced tables by Greg Lynn. Inspired in recycled plastic toy animals, then mirror-reversed,duplicated and formed a collage of then into a digital 3-D model. The computer cutthe figures apart in 3-D and welded them together again as a conglomeration of interconnected plastic animals. The jarring yellow, purple and blue tables represent a playful new approach to recycling and 3-D production.Fabrication is likewise featured in the Swiss pavilion at Giardini, where a robot-built wall winds around the supports like a slaloming skier. It exemplifies the high caliber of the Swiss architectural schools, where this application was developed by Gramazio Kohler. Otherwise, the subject of digital architecture is not nearly as well represented as it was four years ago under Dejan Sudjic’s motto “Metropolises”.Likewise, a continuation of Kurt W. Forster’s “Cityscapes”theme from the last Biennate, in which analytical stock-taking of the situation facing metropolises took centre stage, is only rudimentarily in evidence. Through S.L.U.M.[Sustainable Living Urban Model]LAB, Alfredo Brillembourg and Hubert Klumpner of Urban-Think Tank succeeded in connecting the barrios of Caracas via a metro cable railway without sacrificing living space to new road construction (fig. 1).Peter Ebner and seven Mexican firms made concrete suggestions for the reconsolidation of Mexico City in order to reduce the city’s enormous commuter traffic volume. The Chilean firm Elemental was awarded the Silver Lion for a Promising Young Architect for a low –budget row house designed to grow with the family. The American pavilion is dedicated to the weaker segments of the population. Many of the projects and pavilions, however, either make statements that are hard to interpret, or are not very attractive on an emotion level. In contrast, the light installation 64 kW by Siegrun Appelt in the portico of the heat is keenly felt on one’s body. The choreographed interruption of the illumination of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin is meant to compensate for this deliberate “waste of energy”and make an appeal for the conservation of resources.Finally, Frank Gehry was awarded a Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement, and this despite-or perhaps because of-the fact that, in contrast to Aaron Betsky’s motto, he still believes in the power of architecture: “I’m not interested in beautiful drawings or models. What interests me is the building.” He is not alone in this. Well-made though somewhat dry presentations featuring photographs and British pavilions, among others, in which Tony Fretton, Sergison Bates, De Rijke Marsh Morgan, Witherford Watson Mann and Maccreanor Lavington display two residential building projects each.Denise Scott Brown’s speech on “Building Homes in the 21st Century”, but especially the intense late-night cross-table debates of the Darkside Club, moderates by Paul Finch, Jeff Kipnis and Mirko Zandini during the opening days, exposed the rift between the representatives of a classical architecture as illustrated in the Brishi pavilion and the more experimental young generation, which derives its inspiration from dynamic processes rather than the history of construction.The Russian pavilion, where William Alsop,Norman Foster, David Adjaye, SOM, KpF, and Thomas Leeser, among others, have exhibits, is styled as a symbolic chess match between Tussian and foreign architects. With Abundant, the Australians illustrate the astonishing variety of their architectural scene. The fresh yellow coloration that is continued out into the garden and around the exhibition of over 300models does not become tiring.Retrospectives are dedicated to Josef Lackner in the Austrian pavilion, to Sverre Fehn in the Nordic pavilion, to Carlo Scarpa and Le Corbusier and, on the occasion of his 90th birthday, to Jorn Utzon in the Palazzo Franchetti. And what would Venice be without Andrea Palladio? The 500th anniversary of his birth is celebrated in the Villa Foscari La Malcontenta with Zaha Hadid’s sculpture Aura – a lively gesture acknowledging the coexistence and mutual enrichment of classical architecture (Palladio) and the champions of parametric design (Zaha Hadid and Patrik Schumacher).。

SCIENCE CHINATechnological SciencesLow Energy Certificate –– An exploration on optimization and evaluation of energy-efficient building envelopeEnergy saving is the crucial task of green architecture, energy-saving design and evaluation should be interactive. Low Energy Certificate (LEC), an interactive computer program for energy efficiency and certification of building envelope, is briefly in-troduced in this paper in aspects of certification standards, procedure, methods etc. Through the evaluation report of Innova-tion-pavilion PoI features, reference values of LEC are presented.optimization and evaluation of energy efficiency, Low Energy Certificate (LEC), energy performance of building enve-lope, interactiveCitation:Zhang H, Leimer H P. Low Energy Certificate –– An exploration on optimization and evaluation of energy-efficient building envelope. Sci China Tech Sci, 2011, 54: 16391644, doi: 10.1007/s11431-011-4357-51 Actual design and evaluation of energy-efficient buildingsWhat is green building? Until now, there is still no world-wide uniform definition to it and individual evaluation sys-tem for energy-efficient buildings has its own emphasis. In China’s Evaluation Standard for Green Building (GB/T 50378), “Gree n building refers to the buildings that can maximally save resources (energy, land, water and material), protect the environment, reduce pollution, provide healthy, comfortable and efficient use space as well as be harmoni-ous with the nature in the whole lifecycle.” The empha-ses are laid on resource-saving and environmental protec-tion. For the moment, there are several internationally rec-ognized green building evaluation or certification systems such as LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental De-sign, USA), BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method, Britain), CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Envi-ronmental Efficiency, Japan), DGNB Certificate (Germany). Both China’s Evaluation Standard for Green Building and US Green Building Council’s LEED are comprehensive assessments which accentuate buildings’ impact on the en-vironment .In the current phase of green building development in China, the basic policy is to promote energy saving of buildings [3]. Aiming at green building, energy efficiency is the problem that should be solved at first. On this aspect, it is often required that design and evaluation could interact. To design energy-efficient buildings, the designers should be able to estimate/evaluate the building energy perfor-mance in the planning and scheme phase, so that to check the possibilities of energy saving according to the design scheme, to make appropriate adjustments betimes and to optimize the building energy performance.For the present, most evaluation or certification systems for green building list the building energy performance asone item that can be presented neither directly nor thor-oughly, and the interaction between design and evaluation is almost impossible. Furthermore, most green building evalu-ation systems cannot make necessary adjustments to refer-ence data corresponding to different climate conditions when the evaluated building is sited in other regions, so these systems have less flexibility and less applicability.Energy performance certificate for buildings (Ener-gieausweis) issued by German Energy Agency (DENA) is for the moment the only one evaluation system especially aiming at buildings’ energy requirements. Energieausweis showing general building data certifies the energy quality of the building and provides a clear summary of the analysis results. It presents energy efficiency with a color scale which shows at a glance how much energy the building re-quires compared to other buildings. In China, up to now, there are two projects awarded Energieausweis, i.e. Pujiang office building in Shanghai and Cheng Kai Yu Yuan resi-dential buildings in Nanjing. The energy requirements rated by Energieausweis contain heating, hot water, lighting in-stallation, ventilation and cooling. According to different energy carriers (such as gas, electricity, renewable resource etc.), the fore parts of energy supply chain including energy exploration, production, distribution and transition are measured with “preliminary energy consumption” so as to take resource preservation and environmental protection into consideration. Although Energieausweis presents the building energy quality comprehensively and directly, but as a European evaluation system, it cannot be directly adapted in China, since the regional climate conditions and political parameters are quite different. Furthermore, the calculation of Energieausweis is rather complicated and only the strictly trained, professional auditors with compre-hensive building-physical and HVAC knowledge can make the calculation, which makes the interaction between design and evaluation more difficult.In fact, it is desirable for building designers to be able to use basic data to find out the crucial positions for the im-provement of building energy performance quickly and pre-cisely. Logical, rational simplification of calculation and evaluation of building energy will help to realize the inter-action between design and evaluation.In this sense, Low Energy Certificate (LEC) made an in-structive exploration. LEC as a planning and controlling implement including a certification system is a simple, easy-to-use evaluation system with veracity and validity. Both architects and the approving authority with average knowledge could use LEC with an economically acceptable expenditure to understand and evaluate the energetic reac-tions of buildings. Excluding influences of equipments, en-ergy types and politics, and meanwhile taking the differ-ences of climate conditions into full consideration, LEC program can analyze the energy performance of the building envelope in virtue of basic building physical data, evaluate it and offer optimization suggestions.2 LEC ––an evaluation and optimization pro-gram for energy efficiency of the building enve-lopeLEC is an interactive evaluation/optimization program for the building envelope. It can evaluate the energy efficiency of building envelope and building elements separately for the periods of heating, cooling and the whole year. The evaluation results are marked with a simplified star system, and more stars mean the higher energy efficiency of the building envelope. In order to adapt to China, LEC program is integrated with the Chinese compulsory norm –– Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Public Buildings (GB 50189-2005). (See ref. [4] for more information).2.1Basis and processes of the LEC-evaluationThe calculations to evaluate the energetic quality of the building envelope are based on the results of build-ing-physical balance equation. According to Chinese com-pulsory norm––Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Public Buildings (GB 50189-2005), German norm DIN 4108-2, DIN 4108-6, and DIN V18599-2: 2007-02, LEC makes calculation under the consideration of the geometry, envelope construction, orientation, materials, building utili-zation, climate conditions etc. but excluding influences of HVAC equipments and user behaviors.2.1.1Evaluation standard for the heating periodsFor the heating periods, a reference building is defined con-sidering the geometry, the climatic region, orientation of azimuth and surface normal as well as the use that corre-spond to the evaluated building. As far as the building con-struction and elements are concerned, it complies with the Chinese Construction Standard of the 1980s, i.e. the stand-ard used before Building Energy Conservation Ordinance was issued.For the evaluation of heating, the end results of the heat losses (including loss of heat transmittance through the building envelope and ventilation heat losses) and the ther-mal heat gains for the heat period (including solar gain of heat and internal gain of heat) are summed up. The differ-ence between the annual thermal heating need of the exam-ined building and that of the reference building is the esti-mated amount of energy saving used for evaluation (see Table 1).2.1.2Evaluation standard for the cooling periodsThe heat protection in summer is supposed to achieve the comfort interior temperature without air-conditioning or the cooling energy need of usage-depending air-conditioned rooms is as low as possible. For non air-conditioned rooms, it should be guaranteed that the limiting value for the physi-ological beneficial internal temperature is not exceeded. TheTable 1 LEC-standard for winter periodsStandard for winter periods Referring to the referencebuildingTable 2 Solar input valueS Solar input value= A G×g×F CA ,glass proportion of facade1 ☆Chinese building standard of the 1980s2 ☆☆3 ☆☆☆4 ☆☆☆☆2007 European standard5 ☆☆☆☆☆2009 European building standardfor low energy consumption annual heating energydemand ≥71%annual heating energydemand 70%–51%annual heating energydemand 50%–31%annual heating energydemand 30%–21%annual heating energydemand ≤ 20%Gg ,energy transfer coefficient of glassF C, shading coefficientT able 3 LEC-standard for summer periodsReferring to the reference buildingperiods1 ☆cooling energy demand ≥170%2 ☆☆cooling energy demand150%–169 %comfort level for the summer periods according to the Ger-man requirement of DIN 4108-2 is proved to be a practical base reflecting very well the scope of the climate that is just tolerable in the summer periods.The evaluation of the energetic reactions of buildings in summer is based on a process resulting from the require-ments of the German norm DIN 4208-2 which were espe-cially adjusted to the climatic region of the world. The cri-terion “cooling energy neutral” defined for facades is de-scribed by interplay of the size of the window, the charac-teristics of the glazing as well as the sun protection, sun-blind and shading devices etc., which limits an exceeding of certain maximum temperatures to a few hours per year. Simply, a cooling-energy-neutral facade can make the room with no usage keep acceptable temperatures without cooling. Increased internal loads or the possibility of an increased ventilation to lower the room air temperature are not con-sidered, since such dynamic heat exchanges have nothing to do with the energy quality of the building envelope.The hours of the internal temperature exceeding the lim-iting value and each climatic region with regard to each cooling period are used as criteria. With the help of a dy-namic thermal and energetic building simulation done by TRNSYS -- a calculation program developed by the Solar Energy Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, solar input values (see Table 2) are calculated as character-istic values of individual cooling-energy-neutral façades with different orientations in different climate regions and the results are taken as the basis of LEC-evaluation.For the evaluation of cooling periods, LEC compares the solar input value of the estimated building with that of the cooling-energy-neutral façades. LEC calculates cooling energy demand and cooling load per unit area, and then gives corresponding evaluation of the building envelope for cooling periods (see Table 3).2.1.3Evaluation standard for the whole yearAfter that the energy demand is calculated and estimated separately for the heating and cooling periods of each cli-matic region, the energy demands for both heating and cool-ing will be summarized and identified within the framework of an overall estimation for the building (see Table 4). For3 ☆☆☆cooling energy demand130%–149 %4 ☆☆☆☆cooling energy demand115%–129%5 ☆☆☆☆☆cooling energy demand2007/2009 European standard100%–114 %this, both regional climate conditions and the duration of the heating or cooling period are considered.2.2LEC evaluation procedureFollowing the menu, the users can input corresponding in-formation and data including basic project information, ref-erence climate, orientation, zoning, utilization, construction type, thermal transmittance etc. LEC calculates energy de-mand per unit area for the heating and cooling periods, and generates individual reports for building areas, building elements and windows as well as reports on energy perfor-mance rating.Reference climates: The maps of the countries are divid-ed into color-marked areas. The different colored overlaps represent the climate regions. Characteristics and divisions of the climate regions in China are based on the Chinese Norm GB 50189-2005. Climate zones -- Hong Kong, Ma-cao and Taiwan were added as individual climate zones. Once the reference climate is chosen, corresponding climate factors including the duration of heating or cooling periods will be given with diagrams and charts.Zoning: The more detailed the input of the zoning of the building, the more accurate the following energetic evalua-tion.Table 4 LEC evaluation system by awarding starsLEC-standard Explanation1☆★★★★ The building does not correlate with any permit standard. 2It corresponds to the minimum requirements according to☆☆★★★GB 501893It corresponds to the increased requirements according to☆☆☆★★GB/T 503784☆☆☆☆★ It is comparable to the European building standard5It is comparable to an increased European building☆☆☆☆☆standardUtilization: according to the usage, there are three build-ing types, i.e. residential building area, office and /or busi-ness building area and others. For different utilization, dif-ferent boundary conditions will be chosen correspondingly during evaluation. For example, according to the standards, the limiting value of the interior temperature can be ex-ceeded temporarily, but not longer than 10% of the whole staying time. The staying time will be counted as 24 h per day in living rooms but only as 10 h per day in office rooms. In addition, there is a difference between the ventilation behaviors in these two different areas. Office buildings are ventilated more than houses but the ventilation intervals in houses are longer than in offices. Another reason to make a difference is because of the dissimilar internal thermal loads caused by technical devices and people, since the internal load referring to a short period in office building is much higher than that in houses.Construction type: lightweight construction and heavy construction. Lightweight construction refers to the build-ings with suspended ceiling, light partition walls, and cavi-ties under the roof. This includes rooms in which at least 4 out of 6 surfaces of the internal wall (walls/ceiling/floors) are separated from the solid building parts by siding. Heavy construction refers to the buildings with solid concrete ceil-ings, solid partition walls and floor-boarding without sid-ings. This includes rooms that are mainly built without the siding of the heavy internal building element. The construc-tive designed building parts, e.g. solid concrete ceilings, heavy partition walls and floor-boarding must have contact areas with the air of the room. The difference between the two given construction types regarding the evaluation is that a heavier construction has a higher heat storage capacitythan a lighter building type. The heat storage capacity is another characteristic crucial to the energetic evaluation.The volume and area of building zones will be calculated automatically. U-value of building elements can be either input directly or calculated with the input of materials and thickness.2.3 Example of LEC-evaluation ––Pavilion of Innova-tion (PoI)The Pavilion of Innovation (PoI) was constructed under the support of Lower Saxony State of Germany (Niedersachsen) and Anhui Province of China on the occasion of the EXPO 2010 in Shanghai, the objective is to present the possibilities of energy efficiency, innovative construction methods and construction techniques. The pavilion itself is a pilot project with low energy consumption. After the EXPO 2010, PoI is intended to be put into research use for more than three years.PoI consists of two reinforced concrete cubes, a glass corridor and a membrane canopy (see Figure 1) . The one-story high block is a showroom for techniques while the two-story high cube is used as information/consulting area.Figure 1 PoI rendering and first floor plan.Two cubes are connected by a glass corridor. The falcate membrane canopy over the one-story showroom, the glass corridor and some open space can act as a sunshade and collect rain water either for the sanitary use or to be purified for other reuse.According to the LEC-evaluation for PoI, the energy performance of the pavilion achieved the 4-stars standard. Furthermore, LEC made the separate evaluations on infor-mation/consulting area, technique showroom and the glass corridor for heating periods, cooling periods as well as an-nual periods, which present the energy performance of each part for each period of time clearly (see Table 5).The LEC-evaluation program can also evaluate divided areas and individual building elements, and calculate the technical characteristic values of windows. Take the two-storyed information/consulting area as an example. This building part with a trapezoid-shaped plan and 7.5m height was built with prefabricated walls and semi-prefabricated or cast-in-place reinforced concrete floors. Two of the external walls tilt outwards on the top with 10°. LEC reports on en-ergy efficiency of information/consulting area and individu-al building elements, material performance, technical char-acteristic values of windows are made as Tables 6–8 .2.4Interaction between design and evaluationThe function of analysis provided by LEC can help the de-signers to find the weak position of the building envelope concerning building energy efficiency and make the rele-vant adjustment for optimization. To do that, the aimed standard so as related, required information and data can be input at first. After calculation, LEC can offer suggestions on building elements from aspects of zoning, glazing, con-struction, area etc. With LEC, the comparison of different energy-concerned schemes can also be made easily as long as factors including glazing area, window types, sunshade form, material, construction are changed correspondingly.Even if the aimed standard of the comprehensive energy efficiency of the building envelope is achieved, LEC can help to make optimization related to details. For example, LEC found out that the south external wall of a building envelope with LEC 4-stern-standard has no ideal energetic performance in the cooling periods and made suggestions such as using widows with better insulation, taking sun-protection measures or reducing the glazing area (see Figure2) .3 Exploration on optimization and evaluation of energy efficiency for building envelopeBesides the energy performance of the building envelope, the actual building energy efficiency is also influenced by equipments and their efficiency, energy sorts and efficiency, building quality, users’ behaviors and other factors. The excellent thermal isolation of the building envelope is the base to achieve optimization of building energy consump-tion and energy-saving. Evaluation aimed at the energy effi-ciency of the building envelope can objectively present the energetic reaction of the building itself so as to help designers choose the rational scheme for the building enve-lope in the early planning phase and build a favorable base for optimization of building energy performance。