Chapter 11英语

API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS) Chapter 11Physical Properties Data& Other Volume Correction Factor (VCF) Standards for HydrocarbonsA. Chapter 11.1 - Generalized Crude Oils, Refined Products, and Lubricating OilsChapter 11.1-1980 (Temperature VCFs for Generalized Crude Oils, Refined Products, and Lubricating Oils): Historical; Published in 14 separate volumesChapter 11.1-2004 (Temperature & Pressure VCFs for Generalized Crude Oils, Refined Products and Lube Oils)B. Chapter 11.2 - Light HydrocarbonsChapter 11.2.1-1984 (Compressibility Factors for Hydrocarbons: 0-90°API): Historical: now incorporated into Chapter 11.1-2004Chapter 11.2.1M-1984 (Compressibility Factors for Hydrocarbons: 638-1074 kg/m3): Historical: now incorporated into Chapter 11.1-2004Chapter 11.2.2-1984 (Compressibility Factors for Hydrocarbons: 0.350-0.637 Relative Density and –50°F to 140°F)Chapter 11.2.2M-1986 (Compressibility Factors for Hydrocarbons: 350-637 kg/m3 Density (15°C) and –46°C to 60°C)Chapter 11.2.2A-1984 (Addendum to Correlation of Vapor Pressure Correction for NGL): To be superseded by Chapter 11.2.5Chapter 11.2.3-1984 & 11.2.3M-1984 (Water Calibration of Volumetric Provers): Superseded by 11.4.1 API Publication/GPA TP-25/ASTM Publication (Temperature Correction for the volume of Light Hydrocarbons – Tables 24E and 23E: To be superseded by Chapter 11.2.4Chapter 11.2.4-2005?/GPA TP-27/ASTM Publication (Temperature Correction for the Volume of NGL and LPG – Tables 23E, 24E, 53E, 54E, 59E, 60E): Supersedes TP-25Chapter 11.2.5-2005?/GPA TP-15/ASTM Publication (A Simplified Vapor Pressure Correlation for Commercial NGLs): Supersedes Addendum to Chapter 11.2.2 (11.2.2A)C. Chapter 11.3 - Misc. Hydrocarbon ProductsChapter 11.3.2.1-1974 (Ethylene Density)Chapter 11.3.3.2-1974 (Propylene Compressibility)Chapter 11.3.3 - Ethanol VCF Tables: Under developmentChapter 11.3.4 - Gasohol VCF Tables: Under developmentASTM D1550-94 – (Butadiene Measurement Tables): Not an API standard; only available from ASTM ASTM D2962-97 – (Coal-Tar Pitches Volume-Temperature Correction): Not an API standard; only available from ASTMD. Chapter 11.4 - Reference MaterialsChapter 11.4.1-2004 (Density of Water & Water VCFs for Volumetric Meter Proving)E. Chapter 11.5 - Density/Weight/Volume Intraconversion TablesChapter 11.5.1-2005? (Entry With API Gravity at 60︒F): Under development; Supersedes Volumes XI/XII of Chapter 11.1-1980Chapter 11.5.2-2005? (Entry With Relative Density at 60︒F): Under development; Supersedes Volumes XI/XII of Chapter 11.1-1980Chapter 11.5.3-2005? (Entry With Absolute Density at 15︒C): Under development; Supersedes Volumes XI/XII of Chapter 11.1-1980F. OtherASTM D4311-04 – (Asphalts Volume Correction): Not an API standard; only available from ASTM ASTM D1555-04a – (Industrial Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cyclohexane Volume Correction): Not an API standard; only available from ASTMNOTE: ASTM D1550 & D2962 are listed in Section C because they come under the jurisdiction of API COMQ/ASTM D02.02, even though they are not, at present, joint API-ASTM Standards. ASTM D4311 & D1555 are listed in Section F because they come under the jurisdiction of other ASTM Committees than D02 [D1555 is the responsibility of ASTM Technical Committee D16A, D4311 is the responsibility of ASTM Technical Committee D04.40].。

A Christmas Carol 圣诞颂歌CHAPTER 11 A Sad Future 第十一章悲惨的未来Suddenly, Scrooge was not in the shop, but in a dark room. In the room, there was the body of a man on a bed. Scrooge looked at the spirit. Its hand was pointed to the head of the body on the bed. The head was covered. Scrooge wanted to find out whose body it was, but he could not move his hand. Scrooge understood that the man had died because no one had loved him. He had been unloved because there was nothing to love about him. He had been mean and unkind, cold and hard-hearted to everyone. And now in death, no one cared. 突然，斯克罗吉不在商店里，而是在一间黑屋子里。

在房间里，床上有一具男人的尸体。

斯克罗吉看着幽灵。

它的手指向了躺在床上的尸体的头部。

头被盖住了。

斯克罗吉想知道那是谁的尸体，但他的手动不了。

斯克罗吉明白这个人死了是因为没有人爱他。

他没有被爱是因为他身上没有什么值得爱的东西。

他对每个人都刻薄、无情、冷酷。

现在死了，也没人在乎。

“Spirit!” he said, “This is a fearful place. When we leave it,I will not forget its lesson, believe me. Let us go!” Still the spirit pointed to the head. “I understand you,” Scrooge returned, “and I would look at it if could, but I cannot. If there is any person in the town who feels sad because of this man’s death,” he added, “show that person to me, Spirit, I beg you!”“幽灵!他说，“这是一个可怕的地方。

CHAPTER11 - 现在进行时一、按要求填空(单词类)（共6小题；共6分）1. go(过去式)2. skate(ing形式)3. tell(过去式)4. stop(过去分词)5. run(现在分词)6. put(现在分词)二、适当形式填空(单句适当形式)（共14小题；共14分）7. Look! The children (play) football on the playground. They (play) football every Sunday afternoon.8. Please be quiet! We (listen) to the song You and Me.9. --- Mrs. Green likes children very much, doesn't she?--- Yes, that's true. She (write) a children's book these days.10. It's fine today. The sun (shine).11. Tom and Jim (do) their homework at the moment.12. Be quick! Li Lei (wait) for us at the school gate.13. Someone (cry). Let's go and see who it is.14. Han Meimei (like) watching TV. She (watch) TV every evening. But now she (not watch) TV. She (get) ready for her final exam.15. It's six o'clock. My teachers (work) in their office.16. --- Listen, who (read) in the classroom?--- Maybe Kate (be).17. The little girl (look) like her father. Now, she (look) at the photos of her family.18. I (like) drawing pictures very much. Look! I (draw) a big tree.19. Look! The man (save) a child in the river.20. --- What are you (do)?--- I'm (eat) a banana.三、翻译(根据中文提示完成句子)（共8小题；共8分）21. 电话在响，你能否接一下呢？The telephone . Could you answer it, please?22. 她总是想着别人而不是她自己。

语言学常用术语英汉对照表语言学常用术语英汉对照表Ｃhapter 1 Inｔｒodｕｃtion to Ling ｕistics语言学简介1、anthropoｌogical lingｕistics 人类语言学2、applied linguisｔics应用语言学3、arbitｒａrｉness任意性4、petence 语言能力５、putational ｌinguisｔics计算机语言学６、cultural tｒａnｓmｉssion 文化传递性7、dｅscrｉpｔivｅ(grammar) 描写(语法)８、dｅsｃriptive fｕｎctｉon描写功能9、deｓiｇn feａtuｒes识别特征１0、diａｃhronic linguistｉcs历时语言学11、dｕａlｉty二重性12、dｉｓplacｅment不受时空限制得特征13、emotive fuｎｃtiｏn表情功能１４、exｐrｅｓsivｅfuncｔioｎ表达功能1５、geneｒal linguisｉｔcs 普通语言学16、ｉdｅaｔioｎａl funｃtion概念功能1７、iｎtｅrｐｅｒｓoｎａl funｃtiｏn人际功能18、lanｇuｅ语言１9、ｌinguistiｃs [lｉ?'gwｉstｉks] 语言学２0、morphｏlｏgy 形态学２１、mａthemａtical lingｕistｉcs 数理语言学22、ｍetaliｎguistｉc fuｎcｔion23、neｕrologｉcaｌliｎｇｕｉsｔics 神经语言学24、ｐhonetｉcｓ语音学25、pｈonolｏgy 音系学2６、pragmaｔics 语用学2７、prｅscriptiｖｅ(grａmｍａｒ）规定(语法) 2８、ｐsychｏlｉnguｉsｔicｓ心理语言学２9、paｒole言语3０、ｐerformance语言运用31、pｒodｕctivｉty能产性32、pｏetic funｃtioｎ诗学功能3３、phatic mｕniｏn 交感性谈话34、reｆerentｉal fｕncｔion所指功能35、semanｔiｃs语义学3６、ｓｏciａl functiｏｎ社会功能37、socio-ｌiｎguistics 社会语言学３８、synchｒoniｃlingｕistiｃs共时语言学39、syntax句法学40、textｕal funcｔiｏn语篇功能41、Tｒaｄiｔional Gｒamｍar传统语法Chapｔer 2 Phoｎｏlｏｇy 音系学1、ａcouｓtｉcｐhonｅtics声学语音学2、ａrticｕlatｏｒy pｈonetｉｃs发音语音学３、affricate破擦音4、aｌlｏpｈonｅ音位变体5、aｌveolａr齿龈音6、aｕditoｒy pｈonetｉｃs听觉语音学7、ａsｐｉｒaｔiｏn送气８、assｉmｉlatioｎrules同化现象9、bａck vowel后元音１0、ｂilabｉal双唇音1１、broad tranｓcriptiｏn宽式音标１2、central voweｌ中元音13、clｏse vowel闭元音14、ｐlemeｎtaｒｙdｉstriｂｕtioｎ互补分布15、ｄｅlｅtｉon rｕles省略规则16、deｎtaｌ齿音17、diｐhthｏnｇ双元音１8、friｃative摩擦音1９、ｆront vowｅl前元音２0、gliｄe滑音21、glｏｔtal声门音22、hard palate硬腭２３、InteｒnａtionａlＰhonetｉcs Ａｌpｈabｅt国际音标24、intoｎation语调２5、labｉｏdenｔaｌ唇齿音26、liquid流音２7、mａnner oｆartｉｃｕｌａｔｉon发音方式28、ｍinｉmal pａir 最小对立体2９、mｉｎｉmaｌseｔ最小对立组３0、mｏnｏpｈtｈong单元音３1、narｒow trａnscription严式音标32、nasaｌ鼻音3３、nａsaｌcaｖity鼻腔3４、open ｖｏｗｅl开元音35、oral caｖｉty口腔３6、ｐalatal硬腭37、ｐｈａryngeaｌcａvity咽腔3８、plaｃe of artｉcｕlatiｏｎ发音部位39、phoｎｅ因素4０、phｏnｅｍe音素41、phｏnemic ｃoｎtｒast音位对立42、rounded vowel元唇元音43、seｍi－ｃlose vowel半闭元音4４、semi－ｏpenｖoｗel半开元音45、ｓｅquｅｎtial ｒuｌes序列规则４６、segment切分成分4７、ｓegmenｔation切分４8、soft paｌate软腭49、stop塞音50、stｒesｓ重音51、suprasegｍentａｌfeaｔuｒes超切分特征5２、teeth riｄgｅ齿龈5３、ｔoｎe声调5４、unrounｄed ｖoｗeｌ非圆唇元音５5、uｖuｌa小舌56、veｌaｒ软腭音５7、vｅｌｕｍ软腭58、ｖoicｉnｇ浊音化Ｃhａpter 3 Ｍoｒpｈology 形态学１、affiｘ词缀2、allomorpｈ语素变体3、ｂasｅ词基4、bound morphｅmｅ黏着语素5、ｌexｉcｏｎ词汇6、closed clａｓsｗoｒｄs封闭词类7、pound ｗords 合成词８、derivａtion派生;派生过程9、ｄerivationａl morphｅm派生语素１０、free moｒpｈeｍe自由语素11、inｆlectiｏnalｍorphemｅ屈折语素12、infinitｉｖe markｅr不定式标记１３、morph形素14、moｒpｈoｌｏgical rｕｌes形态规则15、open clasｓwｏrdｓ开放词类1６、root词根１7、sｔeｍ词干Chapter 4Synｔax 句法学１、ａuｘiliary助动词2、caｔegory范畴3、plement补足语;补充成分4、pｌｅment clause补足分句5、ｃｏordｉnaｔioｎruｌe并列规则6、cｏordinａｔe struｃtｕre并列结构7、deep stｒuctｕre深层结构8、deterｍiｎer限定词９、head中心词1０、head movemｅnt中心词移位11、insertion插入１2、inverｓｉon倒装1３、ｍajoｒlexiｃal categｏries主要词汇范畴14、matrｉx clａuse主句15、minor lｅxiｃａl categories次要词汇范畴16、phrase stｒuｃturｅ短语结构1７、mｏｄifier修饰成分18、ｑｕalifier后置修饰成分19、ｓpecifiｅr标志语20、sｕbcategoｒizａtion次范畴化21、surfaｃe struｃture表层结构２2、sｙnｔactic category句法范畴２３、trace语迹2４、trａnｓfoｒｍation转换Chapｔeｒ５Seｍａnｔiｃｓ语义学1、antonｙmy反义现象2、ａrgumenｔ谓元；变元3、behａｖiorism行为主义4、co－hypoｎym并列下义词5、colloｃationaｌｓynｏｎym搭配同义词6、ｐlｅmenｔａrｙaｎtoｎyｍ互补反义词7、ｐletｅhｏmｏnｙm完全同形异义词8、pｏｎentiａl analyｓｉs成分分析9、coｎceptualist ｖｉew概念论１０、ｃonｔexｔuａlism语境主义11、ｃontradiｔioｎ自相矛盾得说法1２、ｄｉalectal syｎｏｎym方言同义词1３、emoｔｉｖe ｍｅaｎing情感意义１4、entailｍeｎt蕴含15、eｖａluatｉve mｅaninｇ评价意义1６、graｄable antonym层级反义词１７、homogrａph同形异义词１8、ｈoｍonyｍy同音同形异义关系19、homophonｅ同音异义词20、ｈｙpｏnｙm下义词21、hｙｐonymｙ下义关系22、inｃoｎsｉsteｎcy自相矛盾２3、ｐolｙｓemy多义关系２４、polysymous word多义词25、ｐresuｐｐｏsitｉoｎ预设26、predicatｉｏn anａlysis述谓分析27、predicａtｅ谓词28、nａminｇtheｏry命名论２9、nｏ－plａce preｄicaitoｎ空位述谓解耦股３０、one－ｐlacｅprediｃａtiｏn一位述谓结构31、referencｅ（所指）语义32、referｅnt所指物;所指对象3３、ｒｅlａtiｏｎal opｐosｉｔe关系反义词34、semantic trｉanｇle语义三角35、sense意义３６、sｔyｌｉstic syｎonym语体同义词37、suｐｅｒorｄｉnatｅ上坐标词3８、sｙmboｌ符号3９、ｓynonyｍ同义词40、synonymy同义关系4１、ｔwo-plaｃe prｅdiｃaiton二位述谓结构42、tｈree-plａｃe predｉｃaｔion三位述谓结构Chaｐteｒ6 Prａgmａtics语用学１、mｉｓｓives承诺类２、CｏｏpｅrativeＰrinciple合作原则3、cｏnstatives述事话语４、conｔexｔ语境5、cｏnventioｎａl impｌicaturｅ规约含义６、ｄecｌaｒationｓ宣告类７、direｃｔives指令类8、ｅxpressｉves表情类9、ｉllocｕtｉoｎarｙacｔ言外功能10、illｏcｕｔiｏnary ｐoiｎt言外之得1１、impｌicature蕴含；含义;会话含义；言外之意１２、inｄirecｔsｐeech ａｃt间接言语行为１３、ｌocuｔioｎary act言内行为1４、maxiｍofｒｅlation关系准则1５、mａｘimｏf manner方式准则16、mａxim of quality质准则１7、maｘiｍoｆquantity量准则18、particｕlariｚed cｏｎveｒｓａtiｏｎal ｉmpｌicatuｒe特殊会话含义１9、pｅｒfomatives行事话语20、perｌｏcutiｏnarｙact言后行为21、ｐreｓupｐoｓｉｔiｏｎ前提2２、prｉmaｒｙspeecｈact 主要言语行为23、represenｔatiｖes表述类24、secondary speecｈacｔ次要言语行为25、sentｅnｃe ｍeａniｎg句子意义26、ｓpeｅcｈacｔtheorｙ言语行为理论27、ｕｔterance meanｉng话语意义Chaｐｔｅr 7 LangｕaｇｅChaｎｇe语言变化1、acronｙｍｓ词首字母缩略词2、back-formatiｏn 逆成法3、bleｎdｉng混成法4、borrowｉｎg借词5、cｌipped ｗoｒｄs截略词6、coiｎagｅ创新词7、functionaｌshift功能性变化8、histoｒical ｌinguistics历史语言学９、MｉdｄleＥnｇｌisｈ中世纪英语10、Modern English现代英语1１、mｏrpｈologiｃalｃhange形态变化１２、neｇation rule否定规则13、Ｏｌd Eｎglｉｓh古英语１4、pｈonｏlｏｇical ｃｈaｎｇｅ音位变化15、seｍantic cｈange语义变化16、semａntｉｃshift语义转移17、syntａcｔｉc cｈａngｅ句法变化Cｈapter 8 Languageａｎd socieｔy语言与社会1、bilｉngｕaliｓm双语制2、Bｌack Englｉsｈ黑人英语3、creolｅ克里奥尔语４、diｇloｓsia双语；双言制５、eｔhnｉc dｉalect种族变体６、fｉｅld of ｄｉｓcouｒｓe语场7、gｅndｅr性别8、ｉｄioleｃt个人变体９、mode oｆdｉscourse语式10、mulｔilinguａｌism多语制11、pidｇiｎ洋泾浜语12、rｅgiｏｎaｌｄiａｌect地域方言13、rｅgｉsｔer语域14、sociｏlｅｃt社会变体15、speecｈmunｉtｙ言语社团１６、sｐeｅch vaｒiety言语变体17、ｔeｎor of disｃoｕｒｓe语旨Chａpter ９Laｎｇuage ａnｄcultｕre语言与社会1、ａccｕｌturａtion 同化过程2、amａｌgamation混合3、ａssimｉｌatioｎ同化(现象);同化(作用)4、connoｔａtivｅｍｅaｎing内涵意义５、colｏur words颜色词6、culturaｌoverｌａｐ文化重叠7、culturaｌｉmｐerｉalisｍ文化帝国主义８、denotaｔiｖe meanｉnｇ外延意义9、ｌingｕｉsｔｉc ｒelatiｖity语言相对性１0、ｍeｔａｐhor隐喻1１、Sａｐir-Ｗhorf Hypoｔhesis萨丕尔——沃尔夫假说12、ｓocｉalizatｉｏn社会化13、ｔabｏo禁忌语1４、inｔeｒｃulｔural municaｔioｎ跨文化交际15、linguisｔiｃｉmpｅrialiｓm语言学中得帝国主义16、ｌiｎguｉstｉcｎaｔionaliｓm语言学中得民族主义Chapter 10 Ｌangｕａge aｃquisiｔｉoｎ语言习得1、ａphasｉa失语症2、ｂeｈａviｏrｉst 行为主义者3、caretaｋer ｔalk保姆式语言4、cogniｔivｅｌiｎｇuｉsticｓ认知语言学５、ｃoｎｔeｎt worｄ实词6、Critical ＰｅrioｄＨypotｈｅsis临界期假说7、ｄｙｓｇrａphia书写困难８、dyslexｉa失读症9、ｆeｅdback反馈１０、fuｎｃtion eleｍent起功能作用成分1１、ｈｅaring impaｉｒment听力受损1２、innaｔist语法天生主义者１3、iｎterａctiｏnist互动主义者1４、LanguａgｅＡcquｉsｉｔiｏn Ｄｅviｃe语言习得机制15、lexicaｌcontrasｔ词汇对比16、mentａl retａrdation智障1７、mothｅreｓe保姆式语言18、over－extｅnsiｏn过度扩展19、ｐｒototｙpe theorｙ原型理论2０、recast修正性重复２1、stｕtterｉng口吃22、ｔeleｇｒaphｉc speecｈ电报式言语23、under-extensｉon扩展不足2４、Uｎｉｖeｒｓａl Grammar普遍语法Ｃhapter 1１Ｓecond ｌanguagｅacquiｓitｉon第二语言习得１、affｅct/ｓocial ｓtratｅgieｓ社会策略2、ａgｅｏｆacqｕiｓｉtion习得年龄3、cognｉｔivｅstｒaｔegｉｅs认知策略4、pｒehｅnsiblｅｉnｐｕt可理解性输入5、Consｔrａstive Aｎaｌｙsis对比分析6、cｒosｓ-aｓsociatioｎ互相联想7、Erｒor Aｎａlysiｓ错误分析8、foｒｅｉｇn laｎguage外语9、foreｉgner talk外国人谈话1０、ｆossiliｚａtion语言石化(现象)１1、Input Hｙｐothesiｓ输入假说12、ｉnstrumental moｔiｖatｉｏｎ工具动机１3、intａke 纳入14、inteｇratｉvｅmoｔivation综合动机15、inteｒference干扰１6、iｎterlaｎguａｇｅ中介语17、ｉｎterlinguａl ｅｒｒors语际错误;受母语影响得错误18、Ｉntraｌiｎguａl eｒror语内错误1９、ｉｎtrinsic motivaｔion内在动机２0、ｉnｔｕiｔion知觉;语感２1、learｎeｒｌaｎｇｕage学习者语言22、learｎing ｓtrategieｓ学习策略23、languａge aｐtitude语言能力２4、lanｇｕａgeｔransｆｅｒ语言迁移2５、meｔacogｎitiｖe strａtｅｇｉes元认知策略26、mｏtivatｉon动机２7、moｄifｉed iｎput修改后得输入２８、ｍodifiｅd ｉntｅｒaction变化性得互动2９、negatｉve traｎsfer消极迁移;负迁移３0、ｏveｒgeneralizaｔion概括过头31、personaｌitｙ人格;性格;个性3２、positｉve transfer积极迁移；正迁移33、ｒｅｓｕlｔaｔｉｖｅmoｔivation结果动机34、secoｎｄlanguage第二语言35、seconｄlanguage acｑｕiｓiｔioｎ第二语言习得36、teacher talk教师谈话37、target languａge目标语Ｃｈａpter 12Language and tｈe brain 语言与大脑１、aｃquired dysgrapｈia习得性书写障碍2、ａcqｕiｒｅd dｙｓｌexｉa习得性失读症3、angular gyrｕｓ隅骨4、auｔopsy stｕdies尸检研究5、braｉn stｅｍ脑干6、Ｂroｃa’s aphasia布罗卡失语症7、Ｂrｏca’s area布罗卡区8、ｂｏttom-ｕp prｏcｅssinｇ自下而上处理过程ｃerｅbruｍ大脑9、ｃentral ｓulcus中央沟10、ｃerebｅllｕm小脑脑向背侧突出得一个较大得部分,尤与肌肉得共济运动与维持身体平衡有关11、cerebrａl hemisｐhere大脑半球12、cohort modｅl交股模型１3、pｕtarized Ａxial Tomograｐhｙ计算机化轴向层面X射线摄影法1４、corpus(语言)素材15、ｃｏｒpｕｓcａｌlosuｍ胼胝体1６、cｏrｔex大脑皮层17、dｅep dｙslexiａ深层诵读困难18、Diｃhotｉc lｉsｔeniｎg studiｅs双耳分听实验19、eｖeｎt－ｒelaｔed potentｉａl ｅxperiｍent2０、eye movｅｍenｔｅxpｅriment眼动实验21、fissure裂缝;裂隙22、flueｎt apｈasia流利性失语症２3、frontａl lobｅ额叶(大脑半球得前部,其下部位于颅前窝,后界中央沟24、Funcｔiｏnal MＲI功能磁共振成像25、garden path sentence花园路径句26、global ａpｈasia整体性失语症２7、gyruｓ回2８、hieｒａｒｃhiｃal strｕｃtｕre层级结构29、late closure ｐrincｉpｌe后封闭原则;晚封闭原则30、lateral fisｓurｅ侧脑裂31、lａｔｅrａliｚａtiｏn侧化32、leｓion损害33、lexｉcaｌdｅciｓion词汇判断;词汇确定法3４、lｏbes叶,身体器官得由表面得沟裂分出得部分３５、lｏngiｔuｄinaｌfissurｅ纵裂36、MagnetｉｃResonａｎce Iｍａｇing磁共振成像37、neｕｒon神经细胞,神经元3８、mｉnimaｌａｔｔachment priｎｃiｐle最低限度结合原则３９、modｕle模块；组块40、non－flueｎt ａpｈasiａ失语症４1、oｃcipｉtal lobe枕叶大脑半球得后叶,呈三面得锥形, 与前方得顶叶与下方得颞叶没有明显得界限４2、ｐａrietal ｌobe顶叶Pｏsitron emiｓsｉon Toｍｏｇｒa ｐhy正电子发射X射线层析照相术;计算机辅助正电子发射断层扫描技术43、phoｌogicaｌdyｓｌeｘｉa拼音性失读症４4、primiｎg启动45、primiｎg eｆｆeｃt启动效应46、ｐｒiming eｘpeｒiment启动实验４7、right eaｒadvantａgｅ右耳优势;右耳听力强48、ｓelｅctional restｒictｉoｎ选择限制49、sentencｅａｍbiguiｔy句子歧义５０、“Sｏdｉｕm Ａmyｓtaｌ“Ｔest阿米妥纳实验Spoone ｒiｓｍ斯本内现象51、spliｔbrain ｓtudｉｅs裂脑研究52、sｕｌｃｕs沟53、suｒface dyｓlexia浅层诵读困难54、syntａｃtic pａrｓer句法处理器55、tｅｍpoｒａｌlobe颞叶56、ｔimed-ｒeａding ｅxｐeｒiment限时阅读实验57、top-dｏｗn ｐrocｅsｓinｇ自上而下处理过程58、Werniｃke’s apｈａsia韦尼克失语症。

Chapter 11 爱尔兰共和国Geography and History 地理与历史1.the Great Famine Chapter 11The Great Famine refers to the disaster that happened in the mid 19th century in Ireland. The year 1845, when the Great Famine began , marked the end of one era and the beginning of another in the social history of Ireland. As the result of this disaster , the population reduced 19.5% and shrank to 6.6 million . And many people left Ireland during and after the Great Famine. It was one of the reasons that Ireland suffered a Great Famine.2.Geographical FeaturesThe British Isles are made up of two large islands and hundreds of small ones. The two large islands are Great Britain and Ireland. Ireland is also called the Emerald Isle because of its rich green countryside. Ireland is divided into two political units. They are Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Northern Island is part of the United Kingdom. The Republic of Ireland (Eire) is an independent country.The Republic of Ireland covers an area of 70, 282 sq. km. It is bounded on the northeast by Northern Ireland, on the east and southeast by the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel and on the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean. The countrys total boundary is 3, 603 km long, of which its land border with Northern Ireland is 434 km.The capital is Dublin. It is located on Dublin Bay at the mouth of the Liffey River at its confluence with the Dodder River. Dublin is a city of over I million. The other main urban centres are: Cork, Limerick, Gaiway and Waterford. Ireland has been compared to a basin in which a limestone plateau is rimmed by coastal highlands. he principal mountain ranges are the Maurne Mountains, the Wicklow Mountains in the east and the Macgillicuddy's Reeks in the southwest. The highest peaks are Carrantuohill (1, 041 m) and Mount Brandon (953 m) near Killarriey, and Lugnaquilla (926 m), about 64 km. south of Dublin.Variety is the main feature of the lowlands. The Central Lowland is the heart of Ireland. The largest river in Ireland is the Shannon River. It rises in the plateau near Sligo Bay, flows sluggishly over the western part of the lowland and then fills Lough Derg before beginning its final flow through rapids to its estuary.there are only 1,300 species of plants in Ireland, as against 2, 300 in Britain. The most common trees in Ireland are oak, ash, elm and birch. Pine is dominant on poorer soils.Bogs remain the most significant feature of Irish landscape.3.Climate and WeatherThe weather of Ireland is described as "mild, moist and changeable." Ireland has excessive rainfall.The Central Lowland: This is the area of the tightest rainfall in Ireland, with two areas that receive less than 762 mm per annum The mean winter temperatures are about 4t to 5t.4.Population and ReligionIn Ireland the basic ethnic stock is Celtic, with an admixture of Norse, French, Norman and English. Ireland has four unusual demographic features: a low birthrate compounded by a century of emigration, a late marriage age (35 for men and 29 for women), an excess of males in the population and a high proportion of bachelors and spinsters of all ages.Together they have reduced Ireland's population by one-half during the past 100 years. The year 1845, when the Great Famine began, marks the end of one era and the beginning of another in the social history of Ireland. The first census of Ireland, in 1821, recorded a population of 6,802,000 and it rose to 8.2 million by 1841. There are two official languages in Ireland. They are Irish (or Gaelic) and English.Ireland is one of the most Catholic countries of Europe. Catholicism is an integral and pervasive influence on national life and en!ture. Missionary work in Ireland was begun by Palladius in 431 AD and by Patrick in 432 AD and Ireland became a centre for the evangelization of other countries, including England. Today 93 % of the Irish population are Roman Catholics. About half the Catholic bishops in the United States are of Irish origin.The Anglican Church of Ireland is the largest non-Catholic denominati5.Historical BackgroundIreland was invaded by a number of Celtic tribes in prehistoric times. The arrival of St. Patrick in AD 432 wasperhaps the most important event in Irish history and transformed the island into a centre of learning and Christian culture.Towards the end of the 8th century the Viking invasions began. However, the Danes were defeated and driven away by Brian Boru in 1014 (battle of Clontarf). In 1170 the Anglo-Saxons invaded Ireland. Tiey gradually gained control of the island. Conflict between the English and the Irish went on for almost 800 years.Irish nationalism became stronger and even more violent in the early decades of the 20th century and climaxed in the Easter Uprising of 1916 in which an Irish Republic was proclaimed. In 1921 the British signed the Anglo-Irish Treaty establishing an Irish Free State with dominion status with a separate government in the Protestant-dominated Northern Ireland.Under Eamon de Valera, who took office in 1932, Ireland kept out of World War 11 to demonstrate its continued displeasure with the British. In 1937, under a new constitution, the Governor-.General was replaced by an elected president and the name of the country was officially changed to Ireland (Eire in Gaelic). In 1948, Ireland voted itself out of the Commonwealth and on April 18, 1949 declared itself a republic.6.Foreign PolicyIt has contributed personnel to U. N. peacekeeping units in the Middle East, New Guinea,, Zaire and Cyprus. Since Albert Reynolds became prime minister in February 1992, both Ireland and Britain have agreed to hold regular meetings to negotiate a peaceful settlement of the problem of Northern Ireland.7.the Easter Uprising of 1916Irish nationalism became stronger and even more violent in the early decades of the 20th century .In 1916 the Easter Uprising broke out and an Irish Republic was proclaimed. War broke out betweem the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the British government (1919-21). In 1921 the British signed the Anglo-Irish Treaty establishing an Irish Free State with dominion status with a separate government in the Protestant-dominated Northern Ireland.8.the Irish Republic Army Chapter 11The Irish Republic Army is an army formed in the Easter Uprising by Irish nationalists against the British rule in 1916. It fought a war with the British government in 1919-1921. It showed its violent opposition to the Anglo-Irish Treaty and a civil war which lasted for one year broke out. The Irish Republic Army continued to demand that the Republic of Ireland should be united with the six countries that form Northern Ireland. It is an illegel organization in Ireland.9.Anglo-Irish TreatyFrom 1918—1921 there was fighting between the irish republican army and the british government. In 1921 the British signed the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The Gritish government agreed to organize a partition of Ireland. The southern part of Ireland gained dominion status as the Irish Free State,while the northern part would remain a part of the United kingdom.Chapter 23 Canada Geography and History 加拿大历史与地理10.Size and location 地理与所处位置Canada is the world's second largest country after Russia. It has a land area of about 10 million square kilometres(9, 976, 186 square kilornetres to be exact). It covers about two fifths of the North American continent. Canada lies to the north of the United States. The 45th parallel marks the boundary between Canada and northern Vermont and New York of the United States. However, most of Canada is north of the 49th parallel. Canada and the United States share a 6, 378 kilometre boundary that has not been fortified for over a hundred years. Every day it is crossed by thousands of travelers.With such a vast territory Canada has a population of only a little over 29 million( 1994). Most of Canada is thinly inhabited. Nearly 89 % of the land has no permanent population. Nearly 80 % of Canadians live in large cities near the border with the United States. 60 % of the population is concentrated between Quebec City and the westernend of Lake Ontario.Toronto, Canada's largest city, has a population of over 3. 4 million. Montreal is the second largest city with a population of over 2. 9 million, and the third largest city is Vancouver which has a population of over 1.3 million.11.Topography 地形Canada has an extremely varied topography. In the east the mountainous maritime provinces have an irregular coast line on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic. The St. Lawrence plain and the interior continental plain are the principal cultivable areas. Westward towards the Pacific, the area is covered by mountain ranges from north to south including the Rockies. The highest peak in Canada is Mount Logan (6, 050 m), which is in the Yukon Territory of northwest Canada.The two principal river systems are the Mackenzie and the St. Lawrence. The St. Lawrence , with its tributaries is navigable for over 3, 058 kilometres.12.Mackenzie River 马更些河Mackenzie River is one of two principal river systems in Canada. It flows between the Canadian Shield and the Rocky Mountains in west Canada. It is the second largest river system of North American.13.Climate 气候The climate throughout Canada is varied and uncomfortable.A humid continental climate can be found from eastern Canada to the Canadian prairie. A maritime climate similar to that of Washington and Oregon states in the United States is found in the southwestern part of British Colombia. North of these regions lie the evergreen forests of the subarctic taiga. In the far north there is a polar climate with a treeless tundra zone.The icy Labrador Current chills the shores of eastern Canada, and winds blowing across Hudson Bay make the interior of the country very cold.Because of the cold climate that exists throughout most of Canada, a major part of the population lives along the southern border.14.Geographical regions 地理区域Canada is made up of ten provinces and two territories. From east to west they can be divided into six geographical regions: Atlantic provinces, St. Lawrence-Great Lakes provinces, the Canadian Shield, Prairie provinces, British Colombia, Northern provinces and territories.(1)Atlantic provinces include New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. Potatoes grow well there and are particularly important in New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.Some farming also takes place in the valleys of Nova Scotia, where apples are grown. The climate is milder there because mountains give protection against wind and fog. Dairying and raising animals for fur are other activities engaged by farmers in this region.The irregular coast line on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic allows for good fishing habours and the Grand Banks, off the eastern shore of Newfoundland, form one of the world's great fishing grounds.The tourist trade is an important part of the region's economy. The rich green mountains and valleys make these provinces some of the most beautiful in Canada.(2)St. Lawrence-Great Lakes provinces include the St. Lawrence Lowlands and the southern part of Quebec and Ontario. This is the most highly developed part of Canada. This area, which is among the mast fertile, was easily accessible to European settlers and is today the most densely populated and industrialized part of Canada.(3)Almost half of Canada is covered by the Canadian Shield.(4)The Prairie Provinces lie west of Ontario. They are Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. This region is the Canadian section of the Great Plains of North America. Much of the southern part of these provinces is made up of great stretches of level and fertile grasslands. It is ideal for growing wheat. The area also contains important deposits of oil, gas, coal and potash.Winnipeg is the chief city of the wheat region. All east-west rail traffic passes through Winnipeg. This important collection and shipping point for the products of the prairie is sometimes called the Chicago ofCanada.(5)The province of British Columbia lies on the Pacific coast of Canada. Vancouver is British Columbia's largest city and the third largest city in Canada. It is an important ice-free harbour and the major canadian outlet to the Pacific Ocean and the largest cargo port on the Pacific.(6)The bare, thinly settled region of northern Canada takes up four fifth of the country.15.the Canadian Shield 加拿大大地盾The Canadian Shield is a semicircular band of rocky highlands and plateaus around Hudson Bay from the northern shores of Quebec to the Arctic shores of the Northwest Territories. It is a region of rounded hills and tens of thousands of lakes and swamps.16.The European discovery 欧洲人的发现The name "Canada" is believed to have come from the native people, the Indians, who used the word "kanata" to describe a settlement. The word was misheard and understood to be the name of the country.The European discovery of Canada can be traced back to the end of the 15th century. Two men are important in the early discovery of Canada. They were John Cabot, an Italian sea captain, and Jacques Cattier, a French navigator from St. Malo, France.John Cabot discovered and claimed Newfoundland and the east coast of Canada in the name of King Henry VII of England in 1497. However, it was Jacques Cartier who in 1535 sailed up the St. Lawrence River as far as what it is today the site of Montreal. While he failed to find the passage to Asia he was seeking, he opened the interior of Canada to French fur traders and later colonizers.Four years later in 1608, Samuel de Champlain, the French explorer established his" habitation"in what now is Quebec City, to lay the roots of French Canada.In 1610, Henry Hudson, the English explorer, gave his name to the huge bay in the centre of Canada and later in 1670 the English Hudson Bay Company was established.Through the seventeenth century the French settled the banks of the St. Lawrence and Nova Scotia or"Arcadia"of Canada's eastern coast, while the English established larger and better settlements in their New England colonies and Virginia.17.the Seven Year s’ War 七年战争By the middle of the 18th century the French in North America realized that they could not avoid a fight to the death with the British and their American colonists. After the Seven Years' War from 1756 to 1763, the French were forced to give up every inch of land in North America and the whole of Canada came under the British rule.18.the Quebec Act of 1774 1774年魁北克法案The British-appointed Governor , Sir Guy Carleton , recongnized the French character of Quebec. This recognition was made official by the Quebec Act of 1774, in which the British Parliament granted the people of Quebec rights as French Canadians. The Act introduced English criminal law but kept French civil law and recognized the right fo Catholic Church.19.Loyalist 忠诚分子The first British settlers in Canada were American refugees who refused to fight against the British army in the War of American Independence ( 1775-1783), because they felt they were more British than American. They called themselves Loyalists.20.British Canada 英国统治下的加拿大By an Act of 1791 Upper Canada (British) and Lower Canada (French)were created. In 1837 a conflict took place between Upper Canada and Lower Canada.So with the Act of Union in 1840, the Upper Canada and Lower Canada were united again, and given internal self-government in 1848.As a result three colonies, already controlling their local affairs, Canada(Quebec and Ontario), New Brunswick and Nova Scotia joined in 1867 in a" Confederaticn", a federal union and was made a dominion in 1867 by the British North America Act.21.Self-government and Confederation 自治政府和联盟制In 1869 Under the first prime minister Sir John Macdonald, Canada bought from the Hudson's Bay Company the vast middle west from which the province of Manitoba ( 1870), and later the other prairie provinces (Saskatchewan and Alberta in 1905) and northern territories were formed.During the years between 1866 and 1896 the country was govened by the Conservative Party, led by Sir John Macdonald except during the years 1873-78. In 1896, the Liberal Party took over and the country was ruled under Sir Wilfrid Laurier, an eminent French Canadian, until 1911.Under Laurier a change also took place in Canada's foreign relations. He founded the Canadian Navy, and tried to increase Canada's control over its foreign relations.22.John Macdonald 约翰·麦克唐纳The first Prime Minister of Canada, John Macdonald let the country buy from the Hudson’s Bay Company the vast middle west ,from which the province of Manitoba and later the other prairie provinces and other territories were formed.23.The Canadian nation 加拿大国By the Statute of Westminster in 1931 the British Dominions, including Canada, were formally declared to be partner nations with Britain and "equal in status, in no way subordinate to each other", and bound together only by their loyalty to a common Crown. Since then Canada became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.In 1949 Newfoundland became Canada's tenth province and in 1959 the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway saw a further growth in Canada's economy.Chapter 27 Australia Land and People 澳大利亚国土与人民24.Introduction 导言Australia is in the southern hemisphere. In other words it lies south of the equator. To the Europeans it is at the other end of the world. That is why Australia is popularly known in the West as "the Land Down Under". Australia is the world's smallest continent with an area of 7.7 million square km.It is the world's sixth largest country after Russia, Canada, China, Brazil and the USA. With a geological history of more than 3 billion years Australia is one of the oldest land masses in the world. Australia is the only continent that contains one country. The highest point is Mount Kosciusko at 2,255 metres above sea level.25.The Geographical Structure 地理结构It is generally divided into three topographical regions—the Great Western Plateau, the Eastern Highlands and the great lowland belt known as the Central Eastern Lowlands.The Outback usually refers to the interior and the centre of the Western Plateau and its northern plains. The Red Centre refers to an area with red-brown and tan soils in the heart of the country.1. The Western Plateau is a vast upland made of ancient rock. It covers almost two thirds of the continent.2. The Eastern Highlands, better known as the Great Dividing Range, follow the eastern coast south from northern Queensland to southern T asmania. The Australian Alps, the highest plateau in Australia, and the Snowy Mountains lie in the southern part. Mount Kosciusko, the highest peak in Australia, is also located there.The Great Dividing Range is Australia's main watershed. Short, swift rivers flow from the Eastern Highlands eastwards into the Pacific Ocean, while long inland rivers that supply water for the fertile lands flow slowly away from the coast. Off the north-eastern coast is a 2,000 km line of coral islands and reefs known as the Great Barrier Reef. The Murray, Australia's longest river(2, 520 km),.forms the major part of the boundary between the states of New South Wales and Victoria before it enters the sea in South Australia.3. The land between the Western Plateau and the Eastern Highlands is a great lowland known as the Central Eastern Lowlands. Lake Eyre is regarded as Australia's largest lake, but it is known as a part-time lake. In 1974 it was filled with water, making the lake 5.7 m deep at its deepest point.This lowland area has the country's richest farmland and best grazing land26.Climate 气候39 % of Australia lies in the tropics and the rest of the continent also has a warm climate. Australia is a dry land. More than half of Australia receives less than 350 mm of rainfall each year. Drought is a fact of life in Australia. There have been nine major droughts since European colonization in 1788. The worst one, which was between 1885 and 1903, affected the whole of Australia.Australia is hot and dry because of the following factors: First, most of Australia ties 20°and 35° south. This is a hot, dry area of the world. Secondly, Australia has few mountains. Mountain areas have cool, wet climates but Australia has few areas like this. Thirdly, the air masses that affect Australia for most of the year are dry, sunny, high pressure cells. Finally, distance from the ocean also affects the weather.27.Plants and Animals 动植物Eucalypts and wattles are drought and fire resistant and grow in poor soils.Kangaroos and emus, the largest native desert animals, can survive in hot conditions, need little moisture arid can travel over long distances in search of food and water. The budgerigar, which is kept as a pet all over the world, can live in desert areas for up to 30 days without water.In Australia about half of the native animals are marsupials. Apart from kangaroos marsupials include koalas, wombats, and possums. Echidnas (spiny ant-eater) and platypus are monotremes.28.Multicultural society 多文化社会Among Australian people , the overwhelming majority are immigrants from over 30 countries, or their descendants. These people have come from other countries with a different way of life, often with different languages, religions, dress, customs, food and sports. In recent years, Australian government have encouraged people with different ethnic backgrounds to keep their own culture, thus, Austalia is known as a multicultural society (multiculturalism).29.People 人民Although Australians are the descendants of many nations, Great Britain has had the greatest influence because Australia was settled as a British colony. The Australian population is still mainly of British descent. There are many aspects of Australian way of life that are British: their language, system of government, the Australian flag, legal system, sports, family and place names and even school system (including school uniforms). Two hundred years after the arrival of the First Fleet, the head of the Australian government is not their Prime Minister, but the Queen of England.Australia is one of the most urbanized countries in the world. 80 % of Australians live in the suburbs of coastal cities and towns, with most of these in the narrow coastal strip between Brisbane and Adelaide. hy are there so few people in Australia? Why do so many people prefer to live in a coastal city or town? The main reason is an envi-ronmental one. The hot, dry environment has also had a great influence on population distributiOn. Since the north and centre of the continent are generally hot and/or dry, 80 % of Australians live in the cooler, wetter south and east. Lack of water, poor soils, heat and distance from the coast discourage people from living there.30.Australia’s Built Environment 澳大利亚的人造环境The environment can be divided into two types—the natural and the built. The natural environment consists of living and non-living features. The built environment refers to those parts of the environment built by people or changed by people.The term "urban sprawl" is used to describe a city that has grown over a large area of land. Urban sprawl occurs because most Australians prefer to live as small family units in their own homes on their own blocks of land, rather than share buildings or land in the form of flats, home units, townhouses or villas.Among the five cities with a population of more than one million, four of them (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide) are located on the eastern coast while one of them (Perth) is on the western coast.About 60 % of the land is used for sheep and cattle grazing on large properties called stations. In the thinlypopulated outback, they have been so successful that Australia has ranked first in the world export of wool. Children learn their lessons through a radio educational system called School of the Air. Lessons are transmitted by radio. Homework is now exchanged by fax. People can also use radio to call doctors who will come by plane. They are called flying doctors.31.Political Divisions 政治区划分Australia is politically divided into six states and two territories.1. New South Wales is located in the south-east of Australia. As the first colony established by Britain in 1788 it is the oldest of the Australian states. That is why it is called the premier state. Sydney, its capital, is the largest city in Australia with a population of 3. 6 million. It is one of the world's great seaports.2. Victoria is in the south-eastern corner of the mainland Australia. It became a colony in 1851. It grew rapidly during the goidrushes of the 1850s. Though the smallest mainland state, Victoria has an importance in the country's economy far greater than its size might indicate. Its economy is based on agricultural and pastoral industries. It produces about a quarter of Australia's rural output. It has a broadly based manufacturing industry and highly developed service industries. Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, is Australia's second largest city - It has a population of3. 1 million. It is also regarded as the cultural and sports centre of Australia. It is also known as the garden state.3.The second largest and youngest state, Queensland, occupies the tropical north-eastern corner of Australia. More than one million live in Brisbane, the capital. Queensland accounts for a fifth of Australia's agricultural and mining production and about a quarter of the value of its exports. Queensland is also called the sunshine state because it has 7. 5 hours of sunshine daily. The sunniest in Australia is Darwin, with 8.4 hours of sunshine daily. Brisbane is the gateway to two of Australia' s major tourist playgrounds, the Gold Coast and the Great Barrier Reef.4. South Australia is the third largest state in Australia. Half of the world's opals are found there. South Australia is also a leader in shipbuilding and lumbering. Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is internationally known for its arts festival. Every other year, leaders in music, drama, and dance from many parts of the world join Australian artists for a fortnight of cultural events, including jazz, ballet and art exhibitions.5. Western Australia is the biggest Australian state, accounting for one third of the total area of the country, but its population ( about 1.5 million) is only 9% of the country's population. Western Australia is also known as the state of excitement. Perth, the capital city of Western Australia, has more than half the population in the state. Situated on the estuary of the Swan River, Perth is a beautiful city with a perfect climate.6. T asmania is the smallest of the Australian states. It is an island lying south of the south-eastern corner of the Australian mainland. It is the second oldest of the Australian states with a population of about half a million. T asmania is often called the holiday isle. The T asmanian Wilderness which consists of the Cradle Mountain-Lake, St Clair National Park, the Franklin-Lower Gordon Wild Rivers National Pak and the Southwest National Park is on the World Heritage List. Hobart is the capital city of T asmania. It has a deep harbour and a big casino.7. The Northern Territory covers nearly a fifth of the continent. The southern area of the Northern Territory is the famous Red Centre of Australia. It consists of miles and miles of red-sand desert and mountain ranges. Uluru (it used to be called Ayers Rock) has probably Australia's best known national park and the rock itself probably attracts more overseas visitors than any other national scenic feature in Australia. Darwin is the only large city on the entire northern coast of Australia. The city is like a frontier town and often serves as the place of entrance and exit for people who come to visit the area.8. Australian Capital Territory: Shortly after the Australian colonies joined together to form a federation in 1901, it was decided that the new nation should have a new seat of government. So the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), an area of 2, 333 square km, was mapped out of the state of New South Wales to be the site of the national capital. "Canburry" is an Aboriginal word for "meeting place" and from it came the name of the capital, Canberra. Canberra is also called the garden city because of its beautiful layout.32.Flying Doctors 会飞的医生。

第11课最近，我刚刚结束了魁北克五日之行，那是一座位于圣劳伦斯河畔古色古香、风景如画的小镇，今后，它将以“世界催泪瓦斯之都”载入史册。

我此行的目的是为了打入反全球化、反自由贸易运动的头脑人物内部，但问题是，那里根本没有“头脑”可寻。

我所看到的只是心绪的漫天宣泄，我面前是一派悲天悯人的景象。

显而易见，这里的稀缺之物是清醒的思考。

我来魁北克有个堂而皇之的理由，那便是采访美洲高峰会，这是一次跨越西半球三十四位国家首脑的聚会，会议最重要的议题是通过谈判，努力建立起美洲自由贸易区–一个地域跨越阿拉斯加至阿根廷的无贸易壁垒区域。

其实，我来魁北克是为了“人民的峰会”，那才是真正的亮点。

这一应运而生、有组织的活动看起来是要反映“人民的观点”，还会是别的吗？（我曾想，那些参加峰会、经选举产生的领导人是为此目的而来，但我有什么资格向“那些人民”提出质疑呢？）半球社会联盟由不同的社会团体组成，他们有着共同的思想意识和经济利益，他们共同反对贸易自由化。

该联盟这次邀请参加“反资本主义狂欢节”的都是激进团体，从极左到更极左，“狂欢节”在沿河畔搭建的硕大白色帐篷内举行。

加拿大政府好事做过了头，不仅资助了这项活动（其实是加拿大纳税人提供的资助），而且还为拉丁美洲的激进分子付费参加活动。

“反资本主义狂欢节”丝毫无愧于它的名称，有小丑、木偶表演、拉拉队长的呐喊、舞者和演员的表演，还有“愤怒的奶奶们”（一群不算太老辱骂大公司的妇女），甚至还有一个悬在空中、上面写着“实施安全贸易！”的巨大绿色安全套。

或许我最喜欢的是那些身着蓝色服装、面对由纸浆制成的女水神像歌唱并参拜的演员们。

除了此道风景，别无其他实质性内容，无论是在街面上，还是在各类有组织的“讲道论坛”中，情况均如此。

看一看下面的对话，这是我同一个保养得极好的年轻激进分子之间的谈话（当然喽，此人穿的是进口的牛崽裤和运动鞋）。

她向我挥动着拳头，肌肉松弛，毫无力量。

她的一位同志把我们之间的对话用一架日本摄象机拍了下来，摄象机的价值起码要比拉丁美洲人一年的平均工资还要多。

海底两万里第11章英文原文Chapter 11: The NautilusIn this chapter, the narrator Professor Aronnax and his companions finally get their first good glimpse of the enigmatic Nautilus, Captain Nemo's underwater vessel. The Nautilus is described as "tremendous" in size, easily able to hold the ship's company of thirty crewmen. The exterior ofthe Nautilus is slate-colored, with a long deck and ridges running down the sides of the vessel. The windows of the ship are made of unbreakable glass, and the propeller is poweredby electricity generated by sea water.The interior of the Nautilus is luxurious and comfortable, with finely furnished rooms, electric lighting, and an incredible library containing works in every language. The narrator notes that Captain Nemo is a man of great learning and culture, as evidenced by his extensive book collection. The Nautilus is also equipped with state-of-the-art equipment for underwater exploration, including a diving chamber and a searchlight that can illuminate the ocean floor.Despite the impressive nature of the vessel, the narrator notes that there is a certain air of mystery and secrecysurrounding the Nautilus. The crew is extremely loyal to Captain Nemo and the submarine's operations are highly secretive, with no one outside of the ship's company knowing the true nature of the craft or its mission.Overall, this chapter provides a fascinating glimpse into the inner workings of the Nautilus and sheds light on the enigmatic figure of Captain Nemo. It also reinforces thesense of wonder and excitement that the characters experience as they journey deeper into the underwater world. For readers, the Nautilus is a symbol of both the thrill of explorationand the eerie allure of the unknown.。

判断题:正确写A，错误写BChapter 1:1。

Linguistics is the systematic study of language。

True.2。

Linguistics deals with a particular language。

False。

3。

Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.False.4。

The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.True。

5. Linguistics is generally divided into general and specific linguistics.False。

6。

General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application.False.7。

General linguistics does not study theories of language.False。

8。

Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication。

False.9. Phonology studies how a sound is produced.False。

10. Morphology is the study of sentences.False.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of words.False。

12. Semantics is the study of word meaning。

Chapter11-12基础知识归纳与练习一.基础知识归纳(一)单词n. traveller,advertising,advertiser,spender,educator,disease,course,benefit,cigare tte,interview,hunter,application,pay,post,mark,standard,offer,sex,nationality,skill,commentv. earn,act,advertise,suffer,hunt,apply,search,prove,serve,tickadj. illegal,wealthy,fit,junior,effective,available,confusing,exact,unfairadv. neatly,faithfully(二)短语1.points of view2.identify with3.put pressure on4.in addition5.take action6.be allowed to do7.be good/bad for8.agree with9.on the other hand 10.have an effect on 11.make sure 12.according to 13.become interested in 14.in my opinion/view 15.a piece of advice 16.at least 17.as a result18.at all costs 19.miss out 20.make mistakes 21.on time 22.as well as 23.prepare for 24.make an impression on 25.at any time 26.lose weight27.be proud of(三)句型1.What do you think about/of.....? 你认为.....怎么样？2.Do you agree with sb? 你同意某人的意见吗？3.....Nothing/Something wrong with..... .........没有（有）毛病4.make/have/let sb do sth 让某人做某事5.encourage sb to do sth 鼓励某人做某事6.persuade sb to do sth 劝说某人做某事7.It is illegal for sb to do sth 某人做....是不合法的8.Sb thinks it is wrong to do sth 某人认为做....是不对的9.What would you advise me to do? 你建议我做什么？10.Do you think I ought to....? 你认为我应该.....吗？11.Why have you applied for the job? 你为什么申请这份工作？12.I'd like to be..... 我愿意成为.......13.You'd better..... 你最好........(四)语法A.不带to的动词短语归纳1.had better (not) do sth 最后（不要）做某事2.Would you please (not) do sth? 请你（不）做某事，好吗？3.Let/have/make sb do sth 让某人做某事B.被动语态C.so....that.....与such.....that.....的区别二.基础知识练习A.根据句意及英文释义提示填写单词，使句子完整、通顺1.It's _______________(against the law) to carry guns in our country.2.Early to bed.early to rise,makes a man healthy,_____________(very rich),and wise.3.Jody is such a big _____________(a person who spends a lot of money) that she uses up all her salary every month.4.Many ____________(illness) are caused by bacteria.5.That ________________(teacher) published many articles in these magazines.6.Perhaps this book will ________________(show sth is true) to be of some use to you in your studies.7.I'd like to ______________(look through) some information on Bird Flu.8.This is the only ticket ________________(that sb can get).B.用括号内所给单词的适当形式填空，使句子完整、通顺1.The _________(hurt) agreed to take us to go hunting the next day.2.This area is ____________(wealth) in fruits and flowers.3.Rose has great ____________(confident) in her success.4.There are five _____________(interview) in the interview.5.Advertising is often the most __________(effect) method of promotion.6.Your answer is really ____________(confuse).7.There are too many TV ________________(advertise) between the program.8.I'm sorry,but I'm not ________________(interest) in the concert.C.根据句意及汉语提示完成句子，使句子完整、通顺1.Letters of _____________________________(申请) must be handwritten.2.It's important to learn a _______________________(技能).3.He is studying at a __________________(初级的) middle school.4.Most of the important cities of the world _______________(遭受) from traffic jam.5.She has ___________________(赚得) a lot of money this month.6.This project is of great __________________(益处) to everyone.7.The school library is ___________________(可用的) to every student.8.What's your _________________(评价) on his behaviour?9.What's your _____________________(国籍)?10.She has ____________________(服务) the family faithfully for thirty years.D.从方框中选择合适的词组填空，注意用其适当形式put pressure on take action as a result ofas well as have an effect on in additionin my view at all costs make a good impression on be proud of1.__________________,cycling is the best way to keep fit.2.Parents are ______________ to prevent children from watching TV too much.3.The bridge must be repaired within three days _____________________.4.It's important to _______________________ others.5.I'm learning French ____________________________________ English.6.The birth of twins ____________________ their parents to find a bigger flat.7.Bush ____________________________ what he had done.8._________________________to a diet,she does sports half an hour per day.9.He was late _______________________________ the snow.10.There is no doubt that TV advertisements __________________________ the consumers.E.解释句子1.We decided not to go climbing because it was raining heavily._____________________________________________________________________ 2.Work hard and you will achieve your goal._____________________________________________________________________ 3.How do you like the blue jacket?_____________________________________________________________________ 4.Finally,they arrived at school in time._____________________________________________________________________ 5.She is proud of her voice._____________________________________________________________________ 6.Would you please give me a hand?_____________________________________________________________________ 7.She will fail the exam unless she studies harder._____________________________________________________________________ 8.This is so good a film that everyone wants to see it._____________________________________________________________________ 9.Although he is poor,he is having a happy life._____________________________________________________________________ 10.I couldn't swim so fast as Tom._____________________________________________________________________F.根据所给提示翻译下列句子1.学校不允许学生吸烟。

Chapter 11 ComplaintExam 1I. (A)Multiple Choice:1.If we had a sample in hand, we ________ to negotiate business with our end-users now.a. would be ableb. should havec. had been abled. should have been able2._____________ your needs, please write to us with your specific enquiries.a. Should these new products suitb. Had these new products suitedc. If these new products would suitd. If these new products were to suit3. If your business with us had been carried on to our satisfaction, we ______ to renew the Agency Agreement.a. should have agreedb. had agreedc. shall agreed. already agreed4.Please inform us ________ the tendency of your market.a. forb. inc. ofd. with5.They made a ___________ on us for the damage.a. communicationb. discountc. referenced. claim6.Will you please let us know details of any lines of goods which you think are _________ for your market?a. interestingb. suitablec. properd. desirable7.Y our claim for the damage is to be _______ with the insurance company.a. metb. filedc. satisfiedd. compensatedII. (B)Put in the missing words and then translate the following into Chinese:1.We are lodging a claim ___________ the shipment __________ S/S “Red Star”_________ short delivery.2.We hope you will _______ our analysis acceptable.3.__________ inspection ________ the port ________ destination, the quality of the goods shipped __________ S/S “Red Star”contract No:CT7343 was found not _________ ___________ _________ the contract stipulations.4.__________ examinations we found that the goods do not agree the original.5.Please give our claim your ________ attention and _______ us have your reply _______ .6.We confirm ________ received your remittance ___________￡789 ________ settlement _______ our claim.7.We regret ________ bear that several bags of the last _______ was broken ______ transit.III. Correct the following words and phrases in the sentences:1.It is reported that they will take up the matter with the concerned party.2.We shall agree the warranty, which is applied to the goods quality of the equipment, doesnot cover any damage arisen in consequence of negligence or improper operation.3.Although the quality of these goods are not up to our usual line, we are prepared to acceptthe goods if you reduced the price, say 15%.4.The goods under Order No. BG 740912 are such badly damaged for the consequence ofcareless packing that we can not sell them.5.It is necessary that an arbitration clause must include in the contract.IV. T ranslate the part into English:1.In view of the long business relations between us,a. 我们愿意友好解决这次争端。

Chapter 11 Second language acquisition第二语言习得知识点：1.*Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage2.Connections between first and second language acquisition3.Contrastive analysis4.*Error analysis5.Characteristics of interlanguage6.*Krashen’s Input Hypothesis7.Individual Differences in second language acquisition: language aptitude; motivation;#learning strategies考核目标：识记：Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage领会：Connections between first and second language acquisition; Contrastive analysis; Error analysis; Characteristics of interlanguage; Individual Differences in second language acquisition简单应用：Krashen’s Input Hypothesis一、定义1. Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得：refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. 指一个人在习得其母语之后是如何习得一门第二语言系统的研究。

255CHAPTER 11Aggregate Demand I: Building the IS–LM ModelNotes to the InstructorChapter SummaryChapter 11 introduces students to the IS –LM model. The chapter is taken up principally withthe derivation of the IS and LM curves, prior to the use of the model in Chapter 12.CommentsPresentation of IS –LM is greatly facilitated by the fact that students have seen all of theelements already. This makes it much easier to teach than when it is taught prior to a long-runmodel. The amount of time spent on the material in Chapters 11 and 12 is partly a matter oftaste. It probably requires three lectures at a minimum to present basic IS –LM (omittingdetailed discussion of the Great Depression from Chapter 12), although some instructorsmight prefer to spend up to six lectures on this material.When teaching the IS curve, some instructors may find that it is preferable to start withthe loanable-funds derivation of the IS curve. The advantage of this approach is that it builds on the Chapter 3 model: equilibrium in Chapter 3 is summarized by ()()S Y I r =, where Y is exogenous; the IS curve is simply given by S (Y ) = I (r ), where income is now anendogenous variable. The Keynesian cross can then be presented as a special case. Use of the WebsiteThe model exercises for Chapter 3 can be used as an alternative way to derive the IS curve.Students can calculate and graph all of the {r , Y } pairs consistent with goods-marketequilibrium and also see how changes in exogenous variables shift this curve.Although the textbook does not spend a lot of time on the monetary/fiscal policy debate,the website material can be used to go through the standard exercises on the relative efficacyof monetary and fiscal policy under different assumptions on the parameters.Use of the WebsiteUse the website to download annual data for the U.S. consumer price indexand the 1-year and 10-year Treasury yields over the past 20 years. Compute the real interestrate for each of the Treasury yields by subtracting CPI inflation from each yield. Discuss howreal interest rates change with inflation in the short run compared to what you would expectover longer periods of time.258 | CHAPTER 11Aggregate Demand I: Building the IS–LM ModelChapter SupplementsThis chapter includes the following supplements:11-1The Key Features of the IS–LM Model11-2Mr. Keynes and the Classics: The Art of Modeling11-3The IS–LM Model: A Critical Evaluation11-4Additional ReadingsLecture Notes | 257 Lecture NotesIntroduction➢Figure 11-1We now have a basic idea of how the economy functions in the short run. Because in the shortrun prices are not completely flexible, changes in aggregate demand affect output, not justprices. To develop this short-run theory of the economy, we must now consider aggregatedemand and supply in more detail. This chapter and the next present a more detailed analysisof aggregate demand based on the IS–LM model. This model was developed by John Hicksin the 1930s as an interpretation of John Maynard Keynes’s seminal work, The GeneralTheory of Employment, Interest and Money, and is based on an analysis of equilibrium in thegoods and money markets, supposing that the price level is fixed. We can interpret the IS–LMmodel in two distinct ways: first, as a theory of GDP determination, supposing that the pricelevel is fixed; second, as a theory of aggregate demand and so as part of an aggregate demand–aggregate supply model.11-1 The Goods Market and the IS CurveThe building blocks of the IS–LM model are familiar from earlier analysis. The IS side of themodel summarizes equilibrium in the goods market and is based partly on the classical modelof Chapter 3; the LM side of the model summarizes equilibrium in the money market and sois related to the analysis of money in Chapter 5.The basic equation summarizing equilibrium in the goods market, for a closed economy, is familiar:Y = C + I + G.As before, we suppose thatC = C(Y – T)I = I(r)G=GT=T.The only difference from our earlier analysis is that we no longer suppose that real GDP isdetermined on the supply side, since that is true only in the long run. But this is far from aninnocuous change. Previously, given that Y was fixed at Y, we were able to use this model todetermine the equilibrium interest rate in the economy. Now, there are different combinationsof the interest rate and the level of GDP that are consistent with equilibrium. Writingequilibrium in terms of the loans market givesS(Y) = I(r).Recall from the analysis of the classical model thatS p = Y – T – CS g = T – G⇒ S = Y – C(Y – T) – G.Now, consider how changes in GDP change saving. An increase in GDP (∆Y), from thisequation, raises saving directly by ∆Y and lowers it by an amount equal to MPC × ∆Y. Thus,the total change in saving is∆S = (1 – MPC)∆Y > 0.258 | CHAPTER 11Aggregate Demand I: Building the IS–LM ModelSo an increase in income increases total saving, other things being equal. We know, therefore,that it decreases the interest rate. Thus, we draw the conclusion that, for equilibrium to existin the goods market, higher levels of GDP must be associated with lower interest rates.We can tell the same story another way. Suppose that interest rates increase. This decreases the level of investment. In response to this fall in investment demand, firms produceless output. Now recall the circular flow. A decrease in output leads firms to employ fewerworkers and to use their capital less intensively; hence, income goes down. In response to thedecreased income, households consume less. This effect on consumption reinforces the initialeffect, so we get the same conclusion—higher interest rates are associated with lower outputand vice versa.We summarize this reasoning in terms of the IS curve. This is defined as {r, Y} combinations such that the goods market (equivalently, the loanable-funds market) is inequilibrium. The previous reasoning tells us that it slopes downward.The Keynesian CrossA common means of deriving the IS curve, based on the second explanation above, is knownas the Keynesian cross. The Keynesian cross also gives us insights into how fiscal policyaffects the economy. The key idea of this model is that planned expenditure may differ fromactual expenditure if firms sell less or more than they anticipated and so build up or run downtheir inventory. Planned expenditure is simply the amount that households, firms, and thegovernment intend to spend on goods and services. We write it asPE = C + I + G.Suppose, for the moment, that the interest rate is fixed at r so that the level of plannedinvestment is exogenous [I(r)]. Then, we can write planned expenditure as()+I r()+G.PE=C Y-T➢Figure 11-2Planned expenditure is thus an increasing function of income.In equilibrium, planned expenditure equals actual expenditure, which, of course, equals GDP:PE = Y.We can graph both planned and actual expenditure against income to get the Keynesian crossdiagram.➢Figure 11-3The adjustment to equilibrium takes the form of changes in inventory. If actual expenditure exceeds planned expenditure, this means that firms produced too much.Remember that inventory investment is counted as expenditure; it is as if firms sell the goodsto themselves. Actual expenditure exceeds planned expenditure when firms accumulateinventory. In this circumstance, firms would cut back on their production, lessening theirinventory accumulation and so decreasing actual expenditure. An analogous situation occursif planned expenditure exceeds actual expenditure. In this case, firms are unintentionallygetting rid of inventory, giving them an incentive to increase production. In practice, we thinkthat this adjustment takes place rapidly, so we focus upon the situation where the economy isin equilibrium.➢Figure 11-4What happens if planned spending increases? For example, suppose that government spending increases. That would induce firms to produce more output. Recalling the circularLecture Notes | 257 flow, this implies that workers and owners of firms obtain more income and so increase their consumption. Planned spending and, ultimately, output go up by more than the original increase➢Figure 11-5in government spending. To put it another way, government spending has a multiplier effect on output through the government-purchases multiplier.What is the economics behind this process? The answer can be found in the circular flow of income. An increase in government purchases (say, ∆G = $1 billion) directly increases GDP by the same amount. Firms hire workers to produce this extra output, so wages and profits, hence income, rise by an equal amount. This induces extra consumption equal to MPC × ∆G (for example, if MPC = 0.75, then consumption increases by $750 million). Thus, expenditures, which originally rose by ∆G, now rise by (1 + MPC)∆G = $1.75 billion.The story does not stop here. Since this additional consumption again increases income, consumption rises even further, by an amount equal to MPC × (MPC × ∆G). In this example, consumption increases by an additional $563 million. And the process continues. The ultimate increase in GDP is given by∆Y = (1 + MPC + MPC2 + MPC3 + . . .)∆G= [1/(1 – MPC)]∆G⇒ ∆Y/∆G = 1/(1 – MPC).The multiplier has a couple of interpretations—one benign, the other less so. From one perspective, we can think about the multiplier as telling us that we have the power to use fiscal policy to affect the economy dramatically in the short run. This suggests that fiscal policy might be a potent tool for stimulating the economy in a recession, for example. But another implication is that fluctuations in spending have magnified effects on GDP. The reasoning that we have just considered would apply equally well if the initial change were an exogenous shock to planned investment or consumption. Keynes suggested that fluctuations in GDP might be caused by initial fluctuations in investment due to the capricious behavior of investors (which he called their animal spirits).➢Figure 11-6Just as increases in spending increase GDP, so do cuts in taxes. The mechanism is similar: tax cuts increase disposable income and hence stimulate consumption. The only difference comes from the fact that a tax cut of ∆T increases consumption initially by MPC × ∆T. Thus, the tax multiplier equals the government-purchases multiplier multiplied by –MPC:∆Y/∆T = – MPC/(1 – MPC).Case Study: Cutting Taxes to Stimulate the Economy:The Kennedy and Bush Tax CutsCuts in personal and corporate income taxes were used by President Kennedy to stimulate the economy in 1964, on the advice of his Council of Economic Advisers. The economy grew rapidly in the wake of these cuts. Keynesian economists think that this experience supports the idea, embodied in the Keynesian cross model, that tax cuts stimulate aggregate demand and boost the economy. Tax cuts may also increase people’s incentive to supply labor, thus increasing the aggregate supply of goods and services.When George W. Bush proposed tax cuts during his campaign in 2000, the economy was near full employment, and some economists were concerned that a tax cut might raise aggregate demand and spur inflation. But candidate Bush’s advisers argued that reductions in marginal tax rates would increase labor supply and thus increase aggregate supply. After the election, as the economy began to weaken, President Bush’s advisers began touting the tax-cut proposal as a way to stimulate spending and thus increase aggregate demand. The tax cut258 | CHAPTER 11Aggregate Demand I: Building the IS–LM Modelthat finally passed in May 2001 included a “rebate” mailed to taxpayers that was intended tospeed up the stimulus to the economy. A subsequent tax cut in 2003 further stimulated theeconomy, turning a relatively weak recovery into a more robust one.Case Study:Increasing Government Purchases to Stimulate the Economy:The Obama StimulusPresident Obama’s stimulus plan for the economy was passed by Congress and signed intolaw in February 2009. The plan, which totaled nearly $800 billion in spending and tax cuts,represented a classic Keynesian-style response to the worsening recession. Economistsdebated the plan, in particular the relatively heavier emphasis on spending as opposed to taxreductions. In justifying the plan’s larger spending component, Obama administrationeconomists argued that the multiplier for government purchases was about 50 percent greaterthan the multiplier for tax cuts. Some economists criticized the plan as being too small, giventhe magnitude of the recession. They argued that the stimulus spending needed to be muchlarger if it were to offset the recession. Other economists, however, doubted whether moneyallocated for spending on infrastructure would have immediate effects on the economy. Theywere concerned that much of the spending would not occur in the first year and that therecession could well be over by then. These economists generally favored greater emphasison tax cuts that might have more immediate effects on households’ income and thus spending.The economy finally did recover from the recession, but much more slowly than the Obamaadministration had forecast. Whether this represented a failure of the stimulus policy orsimply a recession more severe than economists initially believed remains a question ofdebate.Case Study: Using Regional Data to Estimate MultipliersKeynesian theory suggests that changes in taxes and government spending have importanteffects on income and output for the economy. But in practice, measuring the effects on theeconomy from fiscal policy is difficult because there is no simple way to control for otherevents that are also affecting the economy. For example, fiscal stimulus is often adopted inresponse to a weak economy, so it is difficult to separate the effects of stimulus from theeffects of prolonged fallout from a recession. Recent studies have attempted to address thisproblem by using data from states or provinces within a country. Some regional variation ingovernment spending is unrelated to other events affecting regional economies, allowing theeconomic impact of government spending to be more precisely measured.One study considers variation in U.S. federal defense spending at the state level and computes its impact on state GDP. Another study considers variation in public investmentspending in Italian provinces as a result of crackdowns on organized crime (investment fallstemporarily following crackdowns) and assesses the effect on province-level GDP. Bothstudies find government spending multipliers of about 1.5.These estimates may overstate the true size of national government spending multipliers because this spending is financed with taxes at the national, not regional, level, and such taxeswould dampen the stimulus effects. Also, the national multiplier may be smaller becausecentral banks respond to national rather than regional conditions and may offset some of thestimulus from government spending by raising interest rates. One feature, however, thatwould imply a larger national multiplier is leakage of spending into imports of goods andservices. For a state or region, imports from other states and regions are a much higherpercentage of GDP than are imports from abroad for a nation as a whole. Leakage into importsreduces the marginal propensity to spend on regionally produced goods and services andthereby reduces the size of the multiplier.Lecture Notes | 257The Interest Rate, Investment, and the IS Curve➢Figure 11-7The transition from the Keynesian cross model to the IS curve is achieved by noting that planned investment changes if the real interest rate changes. The Keynesian cross analysis tells us that changes in planned investment change GDP. For example, if interest rates increase, planned investment falls, and so does output. Thus, higher levels of the interest rate are associated with lower levels of output.How Fiscal Policy Shifts the IS Curve➢Figure 11-8The position of the IS curve depends on fiscal-policy variables. Increases in government spending or decreases in taxes increase the equilibrium level of output at any given interest rate. Thus they are associated with outward shifts in the IS curve.11-2 The Money Market and the LM CurveThe Theory of Liquidity PreferenceTo understand the determination of interest rates, we turn to the money market. Again, our building blocks are familiar from the classical model. Our starting point is the condition for equilibrium in the money market:M/P = L(i, Y).According to this equation, the demand for real balances equals the real supply of money M/P. The demand for real balances, as explained in Chapter 4, depends on the level of GDP and the nominal interest rate; this is known as the theory of liquidity preference. The real supply of money depends on the nominal money supply, which is an exogenous policy variable, and the price level, which is also taken to be exogenous in the IS–LM model.Recall from the Fisher equation that the nominal interest rate equals the real interest rate plus the expected inflation rate. If expected inflation is zero, i = r. For simplicity, we suppose for the moment that this is the case, so we can writeM/P = L(r, Y).We reintroduce expected inflation in Chapter 12.➢Figure 11-9Just as the IS curve gives us {r, Y} combinations consistent with equilibrium in the goods market, the LM curve gives us {r, Y} combinations consistent with equilibrium in the money market. To see how this works, consider a diagram of the market for money. Notice that the demand for money is a function of r and Y. Increases in r decrease the demand for money; increases in Y increase the demand for money. The supply of and demand for money determine the equilibrium interest rate. Changes in the money supply therefore affect the equilibrium interest rate.Case Study: Does a Monetary Tightening Raise or Lower Interest Rates?➢Figure 11-10In the early 1980s, Paul V olcker, the chair of the Federal Reserve, slowed the rate of money growth in a successful attempt to decrease inflation. The Fisher equation teaches us that lower258 | CHAPTER 11Aggregate Demand I: Building the IS–LM Modelinflation tends to reduce nominal interest rates in the long run. Our analysis of the moneymarket reveals that when prices are sticky, anti-inflationary monetary policy reduces realmoney balances and increases interest rates in the short run. Both effects are visible in the1980s data.Income, Money Demand, and the LM Curve➢Figure 11-11The basic analysis of the LM curve is now straightforward. Higher GDP raises the demandfor money. If the real supply of money is fixed, then interest rates must rise to bring thedemand for money back in line with the supply. So higher GDP is associated with higherinterest rates when the money market is in equilibrium. The LM curve slopes upward.How Monetary Policy Shifts the LM Curve➢Figure 11-12The position of the LM curve depends on the real money supply. An increase in the real moneysupply for a given level of GDP implies lower interest rates. An increase in the money supplythus shifts the LM curve downward and conversely.11-3 Conclusion: The Short-Run Equilibrium➢Figure 11-13➢Figure 11-14➢Supplement 11-1, “The Key Features of the IS–LM Model”➢Supplement 11-2, “Mr. Keynes and the Classics: The Art of Modeling”➢Supplement 11-3, “The IS–LM Model: A Critical Evaluation”Finally, we can put together the IS and LM curves and find the one {r, Y} combination that isconsistent with equilibrium in both the goods and the money markets. Since points on the IScurve are consistent with equilibrium in the goods market and points on the LM curve areconsistent with equilibrium in the money market, the point where the two curves intersectgives the one combination of the real interest rate and GDP for which both markets are inequilibrium.If used carefully, IS–LM is a simple but powerful model for understanding the short-run behavior of the economy; it is a model that helps many economists answer macroeconomicquestions. We make much use of it from here on.LECTURE SUPPLEMENT11-1 The Key Features of the IS–LM ModelThe IS–LM analysis is simply a more detailed look at what lies behind aggregate demand. It decomposes aggregate demand into its two constituent markets: money and goods. The money market is summarized in the LM curve, the goods market in the IS curve. The advantages of the analysis are that it allows us to look at the two markets separately, to examine the determination of interest rates, and to distinguish clearly between fiscal and monetary policy. It is a very useful tool for short-run analysis of the economy.The key things to understand about the IS–LM analysis are as follows:1.The position of the LM curve depends on M/P.2.Expansionary monetary policy shifts the LM curve out.3.Increases in the price level shift the LM curve in.4.Exogenous shocks to money demand shift the LM curve.5.The position of the IS curve depends on G and T.6.Expansionary fiscal policy shifts the IS curve out.7.Exogenous spending shocks shift the IS curve.8.The slopes of the IS and LM curves depend on various parameters that indicate the sensitivityof money demand, investment demand, and consumption demand to income and interestrates.9.Expansionary fiscal policy works by directly increasing spending but leads to short-runcrowding out because increased money demand pushes up interest rates and discouragesinvestment.10.Expansionary monetary policy works by pushing down interest rates and thus encouraginginvestment spending.11.The adjustment of the economy to long-run equilibrium operates through changes in theprice level, leading to changes in M/P, and hence in interest rates and investment. In the IS–LM diagram, long-run adjustment entails shifts in the LM curve.267ADDITIONAL CASE STUDY11-2 Mr. Keynes and the Classics: The Art of Modeling Keynesian economics was born with the publication of The General Theory of Employment, Interestand Money, by John Maynard Keynes. In terms of its impact on the discipline, this was surely one ofthe most important books in the history of economics. Yet for the modern student of economics, itmakes for difficult reading. Apparently, this was also true for contemporary readers: “It will be admittedby the least charitable reader that the entertainment value of Mr. Keynes’s General Theory ofEmployment is considerably enhanced by it satiric aspect. But it is also clear that many readers havebeen left very bewildered by this Dunciad.”1One reason why Keynes’s work had such impact was that the Nobel prize–winning economist John Hicks found a way to translate Keynes’s ideas into a simple and easily understood diagram: the IS–LMmodel. If Keynes’s book was one of the most influential in the history of economics, then Hicks musttake much of the credit. Compare, for example, the following:Now if the investment-demand schedule shifts,…income will, in general, shift also. But theabove [saving/investment] diagram does not contain enough data to tell us what its newvalue will be; and, therefore, not knowing which is the appropriate [saving] curve, we donot know at what point the new investment-demand schedule will cut it. If, however, weintroduce the state of liquidity-preference and the quantity of money and these betweenthem tell us that the rate of interest is r2, then the whole position becomesdeterminate….Thus the [investment] curve and the [saving] curves tell us nothing about therate of interest. They only tell us what income will be, if from some other source we can saywhat the rate of interest is.2The curve IS can therefore be drawn showing the relation between income and interestwhich must be maintained in order to make saving equal to investment.3It is a tribute to Hicks’s modeling skills that IS–LM analysis survives to this day in textbooks and in journal articles. It has become such a standard tool that writers usually do not even bother to citeHicks when using it. And whereas some criticize the model and others claim that it misrepresentsKeynes’s work, it seems likely to endure as a useful tool for short-run macroeconomic analysis. Hickscannot have suspected his understatement when he wrote that “in order to elucidate the relation betweenMr. Keynes and the ‘Classics,’ we have invented a little apparatus. It does not appear that we haveexhausted the uses of that apparatus.”41 J.R. Hicks, “Mr. Keynes and the Classics,” Econometrica 5, no.2 (April 1937), reprinted in J. Hicks, Critical Essays in Monetary Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), 126–42.2 J.M. Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (London: Macmillan, 1936), 181.3 Hicks, Critical Essays in Monetary Theory, 135.4 Ibid., 135.264ADVANCED TOPIC11-3 The IS–LM Model: A Critical EvaluationThe IS–LM model occupies a curious position in modern macroeconomics. It has been at the heart ofmuch macroeconomic theory and policy from its invention in 1936 to the present. Professionalmacroeconomists in business, government, and academia utilize the model to help them understand theworld. Yet, at the same time, many professional economists— particularly academics—have becomeincreasingly skeptical of its usefulness. Critics of IS–LM argue that the model is flawed because it isinherently static, lacks microeconomic underpinnings, and does not provide an adequate treatment ofexpectations. One such critic, Robert King, concludes that “the IS–LM model has no greater prospectof being a viable analytical vehicle for macroeconomics in the 1990s than the Ford Pinto has of beinga sporty, reliable car for the 1990s.”1The IS–LM model is static because it makes no attempt to explain the behavior of the economy over time. Rather, the model yields values of certain endogenous variables at a point in time, given thevalues of other exogenously specified variables. In the simple IS–LM model, there is no attempt toanalyze how the endogenous variables evolve over time, despite that many of the underlyingrelationships in the model are meant to capture decisions with an explicit time dimension. For example,the consumption function is meant to reflect the consumption–saving choices of households, and theinvestment function is based on firms’ decisions to undertake current expenditures in the anticipationof future benefits.One way to introduce dynamics into an IS–LM model is to make price adjustment endogenous.Much Keynesian modeling in the 1960s and 1970s took this approach. The idea was to explain theadjustment of wages and prices over time based on supply and demand in the labor and goods markets.For example, if output is above its natural rate, then unemployment will be below its natural rate. Strongdemand for goods and labor would then cause wages and prices to rise. In this setting, the IS–LM modelexplains output at a point in time, given the price level, while the specification of price adjustmentexplains how prices change, given past values of output. Such an approach will be successful only ifwe can adequately capture the complexities of price and wage adjustment by simple, ad hoc price andwage equations. And that, in turn, brings us back to the question of microeconomic underpinnings.The search for solid microeconomic foundations for the IS–LM model has been going on since the early days of Keynesian economics. Researchers in the 1950s and 1960s provided microeconomicjustification for the consumption function, the investment function, and the money demand functionthat are used in the IS–LM model. (Much of this work is explained in Part V of the textbook.) Morerecently, researchers have analyzed how firms set prices and wages and have thus developed muchbetter microfoundations for wage and price stickiness (see Chapter 14 of the textbook). As this workprogressed, however, it became evident that expectations have a critical influence on the economy: anindividual’s decision on how much to consume and how much to save depends on what he expects hisfuture income to be; a firm’s investment decisions depend on expectations of future sales. Likewise,the price- and wage-setting decisions of firms and workers depend on expectations of future inflationand other variables.Because the IS–LM model is static, anticipations of future events cannot be handled endogenously.Rather, the IS–LM model treats shifts in expectations as exogenous. If firms anticipate strong demandand so increase investment, or if rising consumer confidence leads to increased consumption, thisshows up in the IS–LM model as an exogenous outward shift of the IS curve. If expected inflationincreases, the nominal interest rate will be higher for any given value of the real rate and money demandwill fall. This shows up in the IS–LM model as an exogenous outward shift of the LM curve.2 The problem is that expectations might themselves be affected by changes in other exogenous variables. Suppose that the money supply is increased. The basic IS–LM model predicts that the LMcurve will shift out, leading to higher output and lower interest rates. But firms and consumers mighttake the change in the money supply as a signal that the Fed has adopted a more expansionary monetarypolicy. Anticipations of higher demand and higher income might then increase investment andconsumption, shifting the IS curve out and conceivably causing real interest rates to rise. Anticipations1 R. King, “Will the New Keynesian Macroeconomists Resurrect the IS–LM Model?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 7 (Winter 1993): 67–82.2 This assumes that the IS–LM diagram is drawn with the real interest rate on the axis; otherwise, it is the IS curve that shifts.267。