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第五章语言的表达内容──语义教学目的与要求：了解语素、词语、词组和句子等语言单位的定义以及具有的意义；了解语音、语汇和语法这三个语言要素的意义第一节语义概说一、什么是语义1、定义：语义指的是“语言的意义”，是语言形式的表达内容2、语义所包括的内容：（1）语汇意义：实词和固定短语所表达的意义语法意义：虚词、语序、形态、句调等所表达的意义。
（2）言内之意：一般的、稳定的意义言外之意：个别的、临时的意义如：今天天气很热（3）理性意义：表达人们对客观世界的事物和现象的认识非理性意义：表达人们的主观情感、态度及语体风格如：你真讨厌二、语义的性质★（1）概括性：人们可以从具体事物中抽象概括出使一类事物区别于他类事物的特征，同时舍弃同类事物之间的各种差别。
如：笔（2）模糊性：模糊性是指词义所反映的对象只有一个大致的范围，而没有明确的界线。
如：土豪、中午。
（3）民族性：由于不同的民族对客观事物的认识不同，对客观事物的概括及分类也存在差异，因而不同语言的语义也会有所不同。
如：龙：中国的龙是一种吉祥的动物；而西方的dragon是一种危害人间的怪物。
三、语义在语言系统中的地位1、要不要研究语义语言形式和语言意义彼此密不可分，互相不能取代，强调语言研究中形式和意义的“结合”2、怎样研究语义：研究各种语言片段表示的语汇意义和语段意义第二节词语的意义一、词义的构成要素1、理性意义和非理性意义（1）理性意义：是人们对主观世界事物的反映，而且是概括性的反映如：山、河、神仙、天堂（2）非理性意义：附着在词的理性意义之上的，因而又叫做词义的附加色彩。
主要表现为：感情色彩、语体色彩、形象色彩2、语素义（1）单纯词：词义=语素义，单纯词由一个语素构词如：书（2）合成词：①词义=语素义+语素义如：皮包②词义并不能从其构成语素义推导而来如：针线3、义项★（1）定义：义项是词典释义的最小单位。
一个词有几个义项，根据词所反映的对象的多少来决定的如：凉：①温度低。
第五章语法一、什么是语法A：语法是语言中词的构成与变化的规则与组词成句规则的总和。
1.词的构成与变化的规则词的构成规则——构词法词根+后缀词的变化规则——构形法2.组词成句的规则由词组成词组或短语，由词或词组组合成句子，二者全称为句法。
词法和句法合称语法。
二、语法的各级单位语素语言中最小的音义结合体词语言中能够独立运用的最小的音义结合单位短语[词组] 词与词的组合，分为固定短语和自由短语两类句子语言中具有一定语调，表达一个相对完整意思的最小的使用单位。
句组[句群、句段、超句体] 表达一个完整意思、大于句子的语言片段。
三、语法的性质和特点1.抽象性语法的最大特点在于它的抽象性和概括性。
语法的抽象性和词汇的抽象性A.抽象的对象不同[事物句子]B.抽象的依据不同词汇依据的是意义，语法依据的是单位间的关系△理解语法的抽象性应从两方面着手：A.语法关系的抽象性B.语法单位的抽象性2.稳固性语法的稳固性（三重意思）1.稳固性指语法的基本格局未变2.稳固性不是不变性3.稳固性是相对于语音、词汇而言的第一节语素和词一、语素和语素变体1.语素：语素是最小的音义结合的单位。
我们人们的话语进行切分，分到最后还有意义的单位就是语素。
2.语素变体：同一语素内部略有差异的单位就是该语素的变体。
语素是一种音义的结合体。
它的变体分为语音变体和语义变体（义项）两类。
二、词和词的构成单纯词：由一个语素构成的词合成词：由两个或两个以上语素构成的词合成词的构成方式:1.并列式2.偏正式3.述宾式4.述补式5.主谓式语法意义：任何语法形式所表达的意义都是语法意义。
语法手段：把具有共同的语法形式概括起来形成的类就是语法手段。
第二节语法手段和语法范畴一、语法手段语法形式：表达语法意义的形式就是语法形式。
常见的语法手段有：1.语序：利用词或词组在语言结构中的排列顺序表示语法意义的手段。
2.虚词：虚词又称功能词或辅助词，指基本上没有词汇意义而专门表示语法意义的词。
第五章意义(语义学)(semantics)关注意义研究的学科叫语义学（semantics）。
更具体地说，语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
虽然"语义学"这一术语仅有百年出头的历史，但意义一直是人类学术活动的一个中心话题。
早在公元前五世纪，古希腊哲学家柏拉图的著作中就有关于意义的讨论。
中国的老子甚至在更早的时候就讨论过类似问题。
多年来出现了大量解释词语意义的词典，这一事实也为意义研究的悠久历史提供了证据。
然而，与语音学、音系学、形态学和句法学相比，语义学仍然是语言学中研究最少的领域。
5.1 "意义"的意义意义研究的困难之一是"意义"一词本身有不同的意义。
奥格登（C.K. Ogden）和理查兹（I.A. Richards）在1923年出版的《意义的意义》一书中罗列了"著名意义研究者提出的有代表性的主要定义"（p.186），分为16大类，加上次类则共22种。
利奇（G. Leech）在1974年第一次出版的《语义学》（p. 23）中比较温和地认可了七种意义类型，如下所示：1. 概念意义逻辑的，认知的，或者外延的内容联想意义2. 内涵意义通过语言所指所传达的意义3. 社会意义所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义4. 感情意义所传达的关于说话人或作者感情、态度方面的意义5. 反射意义通过联想同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义6. 搭配意义通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义7. 主题意义通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义利奇指出，意义的第一种类型--概念意义--构成了意义的中心部分。
这种意义是"外延"的，因为它关注词和它所指事物之间的联系。
从这点看，概念意义在很大程度上与指称相交叉。
但是，作为第二种意义类型名称而使用的"内涵"一词却不同于它在哲学讨论中的意义。
哲学家们用内涵与外延相对，表示词所指实体的性质。
Chapter 3 summary应用语言学王婷婷13502008Traditionally, metaphors and metonymies have been regarded as figures of speech, however, the two phenomena are powerful cognitive tools for our conceptualization of the world.First, It is common knowledge that words are often used in figurative senses.Even very young children are adept at using figurative language. Nevertheless, the study of this linguistic phenomenon was for a long time the exclusive domain of literary scholars and the odd linguist who was interested in rhetoric or stylistics.They consider that metonymy involves a relation of contiguity between what is denoted by the literal meaning of a word and its figurative counterpart and that one constituent of the metonymic link stands for the other. In contrast, metaphor has traditionally been based on the notions similarity or comparison between the literal and the figurative meaning of an expression.They also take some examples to show that metaphor and metonymy are not just figures of speech in literature but also pervasive in everyday language. Next, in tracing the development from the traditional to a cognitive conception of metaphor and metonymy, we have already recognized by Black in a precognitive context, metaphors act as cognitive instruments.This means that metaphors are not just a stylistically attractive way of expressing ideas by means of language, but a way of thinking about things. In addition, metonymies are also more straightforwards than metaphors: their major goal is to refer to an entity, prototypically a person, denoted by the target concept by means of the source concept.Second, in the cognitive linguist’s views, the structure of emotion concepts are reflected in metonymic and metaphorical expressions. They find that the link between emotions and physiological symptoms reminds us of certain metonymic mappings,especially the cause-effect relationship observed in metonymies. They also single out three aspects that between them illustrate both the potential and the limitations of physiologicalmetonymies. There are indeed bodily symptoms which seem to be helpful for a description of the conceptual structure of emotions because they are peculiar to one particular emotion. They find that our preference depends on the situation, perhaps on the individual person, or it could also be a matter of sequence, perhaps on the individual person, or it could also be a matter of sequence, with a state of paralysis functioning as a preface to flight. At last, problems is that may metonymies apply not just to one or a few closely related emotions, but to a range of quite different emotions.Third, When metaphors as a way of thinking, they can be used to structure concepts underlying certain abstract words, and it should not show up in the way we approach the complex scientific, political and social issues of our world. Langacker realizes that metaphor is a powerful explanatory tool which cannot be defeated by only offering an abstract alternative explanation in terms of compositionality and analyzability, such as we use +SCAFFOLDING+ metaphor to explain newspaper, which means you can take out the attributes of news, just use paper, just like the function of scaffolding. In science, for example, we can use solar system to explain atom, which could be understood more clearly. In politics, the natural force concepts like WIND can be reflected in the abundant ‘wind-of-change’speeches. Popular political thinking largely depends on constitutive metaphors, which are often consciously created and fostered by politicians and propagandists.Fourth, just like metaphors, metonymies can be understood as a way of thinking and metonymy is considered a cognitive process underlying linguistic phenomena and motivating them. Possessive compounds, noun-verb conversations and even conventionalized speech acts were shown to be at least describable in terms of metonymic mappings, but the success of any metonymy depends on the availability of a cognitive model or some other kind of conceptual background serving as a mapping scope accessible to the language user.。
