戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第4章_Semanticsppt课件

《新编简明英语语言学教程》必背考点Chapter 1 IntroductionChapter 2 PhonologyChapter 3 MorphologyChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 SemanticsChapter 6 PragmaticsChapter 7 Language ChangeChapter 8 Language and SocietyChapter 9 Language and CultureChapter 10 Language AcquisitionChapter 11 Second Language AcquisitionChapter 12 Language And The Brain《新编简明英语语言学教程》Chapter 1 Introduction考点1 Distinguish beween prescriptive and descriptive study(1)Prescriptive（规定性）: The linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.(2)Descriptive (描写性）: The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use.(3)Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from earlier studies of language normallyknown as “grammar” in that the latter is based on “high” (religious, literary) written language.It aims to set models forlanguage users to follow. On the other hand, modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it “correct” or not. Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the languagepeople use should be described and analyzed in their investigations.考点2 Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?(1)Synchronic (共时性）——the description of a language at some point of time in history.(2)Diachronic (历时性）——the description of a language as it change through time. It is ahistorical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.(3)In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.考点3 Why speech is prior to writing?Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.a. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writingsystem of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world, there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.b. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than wiring in terms of the amount of information conveyed.c. Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.d. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.考点4：How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?(1)Langue (语言) vs Parole (言语)The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure (索绪尔) in the early 20th century.Langue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.It is abstract and is not the language people actually use. It is relatively stable and systematic, does not change frequently.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. It is concrete and it refers to the naturally occurring language events. It varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.In Saussure's opinion,parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of linguistic study.Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.(2)Competence (语言能力)VS Performance (语言运用)The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky（乔姆斯基）in the late 1950sCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and it is a set of rules internalized in the brain. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.Performance refers to the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication. Despite one’s perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules.Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.考点5 What are the main features of human language that have been specified byC. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性:①there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, that is, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning②A good example is that different sounds in different languages are used to refer to the same object.e.g. “汽车” in Chinese, “der Wagen” in German and “car” in English;③The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of complexity, which makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.④While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The first example isonomatopoeic words (拟声词) which imitate natural sound, such as rumble, crash, bang in English, putong(扑通）shasha(沙沙）in Chinese.The second example is compound words because the meaning of the compound words are determined by the combination of two words, such as type-writer, shoe-maker.⑤Non-arbitrary words account for only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. Therefore, it doesn’t negate the fact that language is arbitrary.（2）Productivity/Creativity创造性①Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This explains why people can produce and understand an infinitely la rge number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard or used before.②Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) Duality/ Double articulation 二重性①Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.②At the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless themselves. e.g. the three separate sounds /k/ /æ/ /t/ are meaningless.③But the sounds of language can be grouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes(词素) and words according to certain rules, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. e.g. The combination of the three sounds /k/ /æ/ /t/ can produce a meaningful words [kæt] (cat).④This duality of structure or double articulation(双重分节）of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.(4) Displacement 移位性①Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places. That is, Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.②This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication possesses this feature. For example, animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stops.(5) Cultural transmission 文化传递性①While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.②Language is culturally transmitted in that it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct like animal call system. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, namely, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.考点6 What are the major functions of language identified by Jakobson?Jakobson (雅克布逊)identified six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser说话者---EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication, i.e. to express attitudes, feelings and requests. e.g. I hate those who are always lying.Addressee受话者---Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking, i.e. to persuade and influence others through commands and requestse.g. Why not go with us to have a picnic? Why not go and see another doctorContext语境---Referential 所指功能The addresser conveys a message or information 传达信息e.g. Currently, we live in an information age when the Internet plays a significant role.Message 信息----Poetic 诗学功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.e.g. poetryContact 接触--Phatic communication寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with theaddressee. e.g Hi, How are you this morning?Code 语码---Metalinguistic 元语言功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.e.g. Let me tell you what the word “ EST” means.考点7 What are Halliday’s metafunctions?Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.①The ideational function (is to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, feelings and emotions.②The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker’s role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.③The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学考点1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.There are three branches of phonetics :①articulatory phonetics 发音语音学——It studies the sounds from the speaker's point ofview, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.②auditory phonetics 听觉语音学——It looks at the sounds from the hearer's point ofview, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.③acoustic phonetics 声学语音学——It studies the way sounds travel by looking at thesound waves, the physical means by which sounds transmitted through the air from one person to another. It tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues. To describe these properties, they record the sound waves on machines called spectrographs.考点2 Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? Broad transcription宽式标音：The transcription with letter-symbols only is the broad transcription and it is used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.Narrow transcription严式标音：The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号) is the narrow transcription and it is needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.考点3 How are the English consonants classified?Manner of articulation:发音方式①stop闭塞音：[p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] 6When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction suddenly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or plosive. （气流在声道中完全受阻，然后被突然释放, 受阻气流冲出而形成的音叫爆破音）②fricative 摩擦音：[f] [v] [θ] [ð] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [h] 9When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.（气流部分受阻，被迫在狭窄缝隙间通过，在某一点引起摩擦而形成的音被称为摩擦音）③affricate 破擦音： a stop+a fricative [tʃ] [dʒ] 2When the obstruction is complete at first and then is released slowly with the friction resultingfrom partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates.(前半部分发音，气流完全受阻，与爆破音相似；后半部分发音，气流部分受阻，逐渐释放，产生摩擦，与发摩擦音相似)④liquids 流音: [l] [r] 2When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue( the tip or the side) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids.(气流在口腔中受阻，但还不至于引起摩擦，气流可以从舌尖、两侧或口腔上部逸出而形成的音，被成为流音)⑤nasals 鼻音: [m] [n] [ŋ] 3When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals.(如果将软腭降低至口腔后部，完全阻塞口腔，从而使鼻腔通道张开让气流经过，这样发出的音称为鼻音)⑥glides 滑音: [j] [w] 2Sometimes are called ‘semi-vowels”. It is produced with a narrow passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.(有时也称为半元音，双唇或舌与硬腭间对流形成的局部阻碍而引起一些轻微的噪音而形成)Place of articulation发音部位①bilabial 双唇音: [p] [b] [m] [w] 4the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. And then the obstruction is suddenly released and the airstream pass out again.（上下唇合拢形成完全阻碍，再突然打开，释放气流而形成的音）②labiodental 唇齿音：[f] [v] 2the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction.（通过下唇和下齿的接触，迫使气流从唇齿间挤出而形成的音）③dental 齿音：[θ] [ð] 2the obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth.（舌尖抵住上齿，气流被阻碍）④alveolar 齿龈音：[t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r] 7the obstruction is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge/ alveolus to create the obstruction. （舌尖抵住上齿龈，气流形成阻碍所发出的音）⑤palatal 腭音：[ʃ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ] [j] 5The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate. （气流阻碍发生在舌后和硬腭之间）⑥velar软腭音:[k] [g] [ŋ] 3the back of the tongue is brought into contact with the soft palate. （舌后部向上抬起，接触软腭，形成气流）⑦glottal 声门音：[h] 1the vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction.（声带暂时性闭合，形成气流阻碍）考点4 Classification of English vowels①the position of the tongue in the mouth(舌位）：front, central and back 前元音中元音后元音②the openness of the mouth（开口程度）：close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels闭元音半闭元音半开元音开元音③the shape of the lips（唇形）rounded 圆唇：all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are roundedunrounded 非圆唇：all front vowels+the central vowels④the length of the vowels（元音的长度）：long and short vowels长元音短元音⑤The tenseness of the sound: tense and lax vowels 紧元音松元音⑥monophthongs 单元音diphthongs 双元音：Sounds are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions. [eɪ] [aɪ] [ɔɪ] [aʊ] [əʊ][ɪə] [eə] [ʊə]考点5 phonology and phoneticsphonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ form each other, what phonetic features theypossess, how they can be classfied.For example:①The [l] sound in the two English word leap and peel is pronounced differently. The first is what we call a clear [l] and the second one a dark [ɫ].②The difference between the two sounds, is what the phoneticians are interested in.③But phonologically these sounds are regarded to be two versions of the same basic entity. These two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication---in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation. If someone should pronounce the dark [ɫ] in the word peel incorrectly as a clear [l], an English speaker would not for this reason fail to understand him, he would only find his pronunciation a little bit strange.考点6 phone, phoneme, and allophone(1)phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones are to be written with square brackets [ ].e.g [t] [d] [f] [v][i:] [i] [e] [t h]But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do, as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings. [t h] and [t] don’t as [stɒp] and [st hɒp] mean the same to a speaker of English.(2)phoneme音位is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, written in slashes / /. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and we are aware that the sound [p] is pronounced differently. In the word peak, the [p] sound is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air being withheld a little. The [p] sound in peak is called an aspirated [ p ], and the [p] sound in speak is an unaspirated [p]. The relation between aspirated [p ] and unaspirated [p] corresponds to that between clear [l ] and dark [l ]: there is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/ is a phoneme in the Englishsound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts.(3)allophones音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones. Allophones are to be written with square brackets [ ].But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it is rule-governed.e.g. the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as a dark [ɫ] 模糊舌边音in tell and a clear [l]清晰舌边音in lead, which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.考点7 Phonemic contrast ,complementary distribution, and minimal pair(1)Phonemic contrast音位对立: If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form aphonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].(2)Complementary distribution互补分布: If they are allophones of the same phoneme, thenthey do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. Allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.e.g. the clear [l] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [ɫ] always occurs between a vowel and a consonan or at the end ofa word, so they are in complementary distribution.(3)Minimal pairs 最小对立对: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. e.g. pill and bill bet and batSignificance: Minimal pairs make it easy to know what the English phonemes are. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. Accordingly, it is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.minimal set 最小对立对集：Under the same condition, when a minimal pair is extended to two, three or even more, then all these sound combinations constitute a minimal set.e.g. “pill and bill”“pill and till”“till and dill”“till and kill”“kill and gill”考点8 Phonological rules 音系学规则①Sequential rules 序列规则——There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.rule 1: If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. This explains why [lbik] is impossible combinations in English. Because it has violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.rule 2: if three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules：The first phoneme must be /s/;(it shows that/s/ is the most easiest sound for human being to pronounce; linguistics should serve people, which means it is descriptive)The second phoneme must be /p,t,k/ ---stops(爆破音）(Why not /b,d,g/: because they are not easy for human to pronounce)The third phoneme must be /l,r, w/---/1//r/ 流音，/w/ 滑音eg: spring[sprɪŋ], scream[skri:m], square [skwer], splendid [ˈsplendɪd] , strict[strɪkt]②Assimilation rule 同化规则A.Definition: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. One sound will affect the neighbouring sound so that sounds become sounds around them. This process is called assimilation. The rules which will be followed during the assimilation is called assimilation rules.B.Reason: Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory orphysiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language. This is primarily due to the our desire for convenience and efficiency.C.ClassificationRegressive assimilation 逆同化: If a preceding sound is influenced by a following sound, making the two sounds similar, it is called regressive assimilation.a.Nasalization 鼻音化in the case of “can” [kæn], the preceding sound [æ] is nasalized dueto the influence of the following nasal sound [n].b.Dentalization 齿音化：in the case of [n] in the word “tenth”[tenθ], the preceding sound[e]is dentalized due to the influence of the following dental fricative sound [θ].c.Velarization软腭化: in the case ‘sink’ [sɪŋk], the preceding sound[ŋ] is velarized due to the influence of the following velar sound [k].Progressive assimilation 顺同化: It is the converse process of regressive assimilation, in which a following sound is influenced by a preceding sound, making the two sounds similar.e.g. in the case of ‘map”[mæp], the following sound [æ] is nasalized because of the influence of the preceding nasal consonant [p].③Deletion rule 省略规则Another phonological rule is the deletion rule. It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.e.g. The letter“g”is sometimes pronounced and sometimes mute(不发音的).The rule: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonantsign[saɪn] ----signature [ˈsɪgnətʃə(r)] 签名; 署名;考点9 What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.(1) Stress 重音: The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllable. e.g.重音在前是名词n 'progress 重音在后是动词v pro'gress(2)Tone 声调: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages.Our mother tongue Chinese is a typical tone language.E.g.mã 妈má 麻mǎ 马mà 骂(3)Intonation 语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.Four tones：①The falling tone— what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement②The rising tone—make a question of what is said③The fall-rise tone—there is an implied message in what is said④The rise-fall tonee.g.1.' That’s 'not the 'book he `wants.---Spoken in the falling tone, it simply states a fact, i.e. the book in question is not the one he wants.2.' That’s 'not the 'book he ̗wants.---Spoken in the rising tone, it indicates uncertainty on the part of the speaker: he is asking the question: It that not the book he wants?3.' That’s ˌnot the ˌbook he ̗wants.---Spoken in the fall-rise tone, it indicates that apart from what it said literally, there is an implied message, i.e. besides telling the listener that the book in question is not the one he wants, the speaker implies that there is some other book he wants.Chapter 3 Morphology考点1 Open class and closed classOpen class words开放类词: They are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.Closed class words封闭类词: Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the “grammatical” or “ functional” words. The number of such words is small and stable since new words are added.考点2 Morphemes词素(1)Morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.It is important to note that a morpheme is neither a meaning nor a stretch of sound, but a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together.Also morphemes are usually arbitrary: there is no natural connection between their sound and their meaning.e.g. reader consists of two morphemes: read and –er (to form nouns which refer to a person, animal or thing that does the action described by the verb), here “reader” is someone who reads.考点3 Morph语素形式Morph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morph.e.g. the English plural and possessive morphemes may be said to share a single morph, the suffix/-s/.考点4 Free and bound morphemes 自由词素和黏着词素A free morpheme: A morpheme which can be a word by itselfe.g. dog, man, desire. They are free because they can used as a word on its own.A bound morpheme: A morpheme that must be attached to another onee.g. -ist, -ful, un-, en-考点5 Allomorph 词素变体In some cases, morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments.E.g 1. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.eg: in the same plural morphemewritten form spoken formmap- maps [s] dog--dogs [z]watch--watches [iz] mouse--mice [ai]。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》Chapter1IntroductionChapter2PhonologyChapter3MorphologyChapter4SyntaxChapter5SemanticsChapter6PragmaticsChapter7Language ChangeChapter8Language and SocietyChapter9Language and CultureChapter10Language AcquisitionChapter11Second Language Acquisition Chapter12Language And The BrainChapter1Introduction考情分析本章分为两个部分，第一部分介绍了什么是语言学，主要是对语言学的定义、语言学的研究范围以及语言学中6对重要的概念进行了区分。

第二部分介绍了什么是语言，主要对语言的属性，语言的区别性特征以及语言的功能进行了详细的介绍。

本章常出的题型有填空题、翻译术语、术语解释、简答题以及论述题，大家在复习的时候尤其要注意以下重点内容:◆语言学中6对重要的概念区分Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)◆语言的识别性特征Design features of language(5)◆语言的功能Functions of languageContents1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1Definition1.1.2The scope of linguistics1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)Prescriptive规定性vs.Descriptive描写性Synchronic共时性vs.Diachronic历时性Speech口语and Writing书面语Langue语言and Parole言语---Saussure索绪尔Competence语言能力and Performance语言运用---Chomsky乔姆斯基Traditional grammar传统语法and modern linguistics现代语言学1.2What is language?1.2.1Definitions1.2.2Design features of language(5)Arbitrariness任意性Productivity/Creativity创造性Duality/Double Articulation二重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递性1.2.3Functions of languageVersion1Social function社会功能Expressive function表达功能Descriptive function描述功能Version2Code语码---Metalinguistic元语言功能Jakobson Addressee受话者---Conative意动功能Context语境---Referential所指功能Message信息----Poetic诗学功能Contact接触---Phatic communication寒暄功能Addresser说话者---Emotive情感功能Version3ideational概念功能Halliday interpersonal人际功能textual functions语篇功能Chapter1Introduction1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.◆It studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.◆It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguisticdata,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Q1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language?1.1.2The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学Phonetics(语音学)——The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.Phonology(音系学)——It studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology（形态学）——The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study.Syntax(句法学）—It studies the rules governing the combination of words that form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.Semantics(语义学）——It studies the meaning conveyed.Pragmatics(语用学）——It studies the meaning in the context of language use.跨学科分支Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）:The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholinguistics(心理语言学）：The study of language to psychology.Applied linguistics(应用语言学）【2017术语解释104points】：The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguitics.In a narrow sense,it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,especially the teaching of foreign andsecond languages.1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(1)Prescriptive vs descriptive【2013简答题2710points】①Prescriptive（规定性）The linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard”behavior in using language,i.e.to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.（为语言的“正确和规范”规定一系列的语法规则，例如告诉人们应该说什么和不应该说什么）【2015翻译术语18prescriptive grammar规约性语法】②Descriptive(描写性）The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.（对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析）For example,traditional grammar is prescriptive because it aims to set models for people to follow.While modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because it is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use.Q2.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?（2）synchronic vs diachronic①Synchronic(共时性）——the description of a language at some point of time in history.(对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述)②Diachronic(历时性）——the description of a language as it change through time.It is a historical study;it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.【2011填空1】【2016术语解释216points】(它是对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述，是一种历史性的研究，研究的是语言在某一段时间内的历史发展)Q4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?why?a.In modern linguistics,a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied,it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更重要。

戴炜栋英语语言学概论ChapterChapter 1: Introduction to English Linguistics1.1 The Scope of English LinguisticsEnglish linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, focuses on the study of the English language. It encompasses various aspects of the language, including its phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Through the examination of these linguistic components, linguists aim to understand how English is structured, how it functions, and how it is used for communication.1.2 The Historical Development of EnglishEnglish has a rich history that can be traced back to the Germanic languages spoken by the Anglo-Saxons in England during the 5th and 6th centuries. Over time, it evolved and absorbed influences from other languages, such as Latin, French, and Norse, due to political, cultural, and social interactions. This resulted in the Old English, Middle English, and Modern English periods, each characterized by distinct linguistic features and changes.1.3 English Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics is concerned with the physical aspects of speech sounds, while phonology examines the patterns and rules governing the organization of these sounds in a particular language. In English phonetics, the sounds are classified into vowels and consonants and further divided into various articulatory features, such as place and manner of articulation. Englishphonology, on the other hand, investigates sound patterns, such as stress, intonation, and phonotactics, which affect the pronunciation of words and sentences.1.4 English MorphologyMorphology is the study of word formation and structure. In English morphology, linguists analyze the internal structure of words and identify morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful units. English words can be divided into free morphemes, which can stand alone as single words, and bound morphemes, which can only be attached to other morphemes. Moreover, word formation processes, such as affixation, compounding, and derivation, are examined to understand how new words are created in English.1.5 English SyntaxSyntax investigates the rules and principles governing the arrangementof words to form grammatically correct sentences. In English syntax, linguists analyze sentence structures, constituents, and grammatical relationships, such as subject-verb agreement, word order, and sentence types (declarative, interrogative, imperative, etc.). The analysis of syntactic structures allows us to comprehend how sentences are constructed and how different meanings are conveyed through sentence formation.1.6 English SemanticsSemantics studies the meaning of linguistic expressions, including words, phrases, and sentences. In English semantics, linguists explore how meaning is conveyed through lexical and grammatical devices, such as synonyms,antonyms, hyponyms, and collocations. Additionally, pragmatic aspects, such as implicature, speech acts, and context, play a crucial role in understanding the intended meaning of utterances in different communicative situations.1.7 English PragmaticsPragmatics involves the study of how context influences the interpretation and use of language. In English pragmatics, linguists examine various pragmatic phenomena, such as politeness strategies, discourse analysis, speech acts, and conversational implicature. Understanding pragmatics helps us interpret utterances and understand the intended meanings beyond the literal level, as well as navigate the social and cultural aspects of communication.1.8 ConclusionEnglish linguistics provides us with a comprehensive understanding of the English language's structure, function, and usage. Through the examination of its phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, linguists gain valuable insights into the complexities of English and its role as a global language. By continuing to explore and analyze these linguistic aspects, we can further enhance our knowledge and proficiency in English communication.。