Introduction to Contemporary Linguistics
Chapter1
Human superiority lies in his unique endowment-----the ability to talk, or rather,
to communicate by means of language.
Talmud: god created the world by a word, instantaneously, without toil or pains.
Widdowson: the primacy of language in the way human beings conceive of the
world.
Language is a vehicle of power, for control, for creation, and for change.
The study of human language is called linguistics.
Linguistics deals with human language as a whole or as particular languages.
1.As a whole: the system of human communication which consists of the structured
arrangement of sounds (or their written representation) into larger units,e.g.
morphemes, words, sentences, utterances.
2.As particular language: like French language, they are particular systems of
human communication used by people living in different parts of the world.
There is a continuum from one language to another.
Varieties of language: Any particular language is in essence a set of varieties.
1.local varieties区域变体–dialects and accents(the former differ from each other
in pronunciation, vocabulary, and even grammar; the latter only in pronunciation ) 2.social varieties—sociolects社会方言(=social dialects , used by people of different
classes, ages, or sexes ),
3.historical varieties—temporal variety.(e.g. the 17th century English)
4.stylistic or occupational varieties---registers语域(e.g. formal English, scientific
English)
5.individual varieties—idiolects个人语言.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/f110624813.html,ually a language has an officially declared or generally considered standard
dialect(e.g. Putonghua in China, General American in the US)
From Prescriptivism to Descriptivism
Prescriptivism is the view that one variety of language has an inherently higher
value than others.(try to impose rules from some high prestige language to some lower prestige language, like Latin and English)
Descriptivism is the policy of describing languages as they are bound to exist.
Usages of different varieties should be observed and recorded instead of being judged with some imposed norms.
Endowed or conventional?
Plato’s problem: How can every human being develop a rich system of linguistic
knowledge on the basis of limited and fragmentary empirical evidence?
Side of endowment: nativists(天生论) or mentalists（心智说）
Plato:
1.Man’s knowledge came from universal truths.
2.There was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to
follow in expressing his ideas.
3.Knowledge of language was not learned but recalled.
Chomsky:
There is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides what we speak.
Chomsky has given a name to this entity----UG, or universal grammar. His epistemology of the knowledge of language foes as follows:
1.Every human being has the language competence能力, because he has the inborn
UG which other species lack.
2.UG is the initial state of the human language faculty语言器官/机制which alone
cannot enable a human baby to speak. A baby needs to be exposed to the linguistic environment of a certain language and accumulate experience.
3.Due to the effect of later experience, the baby’s mind develops from the initial
state into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a specific human language.
Side of convention: behaviorist or empiricists
Aristotle: knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language.
Xun zi: a name was accepted through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing lay in convention.
The power of language exists in its countless varieties, not relying on any universal standard.
Connectionism
Diachronic(历经时间的): focus on the comparison between languages and the
exploration of the historical change and variation of some ancient languages./ of, relating to, or dealing with phenomena (as of language or culture) as they occur or change over a period of time
Synchronic（共时的）: research of the facts of language agreed upon or shared by
his members of language community at a given point in time./ concerned with events existing in a limited time period and ignoring historical antecedents Glossary
Endowments: (天赋) the natural quality that a person is made rich of from the
birth.
Register: (语域) the words, style, and grammar used by speakers and writers in
particular conditions, namely a socially defined variety of language.
Idiolect: (个人语言) the linguistic system of an individual speaker.
Sociolect: (社会方言) also social dialect. Variety of a language defined by social
factors such as age, religion, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Sociolects may
be classed as high or low (in status).
Prescriptivism :(规定主义) the imposition of arbitrary norms upon a language,
often in defiance of normal usage.
Descriptivism ：（描写主义）the policy of describing languages as they are bound
to exist.
Nativism: (天生论) philosophical and psychological position which holds that
cognitive development of humans arises from “innate ideas”. The nativist position has been used to explain how children are able to learn language and contrasts with the belief that all human knowledge comes from experience (empiricism).
Mentalism: （心智说）psychological and philosophical concept picked up and
developed by Chomsky(1965), which attempts to describe the internal (innate) language mechanism that provides the basis for the creative aspect of language development and use.
Dualism: （二元论）a philosophical system that recognizes two ultimate and
independent principles in the scheme of things, such as mind and matter.
Monism: (一元论) a general name for those philosophical theories which deny
the duality of matter and mind.
Universal Grammar (UG): （普通语法）the genetically endowed information
consisting of principles and parameters that enable the child to deduce a grammar from the primary linguistic data.
Language competence: (语言能力) knowledge of language; the linguistic
capacity of a fluent speaker of a language.
Parameter: (参数) a dimension of grammatical variation between different
languages or different varieties of the same language.
Empiricism: (经验论) philosophical and psychological position which holds that
the psychological development of humans arise primarily from experience and learning.
Connectionism: (连通主义) a theory of cognition which draws inspiration from
the way the billions of neurons in the brain are interconnected in complex ways to produce a network of associations. It holds that the complexity of language emerges from associative learning processes being exposed to a massive and complex environment.
Chapter2
Speculations: origin of language
Plato----legislator
Herder----god
Universal harmony is embraced as the foundation of modern linguistics as a science. Galilean thesis----nature is perfect
Observation
Research
Every person’s lexical knowledge of his first language is tacit and natural, with a tendency to influence, often unknowingly, his second language learning. This
influence is called transfer.
Three adequacies:
1.Observational adequacy
2.Descriptive adequacy
3.Explanatory adequacy (providing a descriptively adequate grammar for every
natural language, and does so in terms of maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.)
Testing
A theory in science must not be pure speculation but testable at observational, descriptive, and explanatory levels.
Science tells us that nature is a physical continuum连续体, which does not break
itself into physics, chemistry, psychology, linguistics…; these disciplines学科are not facts but our decisions.
Glossary
L1: (第一语言) a person’s first language
L2: (第二语言) a person’s second language. To be more specific, one could refer
to a person’s L3, L4, and so on. However, the general term L2 is frequently used to refer to any language learning or used after the first language has been learned.
Fossilization: (僵化) incomplete L2 acquisition featured by the fact that progress
in a certain aspect of the target language stops and the learner’s language becomes fixed at an intermediate state. It can take a number of forms, such as fossilized accent or syntax. Fossilization can be a permanent feature of the learner’s language.
Chapter3 phonetics
Phonetics: the science of speech sounds. It aims to provide the set of features or
properties that can be used to describe and distinguish all the sounds used in human language.
In accordance with the three phases just mentioned, phonetics is divided into three sub-fields.
1.Articulatory phonetics发音语音学studies speech production by the speech
organs;
2.Acoustic phonetics声学语音学studies physical properties of speech sounds, the
way sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer;
3.Auditory phonetics听觉语音学studies the perception of speech sounds in the
human auditory and cognitive system.
IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet
The design principles of IPA were that there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
A “sound” people say they produce is actually a combination of sounds called a
syllable, which is often related to a chest pulse.(syllable>=sound)
The properties of these separate sounds, or segments in phonetician’s jargon, can be described in several dimensions, the place of articulation and the manner of articulation.
1.The place of articulation refers to the point in the vocal tract at which the main
closure or narrowing is made so as to modify the flow of air from the chest to the mouth in producing a sound.
2.The manner of articulation refers to the type of constriction收缩or movement
that occurs at any place of articulation.
Articulation
The production of different speech sounds through the use of these organs is known as articulation.
Speech organs:
the vocal cords(声带)
the lungs
the windpipe(trachea)
the pharynx(咽)
the nose
the mouth
A main source of vibration is provided by the vocal cords. The vibration of the vocal cords also gives us pitch.
Consonants
Consonants are sounds made by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing from which air cannot escape without producing audible friction.摩擦
Two reference points are involved in defining consonantal places of articulation. One is the active articulator which moves; the other is the passive articulator with which the active one makes contact.
Classified according to the places of articulation:eleven possible places of articulation for consonants
1.Bilabial双唇音, formed by bringing the lips together , e. g. [ p ] , [ m] . Here the
function of lips is somewhat complicated: they both can be regarded as the active and passive articulators simultaneously.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/f110624813.html,bio-dental唇齿音, formed by the lower lip against the upper teeth, e . g. [ f] .
3.Dental齿音, formed by placing the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth, e . g.
[e].
4.Alveolar齿龈音, formed by placing the tip or blade of the tongue against the
alveolar ridge, e. g. [ t ] .
5.Palatal腭音, formed by the front of the tongue against the hard palate, namely,
the roof of the mouth, e . g. [ j] .
6.Palato- alveolar腭龈音, formed midway between the places of articulation for
palatals and alveolars: the blade ( and sometimes the tip) of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge, with a simultaneous raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate , e. g. [?] .
7.Velar软腭音, formed by the back of the tongue against the soft palate, e. g. [ k] .
8.Glottal声门音, formed by the vocal cords coming together to cause a closure or
friction, e .g. [ h] .
9.Retrofle卷舌音, formed when the apex of the tongue is curled back in the
direction of the hard palate, as heard in many Indian English accents.
10.Uvular小舌音, formed by the back of the tongue against the uvula, as heard in
some accents of French.
11.Pharyngeal咽音, formed in the pharynx, the part of the throat above the larynx.
Specifically, the front wall of t he pharynx articulates with the back wall, as heard in Arabic .
Classified according to the manner of articulation
1.The first factor is the degree of the constriction of airflow（气流的阻塞）. At least
six main classes can be distinguished in English.
1)Plosive爆破音, formed by completely closing the air passage and suddenly
removing the obstacle , so that the air escapes making an explosive sound, e. g.
[ p] ,[ d] . It belongs to a broader category called“stop”which includes closures produced by air streams not from the lungs, as encountered in some southern African languages.
2)Nasal鼻音, formed with the soft palate lowered, thus allowing air to resonate in
the nose, e . g. [ m] .
3)Affricate塞擦音, a consonant which starts as a plosive, but instead of ending
with plosion, ends with a fricative made in the same place, e. g. [t?] .
4)Liquid流音, formed by some obstruction of the air stream in the mouth, which
seems not enough to cause any real constrict ion or friction, e. g. [ l] , [ r ]. [ l] is called a lateral liquid, because in making it, an obstacle is placed in the middle of the mouth, leaving the air free to escape at one or both sides.
5)Fricative擦音, formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some point so that
the air in escaping makes audible frication. e. g. [ f] , [ z] . Some fricatives are also called sibilants齿擦音, which are made with a groove- like structure in the front part of the tongue, producing a kind of hissing sound, e. g. [ s] , [?] .
6)Glide滑音, sometimes called semi -vowel because it is typically produced with
the tongue moving, or“gliding, to or from the position of a nearby vowel, e.g.
[ h] , [ w] .
2.The second factor is voicing（浊音）. V oice is caused by the vibration of the vocal
cords.
3.The third factor is aspiration(送气音). This is the sound of air rushing through the
vocal tract, usually found after the release of plosive consonants in some situation.
V owels
V owels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.
Different vowels result from changing the shape of the mouth; all of them are voiced continuous sounds.
The qualities of vowels depend upon the positions of the tongue and lips.
[i:] close vowels , [a:] open vowels, [e] semi-closed vowels, [?:] semi-open vowels
V owel quality is also largely dependent on the shape of the lips.
Four rounded vowels: [u:] [u][?:][?], they are all back vowels.
[a:]is the only English back vowel that occurs without lip rounding.
There is another interesting rule: all the long vowels( e.g. [i:] [u:])are tense vowels紧元音, and all the short vowels ([i] [u]) are lax vowels松元音.
Every vowel constitutes a single syllable. The vowel can be a monophthong, a diphthong, or even a triphthong that contains three distinctive qualities, e.g.[ai ?]. However, not every syllable contains a vowel. The second syllable of the word little[litl] has no vowel after the plosive [t] but a liquid [l].
Phonemes
Phonemes have no meaning of themselves, but they are the smallest linguistic unit, whose change will lead to the change of meaning. A phoneme is defined as the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. (//) Allophone
Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted of another without bring about a change of meaning. ([])
Complementary distribution and free variation
A phonetic property特性，特质that distinguishes phonemes from one another is called a distinctive feature.
Phonology and phonetics
Phonetics is more specifically the study of how speech sounds are produced, what their physical properties are, and how they are interpreted. (how)
Phonology is a description of the sounds of a particular language and the rules governing the distribution of those sounds. Furthermore, phonology is also concerned with the universal properties of natural language sound systems and aims at revealing the general principles of the sound patterns of all languages. (what)
Stress and pitch
Pitch is the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.
There are two ways in which languages make use of pitch variations in speech.
1.In languages such as English, French, and German, regular sequences of different
pitches characterize stretches of speech between pauses and are known collectively as intonation. The differences of intonation may correlate with different types of utterances.
2.In languages such as Chinese , Vietnamese, Thai, and Zulu, pitch differences help
to distinguish one word from another and may be the only differentiating feature between two or more words whose composition is the same in terms of consonants and vowels. Pitch differences used in these ways are called tones and these languages are called tone languages.
Stress, pitch, tone and intonation are also called suprasegmentals超切分音位because they relate to aspects of pronunciation that go beyond the production of individual segments.
Glossary
Phonetics: (语音学) the study of speech sounds; how they are produced in the
vocal tract (articulatory phonetics发音语音学)，their physical properties (acoustic phonetics声学语音学)，and how they are perceived (auditory phonetics 听觉语音学).
Phonology: (音系学) the study of the sound system of a language; how the
particular sounds contrast in each language to form an integrated system for encoding information and how such systems differ from one language to another.
V ocal folds: (声带) also vocal cords/lips/bands. Two muscular folds in the
larynx(喉) that vibrate as a source of sounds.
V ocal tract: (声道) the connected passages inside the head which form the system
used to produce speech. It starts at the larynx and includes the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavity.
Glottis: (声门) the aperture between the vocal folds.
Larynx: (喉头) the part of the trachea containing the vocal folds.
Palate: (硬腭) also known as the “hard palate”or the “roof of the mouth”; the
upper surface of the mouth where there is bone beneath the skin.
Soft palate: (软腭) also velum. The flap of soft tissue which forms the
continuation of the palate at the back of the mouth, and may be lowered to permit nasalization.
Trachea: (气管) the “windpipe”passes up from the lungs to the vocal tract
beginning with the larynx.
Uvula: (小舌) the small lobe hanging from the bottom of the soft palate.
Aspiration: (送气音) a puff of air that follows the release of a consonant when
there is a delay in the onset of voicing. It is symbolized by a superscript h (e.g. , [p h])
Phoneme: (音素，音位) the smallest unit of sound in a language which can
distinguish two words.
Minimal pair: (最小语对) two words in a language that differ only by a single
distinctive sound (one phoneme) in the same position and have different meanings, e.g., pin and bin.
Allophone: (音位变体) one of a set of nondistinctive realizations of the same
phoneme. ([])
Complementary distribution: (互补分布) the occurrence of sounds in language
such that they are never found in the same phonetic environment. Sounds that are in complementary distribution are allophones of the same phoneme.
Free variation: (自由变异) term used to refer to two sounds that occur in
overlapping environments but cause no distinction in the meaning of their respective words.
Distinctive feature: (区别性特征) a particular characteristic which distinguishes
one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group. For example, in the English sound system, one distinctive feature which distinguishes the /p/ in pin from the /b/ in bin is VOICE.
Stress: (重音) the increased duration and loudness of a syllable compared to other
syllables in the same word.
Pitch: (音高) the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.
Tone: (声调) the distinctive pitch level of a syllable.
Suprasegmental: (超切分音位) a vocal effect extending over more than one
segment, e.g. , tone, length, and stress.
International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA): (国际音标) a system of symbols for
representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the international phonetic association.
Chapter4 morphology
Words are not the smallest unit of meaning. They are composed of smaller units
of meaning, called morphemes. Morphemes are the minimal language units.
Morphology deals with word structure.
1.Free morphemes—morphemes that can stand alone as a word.
1)Many words are themselves morphemes, such as big and book. They cannot be
broken into smaller units that in themselves carry meaning.
2)Many other words are created by joining together two morphemes, e.g.blackboard,
in which the two morphemes black and board can be recognized as meaningful words by themselves.
2.Bound morpheme, which occurs only when attached to another morpheme, such
as -ly in happily and un-in unhappy.
Such bound morphemes are called affixes, including the prefixes and the suffixes. The function of an affix can be derivational派生的，衍生的or inflectional屈折的.
1) A derivational morpheme is one that is added to a root to form a new word that
differs, usually, in its part-of-speech词性classification. For example, when the suffix-ness is added to the adjective happy, the noun happiness is formed.
Prefixes as derivational morphemes usually change the basic meaning of a word but do not change its part- of-speech classification .（即系本来系动词就系动词）
2)Infix
3)An inflectional morpheme indicates certain grammatical properties associated
with nouns and verbs, such as gender, number, case, and tense. Unlike highly inflected languages such as Latin, English has very few inflectional morphemes.
In English, the inflectional morphemes are all suffixes. The suffix -s, which indicates plurality in nouns as well as the third-person singular in verbs, is an inflectional morpheme; the past tense suffix-ed, which is added to verbs, is another.
According to Wilhelm von Humboldt, languages of the world can be classified
morphologically into three types: isolating, inflecting, and agglutinating.
1.An isolating language is also called an analytic language or root language, in
which all the words are invariable. Chinese, Vietnamese and Samoan are typical cases.
2.An inflecting language is also called a synthetic language or fusional language, in
which grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words—typically by the use of inflectional endings which express several
grammatical meanings at once. Latin, Greek, and Arabic are clear cases.
3.An agglutinating language is also called agglutinative language, in which a word
typically consists of a neat linear sequence of morphemes, all clearly
recognizable. Turkish, Finnish, Japanese, and Swahiliare usual cases.
Morphemes in Chinese
Chinese is regarded as a typical analytical language and also has some inflectional and agglutinating structures.
Most of Chinese free morphemes are monosyllabic because Chinese is a tone language.
Compound
Compounding is a process that forms new words not by means of affixes but from two or more independent words. Compounds are different from phrases in that they symbolize an integrated整体的concept.
There are different semantic relationships within the morphemes comprising a compound.
Idiomatic power
Idiomatic 惯用的，成语的expressions: metaphoric(e.g. I'm really tied up无法分身.)，allusive(e.g. the ruling party met its Waterloo 毁灭性的打击in the new election.), a majority are institutionalized.
Glossary
Morpheme: (词素) smallest linguistic unit that can have a meaning or
grammatical function.
Morphology: (形态学) the study of word-making and word-marking. On the one
hand, morphology examines meaning relationships between words and the ways in which these connections are indicated. On the other, morphology looks at how grammatical relationships between words are marked. (G. Tserdanelis& W. Wong: Language files)
Also the study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words
are formed, is called morphology. (V. Fromkin&R. Roman: An Introduction to Language)
Free morphemes: (自由词素) morphemes that can stand alone as a word.
Bound morphemes: (粘着词素) morpheme that always attaches to other
morphemes, never existing as a word itself.
Affix: (词缀) a bound morpheme that changes the meaning or syntactic function
of the words to which it attaches. Prefixes, infixes and suffixes are the three types of affixes.
Prefix: (前缀) an affix that attaches to the beginning of a stem.
Suffix: (后缀) an affix that attaches to the end of a stem
Infix: (中缀) a type of bound morpheme that is inserted in to the root.
Derivational morpheme: (派生词素) morphemes that change the meaning or
lexical category of the words to which they attach.
Inflectional morphemes: (屈折词素) morphemes that serve a purely grammatical
function, never creating a new word but only a different form of same word.
Isolating language: (孤立语) also analytic language. A type of language in
which words consist mainly of one morpheme and sentences are composed of sequences of these free morphemes. Grammatical relationships are often indicated by word order. Examples are Chinese and Vietnamese.
Inflecting language: (屈折语) also fusional language. A language in which the
form of a word changes to show a change in meaning or grammatical function.
Agglutinating language: (粘着语) a language in which various affixes may be
added to the stem of a word to add to its meaning or to show its grammatical function.
Compound: (复合词) a word that is formed by combining two or more words.
Idioms: (习语) an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning
cannot be worked out from its separate parts.
Collocation: (搭配) the way in which words are used together regularly.
Stem: (词干) the part of a word that serves as a base for forming new words by
the addition of affixes. For example, work is the stem of worker; worker is the stem of workers.
Tone language: (声调语言) a language in which word meanings or grammatical
contrasts are conveyed by variations in tone.
Synthetic languages: (综合语) language in which affixes are attached to other
morphemes, so that a word may be made up of several meaningful elements including inflecting languages and agglutinating languages.
Chapter5 syntax
Syntactic tree of a sentence reveals that the relationship between the phrases of a
sentence is not linear but hierarchical.
Family tree sequence次序is top-down; syntactic tree sequence is bottom-up. The bottom-up process in sentence production is called merging合并.
S=NP+VP(V+NP)
The two words of the VP play different roles----head and complement. A head of a phrase is the key word which determines the properties of the phrase.
The I (inflectional morpheme) plays an essential role in merging an NP and a VP
into a sentence.
S→IP=NP+VP(V+NP)
Two groups of syntactical categories:
lexical categories and functional categories.
1.Lexical categories: all the content words, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs
2.Functional category: any word or morpheme which has no descriptive content
and which serves an essentially grammatical function belongs to a. A functional category plays a role like glue in combining content words into phrases and phrases into a sentence.
XP can be defined as the maximal projection headed by X, and X itself, i. e. the
head, as the minimal projection.
I is a functional category devised by Chomsky whose members include not only
inflectional morphemes but also finite auxiliaries限定助动词(which are inflected for tense/agreement ) , and the infinitival particle to.
CP refers to complementizer phrase and can be found in analysis of complex
sentence as well as wh-questions and topicalization.
When a constituent is made the topic of a sentence, it may be moved into a more prominent position at the front of the sentence. This process is called topicalization.话题化Topicalization does not involve a dummy movement, unless the topicalized constituent is negative.
Glossary
Syntax: (句法学) syntax is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal
structure of sentences and the relationship among their component parts.
Content word: (实词) words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action and
which have meaning when the words are used alone. Content words are mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
Sentence: (句子) the largest linguistic unit which is held together by rigid
grammatical rules.
Specifier: (指示语) the grammatical function fulfilled by certain types of
constituent which (in English ) precede the head of their containing phrase.
Complement: (补语) in X-bar theory, a syntactic unit that is defined as the sister
to the head of a phrase.
X-bar theory: (X-阶标理论) an approach to syntax which attempts to show the
general principles of language rather than deal with the structures of one particular language. “X” is a variable denoting any word category concerned.
Projection: (投射) a constituent which is an expansion of a head word. For
example, a noun phrase such as students of linguistics is a projection of its head noun students.
Topicalization: (话题化) A device which marks sth as a topic by simply moving
the topic to the front of the sentence, as in This book I can’t recommend. Chapter6 semantics
Proposition
An information receiver usually focuses his attention on the meaning of a sentence rather than the form.
When we put a sentence in our mind by reading or listening, our mind will immediately treat it as a set of meaning units, called propositions.
The core of a proposition is a verb.
1.An intransitive verb----1 NP-the subject(external argument);
2.An simple transitive verb----2 NPs-subject(external argument) and object(internal
argument);
3.An ditransitive verb 双宾语动词----3 NPs-subject(external argument), direct
object and indirect object(internal argument);
4.An unusual verb in English, rain, requires no NPs.
NPs required by a verb are called its arguments论元.
Formula: predicate V(external argument, internal argument(s))
e.g. , win (the son, horse)
In a addition to its arguments, a verb very often permits some further phrases, which are optional. These optional phrases are adjuncts附加成分，修饰成分, which are expressed most often as prepositional phrases or adverbial phrases in English.
Theta theory(orθ-theory)题元理论is concerned with assigning thematic roles
（θ-role）to the arguments of verbs.
Theta-roles:
1.Agent: instigator发起者of some action. E.g. John threw the ball.
2.Theme: entity实体，实质undergoing the effect of some action. Often a theme is
accusative宾格(and can be called a patient as well), e.g. John hit the cat; however, it is nominative主格with a few verbs like fall, die, etc. e.g. The cat(accusative)died.
3.Experiencer: entity experiencing some psychological state. E.g. John was happy.
4.Benefactive（受益格的）: entity benefiting from some action. E.g. Mary bought
some chocolate for John.
5.Recipient: entity receiving some entity. E.g. John got Mary a present (patient).
6.Instrument: means by which sth comes about. E.g. Joanna dug the garden with a
spade.
7.Locative: place in which sth is situated. E.g. John put the washing in the bin.
8.Goal: entity towards which sth moves. E.g. Mary passed the plate to John.
9.Source: entity from which sth moves. E.g. John returned from London.
和动词最密切的是theme，及物动词的theme是object，不及物动词的theme是subject。
Theta theory enables us to reveal some semantic differences that are not reflected in the syntactic structure demonstrated by X-bar tree diagrams.
As for verbs, the lexicon contains information about their transitivity, their argument structure, and the theta roles that can be assigned to their arguments.
The output of the grammatical system consists of two levels of description:
1.the phonetic description for the generated sentence to be spoken out
2.the semantic description which logically represents the meaning the speaker
would like to convey through uttering the sentence.
Glossary
Semantics: (语义学) semantics as a subfield of linguistics is the study of meaning
of language. Semantics deals with the meanings of words, and how the meanings of sentences are derived of them.
Proposition: (命题) the basic meaning which a sentence expresses. A proposition
consists of (a) sth which is named or talked about (known as the argument, or entity) (b) an assertion or predication which is made about the argument. A proposition comprises a predicate V and a set of arguments. Besides, a sentence may express or imply more than one proposition.
Argument: (论元，主目语) a term used by linguists to describe the role played by
particular entities in the semantic structure of sentences. Verbs require 0 to several arguments. It is the number and nature of the arguments they require that distinguish them grammatically. For example, the verb give requires three arguments. In the sentence, He gave me a ticket yesterday, He, me, and a ticket are the three arguments, but yesterday is an optional element which is not part of the sentence’s argument structure. Information about the arguments required by verbs in contained in our mental lexicon and plays a vital part in the construction of well-formed sentences.
Theta role(θ-role): (题元角色) the semantic role played by an argument in
relation to its predicate.
Chapter7 semantics
Language is symbolic, but not all symbols belong to language. In addition to
symbols, there are icons and indexes which also convey meaning. Semiotics investigates the types of relationships that may exist between a sign and the object it represents. (the research objects of a more general field) E.g. , Picasso is an icon of modernism; smoke is an index of fire. (such relationships are beyond the reach of semantics. )
Semantics can be regarded as a part of this extensive effort, with its particular
emphasis on linguistic meaning.
John I. Saeed, a contemporary authority in this field, proposes a more proper definition: semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language. Language is the vehicle, and meaning is the cargo.
Every argument has a theta role assigned from the predicate according to the theory.
Semantic features are defined as a class of theoretical constructs developed in
analogy to the distinctive features of phonology—they are considered to be the smallest semantic units for the description of linguistic expressions and their semantic relations.
She was the only man in her cabinet. Man---hard, iron handy. The word man is used as a metaphor. When a word is used as a metaphor, it will not keep all the features of its conceptual meaning, but will highlight a certain associative property of its connotative meaning, according to Leech.
Signifier vs. signified
Saussurean arbitrariness,which claims that the relationship between a linguistic sign( signifier) and its content ( signified) is arbitrary.
There is not a direct link between the sound of a word and the object it refers to. Ogden& Richards’ Semantic Triangle
According to Ogd en and Richards, the “symbol” refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent” refer s to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought”“reference” refers to concept or notion.
Denotation vs. connotation
Meaning falls into at least two categories--denotative and connotative.
1.Most signs have at least one normal, “common sense” meanin g, called the sign’s
denotation, is shared among many people and is the most widely used meaning of the sign. The denotative meaning is not necessarily generated in such a process, but has long been an agreement among all the people in a community.
2.But sig ns may also have many different “subjective”meanings that arise from
each individual’s personal experiences. These are called the connotations of the sign. A concept in an individual’s mind is mostly the connotative meaning, formed through one’s perception of some features of the object a sign refers to. The connection between the concept of a sign and the object it refers to is made through experience.
Pierce’s Semiotic Triangle
Charles S. Pierce is generally acknowledged as an important pioneer in the study of signs.
1.Perception--the ongoing group of bodily processes by which human beings
receive data about their environments
2.Experience--the memory of previous perceptions and concepts, which is
constantly being altered or “updated” by new experience
3.Convention--the constantly changing social “rules of meaning” that unify groups
of people within their communication environments.
Meaning vs. function
Some semantic properties of the words we use to think and talk about the world are automatically captured by the resources of our human minds.
All these dimensions of internalized semantic knowledge, namely a)synonymy同义, b)contradiction反义, c)entailment蕴含, d) presupposition前提, e) ambiguity, f)inclusive-exclusive distinction 包含和不包含, g) metaphorical interpretation, h) infelicity不恰当, can be attributed to properties of I-meaning proposed by Chomsky ( 2000 ).
The semantic properties of words are used to think and talk about the world in terms of the perspectives made available by the resources of the mind. (Chomsky)
I-meaning is the human genetic faculty in calculating the logic in meaning.
The real meaning in communication is contextual meaning. Without context, a sentence conveys only literal information.
Glossary
Semiotics: (符号学) the study of the social production of meaning from sign
systems.
Semantic feature: (语义特征) also semantic component. An element of a word’s
meaning, e.g. girl→young, female, human.
Denotation: (指示意义) the core meaning of a lexical item that relates it to
phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world. For example, the denotation of the English word “bird”is a two-legged, winged, egg-laying, warm-blooded creature with a beak.
Connotation: (内涵意义) the additional meanings that a word or phrase has
beyond its central meaning. These meanings show people’s emotions and attitudes towards what the word or phrase refers to. Some connotations may be shared by a group of people of the same cultural or social background, sex, or age;
others may be restricted to one or several individuals and depend on their personal experience.
Icon: (图像符号) a sign whose form mirrors its meaning in some respects; e.g. a
diagram of an engine is the icon of the real engine
Index: (标示符号) a sign which is closely associated with its signified, often in a
causal relationship; e.g. smoke is an index of fire.
I-meaning: (内化意义) the semantic properties of word used to think and talk
about the world in terms of the perspectives made available by the resources of the mind.
Homonyms: (同音同形异义词) two or more distinct words with the same
pronunciation and spelling but different meaning (e.g. pool table and swimming pool)
Homophones: (同音异形异义词) two or more distinct words with the same
pronunciation but different meanings and spellings (e.g., two, too, to)
Chapter8 functional grammar
Researchers focus on the exploration of the internal mechanisms of language, i.e. the way the human mind structures language, instead of describing the general patterns which emerge in the use of language. The former approach is referred to by Chomsky as I-language (or internalized language), and the latter E-language (or externalized language).
position.
Given and new (information structure)
Linguists prefer to count the number of clauses in an utterance rather than the number of sentences. A clause embraces an information unit, i. e. given information + new information. The new information of a clause may become the given in formation of the next clause in an utterance so as to make a group of clauses cohesive in meaning.
1.One exception is the imperative clause祈使句, in which all the information is
effectively new. You is the given information.
2.Another exception is the dummy there and it, which carry no information at all,
but still have a role to play--to introduce new information.
Larsen-Freeman: Given-New distinction
Example: a wife asking sth to write with
Theme and Rheme (thematic structure)
According to Halliday, a Theme in English is always at the initial position of a clause, as “the point of departure” of the message carried by one clause. The rest of the clause is called Rheme. For example, John sat in the front seat. The first NP John is t he Theme, and the rest is the Rheme.
The contrast is similar to the traditi onal grammar’s contrast between subject and predicate.
1.unmarked theme：the theme which is also the subject of the clause
2.marked theme: the theme which is not the subject but the complement or a
circumstantial adjunct of the clause (以subject开头，作为Theme的是unmarked，不以subject开头的是marked。)
Some clauses have more than one Theme. They are starting points of different levels, namely, topical, interpersonal and textual.
1.Interpersonal Theme: address listeners directly
eg: Mary, would you like to go shopping with me?
2.Textual Theme: signal the beginning of a new move in the exchange
eg: But I have to do some reading today!
3.Topical Theme: express the main topic of the clause
eg: But I have to …
Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) describes how information is distributed in sentences. (the Prague School of linguistics)
comment can either be a VP, or an NP + VP as As for food, Jonathan has never tasted
Functional grammar arouses more interest in typological observation.
A sentence is the largest unit of grammatical organization.
Sentences are generated from one's internalized syntactic knowledge, whereas paragraphs, chapters, and other levels of written texts are organized with the learned knowledge from school training.
Glossary
I-language: (内化语言) also internalized language . Language viewed as a set of rules and principles in the minds of the speakers, i.e. a computational system internalized with the brain.
E-language: (外化语言) also externalized language. Language viewed as a set of possible sentence. This concept is still an abstraction, distinct from actual utterances.
Theme: (主位) a term of systemic functional grammar, referring to the element at the beginning of a sentence that serves as the point of departure of the message; it is that with which the clause is concerned.
Rheme: (述位) a term of systemic functional grammar, referring to the part of the clause in which the Theme is developed.
Topic: (话题) in describing the information structure of sentences, the topic of a sentence is part of it which names the person, thing, or idea about which sth is said.
Comment: (述题) part of a sentence that says sth further about the topic of the sentence.
Functional grammar: (功能语法) functional grammar is an approach to
linguistics which is concerned with language as an instrument of social interaction rather than a system that is viewed in isolation. It considers the individual as a social being and investigates the way in which he acquires language and uses it in order to communicate with others in his social environment.
Chapter9 pragmatics
Ludwig Wittgenstein found that our daily speech can play countless roles if it is
woven into actions. He defined such activities as language games.
According to later Wittgenstein’s model, language should not be viewed as an abstract calculus微积分but as a tool, and the proper characterization of a linguistic expression must include an account of how it is used, and what it is used for. “Meaning is use”, he proposed, pertinently.
Wittgenstein's famous aphorism "The meaning of a word is its use in a language".
J. L. Austin: Speech Act Theory
(mainly concerns the communicators----speakers or writers)
He postulated the exquisite theory of speech acts, the aim of which is to explore how to do things with words, an effort to reveal the “game rules”.
Austin identified three classes of human activities with language, namely, locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.
1. A locutionary act以言指事is the saying of something which is meaningful and
can be understood;
2.An illocutionary act以言行事is using a sentence to perform a function;
3. A perlocutionary act以言成事is the results that are produced by means of saying
something.
Unlike logic-based theories of meanings, Austin’s Speech Act Theory reveals the functions performed by utterances in communication, especially the illocutionary act, i.e. “the act performed in saying something”, which corroborates证实，支持Wittgenstein’s argument that language is a tool.
The intended effect of a speech act is called its illocutionary force言外之力.
So J. Searle, the brilliant student and successor of Austin, developed Speech Act Theory to a new phase by emphasizing that all utterances are sayings and doings at the same time. According to Searle, no sentence can only perform a locutionary act.
Influenced by Searle and other researchers' work, the term speech act is often used to denote specifically an illocutionary act. Where the result of a saying is concerned, discussions are mostly around the expected effects such as commanding, offering, promising, thanking, apologizing, requesting, warning, threatening, all called illocutionary forces.
Pragmatics
The theory of speech acts was originally the brainchild创造of several philosophers
whose work gradually opened up a new field in linguistics-pragmatics.
Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader). Unlike semantics, it involves the interpretation of what people mean in a particular context and how the context influences what is said.
H.P.Grice: (also hearers)Intentional communication and conversational
implicature are two important propositions made by H.P.Grice, another British philosopher and founder of pragmatics, whose contribution, different from Austin's, is not only from the speaker's perspective but also from the hearer's. Context plays an essential role in fathoming the conversational implicature.
1.particularized conversational implicature: The shared knowledge for one specific
inference is different from that for another. An additional unstated meaning deduced in this way
2.generalized conversational implicature: an additional unstated meaning that does
not depend on any special knowledge
3.Not all inferences are implicatures.
Leech points out that “What does X mean?” is a question in semantics, and“What did you mean by X... ”is a question in pragmatics.
As G. Yule observes, pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said.
Cooperative principle:
The most significant contribution of Grice to pragmatics is the cooperative principle, by which conversational exchanges are governed. This principle holds that people in a conversation normally cooperate with one another, and that they assume that the others are cooperating to a maximum extent.
Grice breaks this principle down into four basic maxims准则.
1.Maxim of Quality质的准则: Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say
that for which you lack adequate evidence.(例子：Alice gave a wordy answer which made the mouse shake all over)
2.Maxim of Quantity量的准则: Make sure your contribution is as informative as is
required for the current purposes of the exchange ( i.e. not more or less informative) .(例子：吹嘘香肠机器的厉害)
3.Maxim of Relevance联系准则: Make your contribution relevant to the aims of
the ongoing conversation. ( It is also termed Maxim of Relation)（例子：女子站在路中央问警察路）
4.Maxim of Manner方式准则: Be clear. Try to avoid obscurity, ambiguity,
wordiness, and disorderliness in your use of language.(例子：男人和记者的对话中，男子把capital理解成资金。而记者本意是首都。)
The four maxims are susceptible易受影响和损害to violation and flouting. Flouting cooperative maxims is also a common skill in literary and artistic creations,
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
2020-2021浙江传媒学院新闻与传播（专硕）考研参考书、招生目录、考研经验、复试分数线汇总 本文将由新祥旭考研吴老师对浙江传媒学院新闻与传播专业考研进行解析，主要有以下几个板块：浙江传媒学院的介绍，学院专业的介绍，考研科目介绍，考研参考书目，近三年录取情况分析，及浙江传媒学院新闻与传播专业备考经验等几大方面。 浙江传媒学院 浙江传媒学院是目前全国培养广播影视及其他传媒专门人才的主要基地之一，素有“北有北广，南有浙广”之称。2010年，成为浙江省人民政府与国家新闻出版广播电影电视总局的省部共建高校。建校40多年来，学校为中央和地方传媒行业输送了大批专业人才。新闻与传播学院是浙江传媒学院历史最为悠久的二级学院，始建于1986年的新闻专业，2010年更名为新闻与传播学院。与学校共生长的历史，造就了新闻与传播学院深厚的文化底蕴。现有新闻系、传播系、编辑出版系3个系，有广播电视学、新闻学、编辑出版学、传播学、数字出版学5个专业，全日制在校本科生1100人。2012年开始招收新闻与传播专业硕士研究生，广播电视新闻学和新媒体传播两个方向全日制在校研究生70人。 一、浙江传媒学院新闻与传播考研招生目录
招生专业：055200新闻与传播（专业学位） 招生人数：103人 研究方向：01(全日制)广播电视新闻（含话语与传播、影视传播）02(全日制)新媒体传播 03(全日制)新闻与媒体管理 04(全日制)播音与主持 05(全日制)广告与品牌传播 考试科目： ① 101思想政治理论 ② 204 英语二 ③ 334新闻与传播专业综合能力 ④ 440新闻与传播专业基础 学制：2年 备注：同等学历加试两门主干课程 二、浙江传媒学院考研参考书目 334新闻与传播业务综合能力 《网络传播学》彭兰中国人民大学出版社 《新闻采访与写作》丁柏铨 《新媒体概论》石磊 《新闻评论教程》丁法章 《媒介管理学概论》邵培仁
1、选择题（2 ×15=30） 2、填空题（2×5=10 ） 3、搭配题(1×10=10) 4、名词解释题(4×5=20) 5、问题回答(5×3=15) 6、论述题(第39题7分，第40题8分) 选择题： 1. Which of the following is an initialism ? D. UN 2. The following are all nominal suffixes EXCEPT A. –ful . 3．Both English and B. Danish belong to the Germantic branch of the Indo-European language family. 4.Affixes added to the end of words to indicate grammatik relationships are known as C. inflectional morphemes. 5.Motiation accounts for the connection between word-form and C.its meaning. 6.Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and C.homonymy. 7.Affixes attached to other morphemes to create new words are known as B .derivational affixes. 8.The semantic unity of idioms is reflected in the A.illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom as in rain cats and dogs. https://www.doczj.com/doc/f110624813.html,ually a small number of languages have been designated official languages for an organization’s activities ,for example, the UN was established with five official languages English, French, A.Spanish Russian, and Chinese.中英俄法西
制校与学教育、学? 1.我国近代系一个正式实施的学制是癸卯学制双轨学制主要是在欧洲产生并发展的2. “教育不应再限制于学校的围墙之内”是非制度化的教育理3.想。教育从生产劳动中第一次分离的标志是学校的产生4. 义务教育依据“法律规定”，具有普及性、免费性、强迫性。5.教育制度的发展经历了从前制度化教育到制度化教育，再到非6.制度化教育7.制度化教育指向形成系统的各级各类学校中国近代制度化教育的标志是清朝末年的废科举、兴学校，中8.1903国近代系统完备的学制系统产生于1902年的壬寅学制以及年的癸卯学制终身教“年，埃德加·富尔在《学会生存》一书中确定了9.1972”思想，并提出了未来社会是“学习化社会”。育教育系统不仅包括学校教育，也包括家庭教育和社会教育10. 11.简述家庭教育、学校教育和社会教育的主要特点。 学校教育：教育目的明确，教育组织机构完善，有专门的教育场所，教育设备、图书资料、场地等较为完备。 家庭教育：教育内容生活化，教育方式情感化，教育时间的持久性，教育作用的显着性。社会教育：教育影响的多样化，对象和场景的开放性。 简述学校教育产生的条件12. 1.社会生产水平的提高为学校的产生提供了经济基础：生产工具的改进、手工业与农业逐渐分离、产生了商品生产、推动了原始社会向奴隶社会转化。奴隶社会生产力水平提高，奴隶创造大量社会财富，经济基础雄厚、提供接受教育的物质条件。生产力的发展使脑力可以脱离体力劳动，推动了文化教育的发展。教育作为一种精神活动，只有社会生产发展提供了必要条件时，才会出现专门从事教育的教师和脱离生产专门学习的学生。
2.文字的出现时学校产生的文化基础：早期文字是记载文化知识的唯一工具，文字是教学必不可活少的工具。早期文字复杂，使得学习文字比较艰难耗时，必须有专人教授，专心致志才能完成。文字本身包含了各种社会知识，使建立专门的教育机构基友了极大社会意义。 3.统治阶级巩固政权的需要是学校产生的社会政治基础：国家发展，阶级对立更加突出，奴隶主阶级为了加强控制，需要建立专门传授文化知识的机构，培养为他们服务的各种人才，锅里国家事务， 学校是在奴隶社会出现的，它的产生是人类物质生产不断扩大、生产力不断提高的结果。 13.简述我国现代学制形成的基本历程。 学制是一个国家各级各类学校的体系。它规定各级各类学校的性质、任务、入学条件、修业年限以及它们之间的衔接和关系。 19世纪60年代的洋务运动中，洋务派在自强求富的目的下，在全国办起了新式学堂，外国语、军事、科学技术学堂。这是西方学校教育制度在中国实施的先声，为中国现代学校教育制度的建立奠定了基础。 认识到了建立新学制、改革封建教育制度的重要性。1902年清政府颁布《情定学堂章程（壬寅学制）》，这是我国教育史第一个较完整学制，但未能实施。1904年，又颁布的《奏定学堂章程（癸卯学制）》，完整且棺椁实行，这宣告了中国现代学制的正式形成。这两种学制以日本学制为蓝本，中体西用思想，它们是中国第一次全面 引进西方教育制度，它们在中国现代教育制度的简历上具有里程碑的意义。 14.简述现代教育的特点和发展趋势。 1.进一步完善终身教育 2.义务教育的范围逐渐扩展，年限不断延长。 3.普通教育和职业教育向着综合统一的方向发展 4.高等教育大众化、普及化 社会、人、教育 1.社会要素的主要内容有社会生产力、文化传统、政治经济制度。 2.制约教育的社会因素有社会生产力、文化传统、政治经济制度
出自：《教育学导论》李剑萍魏薇 结语：专业化的教师与教育学 一、教育学 教育学是研究教育问题和教育现象、揭示教育规律的科学。 教育有广义和狭义之分，教育学的研究对象亦随之有所不同。通常，教育学以学校教育为主要研究对象，并兼及家庭教育和社会教育，而尤其注重研究学校教育中的普通基础教育。否则，通常将有特别说明，如家庭教育学、社会教育学、学前教育学、高等教育学、职业技术教育学、成人教育学、特殊教育学等。 所谓问题，一般指事物的关节点或矛盾的必须解决之处；所谓教育问题，一般指教育领域特别是教育实践领域的重点、难点、热点。教育现象则是教育本质的外部表现，既可能是直接的表现，也可能是间接的表现；既可能是完整的表现，也可能是零散的表现；既可能是正确的表现，也可能是歪曲的表现。 教育现象的范畴要比教育问题的范畴广得多，其中既有可称之为教育问题者，也有不能称之为教育问题者。教育学既要研究教育问题又要研究教育现象，其实反映了教育认识对象中一般与个别、普通与特殊的矛盾关系。对全部教育现象不分主次、不分轻重、不加选择地一一进行研究，不仅要耗费大量研究资源，而且实际上也无法做到。但如果仅仅局限于研究当前的教育问题，又可能以偏概全，挂一漏万。因为，囿于研究中的主客观条件，有些教育现象或许已经成为教育问题，可能已经是今后教育问题的根源，倘不及早着手，必将贻误将来。所以，教育研究对教育现象和教育问题都不能忽视，要在普遍调查基础上进行重点突破，要兼顾现实需要和长远利益，即学会“弹钢琴”，切不可一叶障目，不见森林。正所谓“凡事预则立，不预则废”，“虑不在千里之外，患必在几席之间”。 教育学研究教育问题和教育现象仅是手段，其目的在于揭示教育规律。规律是不以人的意志为转移的客观事物内在的本质联系及其发展变化的必然趋势，人们只能认识、掌握、利用规律，却不能创造、改变规律。教育学的任务，就是要认识揭示运用教育学规律，为确定教育教学工作的原则、方法、组织形式等提供科学依据。值得注意的是，教育工作尤其是教学工作，既是一门科学，又是一门艺术。要想成为一名优秀的教育工作者，除了必须努力学习教育理论，还应注意理论联系实际，用科学的教育理论指导教育实践，在教育实践中检验丰富发展教育理论。学过教育学的人未必真正懂得教育，也未必真正学会教学，但要想真正懂得教育、真正会教学，必须学习教育学。也就是说，学习教育学是成为一名优秀教师和教育工作者的必要条件，而非充分条件。那种认为学过教育学就会教学和不学教育学照样会教学的想法，都是错误的。 教育学和教育方针、政策、法规既有区别、又有联系。其区别在于：教育学以探讨教育的客观规律喂职志，而教育方针、政策、法规是统治阶级教育意志的反映。其联系在于：教育方针、政策法规想要顺利实施，促进教育事业的健康发展，就必须遵循教育的客观规律；同时，教育学也可以对教育方针、政策和法规是否符合教育规律做出评价、建议乃至批评。当然，从古至今的教育实际来看，教育方针、政策和法规并不总是符合教育规律，有时甚至逆规律而动，以致对教育事业造成严重损害；教育学也并非都能对教育方针、政策、法规作出正确评价，有时甚至曲意阿附，最终丧失自身的主体意识。此外，教育学也有别于教育经验。教育学的重要理论来源之一是对教育经验的概括和总结，但教育学反过来又对教育经验具有指导意义。总之，既不能把教育学等同于“教育政策解释学”，也不能将教育学等同于“教育经验汇编”。 二、教育学的形成与发展
李良荣《新闻学导论〉（高教版）笔记 绪论 1.新闻学:是以人类社会客观存在的新闻现象作为自己的研究对象，研究的重点是新闻事业和人类社会的关系，探索新闻事业的产生、发展的特殊规律和新闻工作的基本要求。 2.新闻学的中心议题:客观社会的诸条件对人类新闻活动的决定、支配作用以及新闻活动对社会的反作用。 3.中国新闻学的基础框架:徐宝璜的《新闻学大纲》、邵飘萍的《实际应用新闻学》、戈公振的《中国报学史》 4.学习新闻理论的意义: 第一.指导新闻工作者自觉地从事创造性的工作 第二.指导新闻事业不断地进行正确的改革 第三.指导我们以科学的态度对待国外新闻工作的理论和实践经验 第四.指导我们正确地吸收其他学科的成果 第一章新闻活动 第一节新闻活动是一种普遍的社会现象 第二节新闻活动是人类社会求生存图发展的需要 1.在原始社会，新闻活动是为了满足生存的需要。 结论:客观世界的变动关系到人类的生存；人类的社会性决定了人类从事新闻活动的需要；人类从事新闻活动的目的是为了了解客观世界的变动。 2.在奴隶社会，社会条件有了很大变化:产生了阶级和阶级斗争，出现了日益庞大的国家统治机器。出现了社会分工。社会关系比原始社会复杂。 人们不但需要了解自然界变动，还必须了解各种各样的社会关系的变动。 这就使奴隶社会的的新闻活动比原始社会频繁得多，规模大得多。 3.在封建社会，社会关系进一步复杂化，人们联系更加密切，社会对新闻需求量更大。 第一.国家形式更加完备，建立了中央集权制。 第二.常有战争和武装起义，需要新闻（情报）传递工作。 第三.农民需要了解一定的情况来维持正常的生产和生活。 第四.地主阶级需要用精神麻醉品奴化农民。 第五.分工明确，城镇出现，城乡、城镇内各行业之间联系频繁，需要有更多的新闻活动。 4.从奴隶到封建社会，新闻活动有两点共同: 第一.从事新闻活动的主要目的是为了了解客观世界的变动。 第二.从事新闻活动的原因是人类相互之间的联系和客观世界的永恒变动。 5.从奴隶到封建社会，新闻活动的发展: 1活动规模越来越大2内容大大丰富、复杂了3传递手段多样了 6.结论:变动产生新闻；关系决定需要。 第三节新闻活动的渠道 1.亲身传播:对象明确。针对性强，反馈快，互动快，不同方法交替使用。但传播面窄，速度慢，保真度差。 2.大众传播:无明确对象。速度快，传播面广，保真度好。但是反馈慢，互动性差。 3.群体传播:既是定向又是无定向传播。 第二章新闻 第一节新闻的基本特点 1.新闻与生俱来的两个基本特点:一是真实，二是新鲜，由此延伸出新闻报道上迅速及时的要求。这两电视新闻最为基本、最为核心的规律。 2.新闻的基本特点并非人为规定，而是出于人类求生存、求发展的需要。 3.从原始人到现代人，人类传播新闻的手段日趋丰富、复杂，但新闻的真实、迅速的特点并没改变，改变的仅仅是人们对新闻真实、迅速要求的程度不同。 4.在现代社会，真实、迅速决定新闻工作的方向，塑造新闻工作者的品格，决定媒介的形式和技术的采用。 1 新闻归根到底是依靠真实和迅捷吸引受众。 2 人类对于传播工具的选择归根到底是由新闻特性决定。 3 真实和迅速的要求还决定了对新闻工作者素质的基本要求:首先必须诚实，公正和严谨，其次必须有敏锐的反应和判断能力。 第二节两种新闻定义 1.新闻是新近发生事实的报道。
一、选择题 1．—Dad, are you ________this afternoon? —Yes, I have no time to play with you, Mary. A．late B．free C．busy D．happy 2．We’d better finish our work ________ one go. Don’t put it off till next time. A．in B．to C．on D．for 3．—Jerry looks so tired. He works too hard. —He has to ________ a family of four on his own. A．offer B．support C．provide D．remain 4．I don’t want to go. __________, I am too tired. A．However B．And C．Besides D．But 5．When I as well as my cousins __________ as a volunteer in Beijing, I saw the Water Cube twice. A．were treated B．treated C．was served D．served 6．He can’t wait to get a ticket to the movie, so he________ for it yesterday. A．spent B．paid C．took D．cost 7．You should be careful to pay over the Internet, ________it’s not always safe. A．so B．because C．after D．as soon as 8．—Look! It’s raining________ outside. —Yes, it is. It has been dry for many days, and the rain is good for crops. A．heavily B．hardly C．quietly D．badly 9．—Can you ________ some of the famous tourist attractions in Paris? —Sure. There is Notre Dame, the Eiffel Tower, the Louvre, etc. A．call B．tell C．name D．talk 10．The next Olympic Games will be held in Japan________ 27th July 2020. A．on B．in C．at D．of 11．We 'll have a trip to America ______ February. A．of B．at C．on D．in 12．Remember to return the book to the school library in time, ________ you will be fined(罚款). A．or B．and C．but D．so 13．Your advice is very________to me. I’m sure our activity will be more meaningful. A．terrible B．comfortable C．impossible D．valuable 14．—Bill, do you like________? —Yes. They’re healthy. A．ice-cream B．carrots C．salad 15．—Which kind of food smells or tastes ? —Sorry, I don't know.
教育学概论重点 一、教育重点： 教育学的定义：教育是有意识地以影响人的身心发展为首要目标的社会活动。 教育的基本要素：教育者、学习者、教育影响包括教育内容和教育方法。 二、教育起源的基本观点重点： 1、生物起源论：法国社会科学家哲学家勒图尔诺，（动物界教育）。 2、心理起源论：美国心理学家保罗孟禄 3、劳动起源论：马克思历史唯物主义理论指导下形成的。 三、教育的形态与发展。 1、非制度化教育的基本特征：教育的非独立性；教育的原始性；教育的平等性 2、制度化教育的基本特征： 农业社会教育：学校教育的出现；教育具有鲜明的阶级性和等级性；教育内容与生产劳动严重分离；采用个别教学的形式。 工业社会的教育：教育与生产劳动相结合；教育具有普及义务性；教育制度系统化；教育组织形式和教学方法多样化。 信息社会的教育：教育终身化；人性化；民主化；国际化。 四、现当代中国教育的发展。 1、基础教育：学前教育、义务教育、基础教育课程改革。 2、职业教育重点： 职业教育是指使学习者获得某种职业或生产劳动所需要的职业知识、职业技能和职业道德的教育。 趋势：战略地位更加突出；职业教育体系日趋完善；提高质量成为职业教育改革发展的核心；国际化水平不断提高。 3、高等教育：高等教育空间的多元化；对象的大众化；合作国际化；教学、科研、产业一体化。 4、终身教育趋势重点：学习型社会的形成；形成创新型实践性人才培养模式；以远程教育为主，多种教育模式共存。 五、教育学的产生与发展 1、教育学的萌芽 孔子的论语：“有教无类”、“因材施教”、“温故而知新”。 孟子的学生乐正克的《学记》是世界上最早的专门的教育文献。 韩愈的师说：论述了教师的重要作用、从师学习的必要性以及择师的原则。 苏格拉底的“产婆术”教育方法被视为西方启发式教学法的渊源。 柏拉图的理想国：提出了由国家统一管理的系统的教育制度。 亚里士多德的政治学：首次提出了体育、德育、智育和谐发展的教育观。 昆体良的雄辩术原理：认为教育的最高目的在于培养演说家，提出来分班教学、教学适度。世界上第一部系统研究教学法的着作。 2、教育学的创立 培根于1623年撰写论科学的价值和发展：首次提出把教育学视为独立学科的开始。 夸美纽斯《大教学论》：被视为教育学作为独立学科的开始。 赫尔巴特《普通教育学》：1806年出版，此书是教育学作为一门规范学科形成的标志，被公认为是第一本现代教育学着作。 英国哲学家洛克：绅士教育理论体系。 法国卢梭《爱弥儿》：自然教育理论、以儿童为中心，教育必须适应儿童的自然天性。 王国维翻译的教育学：被视为教育学在中国的开端。 3、教育学的发展 实验教育学代表人物及着作：德国的梅伊曼、实验教育纲要。 文化教育学代表人物及着作：德国狄尔泰、关于普遍妥当的教育学的可能。斯普朗格、教育与文化。实用主义教育思想主要观点及代表着作：杜威，我的教育信条、民主主义与教育。 “三中心”理论：以活动教学代替传统的课堂教学；以儿童的经验代替书本知识；以学生的主动活动代替教师主导。 克伯屈，克伯屈设计法。 4、教育学的深化 美国心理学家布卢姆、美国心理学家布鲁纳、法国的朗格朗的教育观点重点： 布卢姆在1956年制定了教育目标的分类系统：把教育目标分为认知目标、情感目标、动作目标，每种目标又分为不同的层次，排列成由低到高的阶梯。 朗格朗在1970年出版终身教育引论：提出了终身教育思想，要求把教育扩展到人的一生。 第二章教育与人 一、教育与人的发展 1、个体身心发展的概念：是指作为复杂整体的个体自生命开始到结束的全部人生过程中不断发生变化的过程，特别指个体的身心特点向积极方面变化的过程。 2、影响人的身心发展因素的主要观点： 单因素论和多因素论：遗传决定论；环境决定论（美国华生）；辐合论；诸因素交互作用论。 内发论与外铄论： 内因与外因相互作用论： 3、个体身心发展的一般规律重点：顺序性；阶段性；不平衡性；互补性；个别差异性。 4、影响个体发展诸因素及其作用： 遗传素质的作用：遗传素质是人身心发展的生理前提，为人的身心发展提供了可能。
《教育学导论》课程标准 第一部分课程说明 一、课程的性质和目的 本课程是学前教育专科等专业学历教育的一门专业性课程。 通过本门课程的学习，使学生掌握和领会教育科学的基本概念、基本原理和基本观点，树立正确的教育观，具有科学的方法论，形成应用教育理论解决教育实践问题的能力和方法，并为继续学习教育类专业其他课程奠定坚实的理论基础。 二、与相关课程的衔接、配合、分工 1．与现代教育原理课程的关系 从课程目标来看，教育学课程可以使学生对教育教学全过程有一个概括的、宏观的、全专业及小学教育专业本科课程，主要侧重现代教育理论的培养，教学目的是培养学生的教育理论思维能力，在层次上体现了其本科的教学要求。 从内容体系上看，教育学包括教育原理、教学论、德育论、课程论和学校管理等部分。教育原理是教育学内容体系的深化与扩展。 2．教育学同其他教育学科的关系 教育学是研究教育现象及一般教育规律的科学，属于教育科学体系中的基本学科，其内容体系具有基础性、系统性、综合性以及对教育教学实践的指导性等特点。 其他教育学科是在教育学的基础上逐步发展、分化而来的，研究的是教育某一方面规律的学科。因此，教育学与其他教育学科有着密切联系，其他教育学科的研究成果是教育学的补充，教育学是其他教育学科的基础，是学生学习其他教育类课程的基础课和前修课。 三、课程的教学基本要求 使学生掌握从事教育工作必需的教育基本理论、基本知识、基本技能，树立正确的教育观念；提高学生的教育理论水平，增强从事教育实践的能力；培养学生学习教育科学，主动参与中小学教育改革的兴趣和能力；增强学生热爱教育的事业心和责任感；提高学生加强教师师德和业务修养的自觉性；为进一步学习和研究打下基础。
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn
西南大学新闻传播学考研经验谈 报考建议 什么样的同学适合报考西南大学？ 西南大学意味着什么？ 1.就业：处在重庆地带，西南地区的院校，也是211院校，总体来说就业在重庆很好的（仅次于重庆大学，今年因为就业很好还上了中央电视台）其中农业偏向科研类。 2.导师资源：学院师资队伍学缘、学历、职称、年龄结构合理，可持续发展性强。现有教职工44人（含退休1人），专任教师30人，其中教授6人；副教授、高级工程师19人；获博士学位者17人，在读博士6人，具有博士后经历4人；现有博导4人，硕导14人，教育部新闻传播教学指导委员1人，重庆市名师1人，重庆市学术带头人2人，全国专业学会副会长2人。 3.学院资源：学院彰显“开放·融合·实践”的办学特色，已成为西部新闻传媒教育重镇。现有国家级精品课程1门（《写作》）、全国大学生精品通识课程1门（《写作》）；新闻传播学学科获批重庆市重点学科，新闻学专业获批重庆市特色专业，新闻采写教学团队被评为重庆市市级教学团队。学院教师先后出版国家级规划教材5部，专业教材40余部，建有新闻传播研究中心、文化传播研究中心、大后方电影研究中心、影视传播与道德教育研究中心等4个研究机构。 学院坚持“开放办学、国际化发展”，对外交流与合作日益频繁。学院先后与美国俄勒冈大学新闻传媒学院、英国格林姆斯比学院等多所大学和科研结构建立了学术交流、学生互换关系，先后聘请美国俄勒冈大学新闻传媒学院院长 Tim Gleason教授、加拿大西蒙菲莎大学赵月枝教授、中国传媒大学张振华教授、清华大学刘建明教授、北京大学龙协涛教授、中国传媒大学胡智锋教授、四川大学蒋晓丽教授等30余位国内外著名专家学者担任兼职教授，先后支持8名专业教师前往美国斯坦福大学、密歇根州立大学、伊利诺伊香槟分校，加拿大西蒙菲沙大学，香港中文大学、香港城市大学攻读博士学位或访学。 自2005年以来，学院共有46名学生赴国外（境外）名校交流和实习，占学生总人数的6.5%；有67人赴国（境）外知名高校或研究机构继续深造，占毕业总人数的9.5%；学院先后接收来自尼日利亚、泰国、越南、香港、台湾等国家和地区的留学生20余人。 4.考题分析：西南大学的题目基础和提高占比大概是7:3，所以需要同学们既然要牢牢把握住基础同时，对一些相对难度较大的内容进一步提升学习，同时，新闻业务考察内容相对比较多，所以复习的同时需要提高对新闻业务的锤炼。 学科评估排名 参考书目 参考书学硕专硕通用
一、选择题 1．Maria ________ speaks Chinese because she doesn’t know much Chinese. A．seldom B．always C．often D．usually 2．We’d better finish our work ________ one go. Don’t put it off till next time. A．in B．to C．on D．for 3．In modern life, shopping online is________ used by many people, especially for teenagers. A．exactly B．badly C．heavily D．widely 4．I once worked for a travel magazine for one year and the ________ helped me get a job as a reporter. A．experiment B．information C．experience D．instruction 5．Pay no attention to those who laugh at you. What __________ most is how you see yourself. A．matters B．minds C．cares D．counts 6．You should be careful to pay over the Internet, ________it’s not always safe. A．so B．because C．after D．as soon as 7．The song Where Is Time Gone sung by Diamond（张碧晨）________the yearly general champion of China’s Voice. A．lost B．won C．beat D．got 8．World Book Day takes place ________ April 23rd every year. A．at B．in C．on 9．I didn't know which dictionary was better, so I took ________. A．none B．neither C．each 10．We loved the food so much, ________the fish dishes. A．special B．especial C．specially D．especially 11．He wrote his phone number ________ a piece paper. A．on B．for C．in D．from 12．Remember to return the book to the school library in time, ________ you will be fined(罚款). A．or B．and C．but D．so 13．I’d like to________the mall because it’s crowded and noisy. A．visit B．hang out C．walk D．go off 14．—Bill, do you like________? —Yes. They’re healthy. A．ice-cream B．carrots C．salad 15．Jane always gets on well with other classmates. We make ________our monitor. A．she B．her C．him D．herself 16．The movie Amazing China is on show at the theater. Would you like to see it ________me. A．to B．for C．with D．about 17．Amy makes fewer mistakes than Frank. She does her homework .
环境---以围绕着人类的直接或间接影响人类生存与发展的自然和社会因素总和。 1、环境要素---又称环境基质，是指构成人类环境整体的各个独立的、性质不同的而又 服从整体演化规律的基本物质组分，分为自然环境要素和人工环境因素。 具有最小限制性、等值性、整体性、相互依存性等属性。 2、各环境要素的组成1）自然环境的组成和结构--无机环境：气、水、土、光、热、 声等；--生物环境：动物、植物、微生物 2）工程环境的组成和结构 3）社会环境的组成和结构--政治、经济、文化 3、环境质量---环境的优劣程度，环境价值与人类生存发展的需求之间的适宜程度。 4、环境的空间类型--聚落环境、地理环境、地质环境、宇宙环境 5、环境的功能特性--整体性、有限性（稳定性、资源、纳污能力）、环境容量、环境自 净力、不可逆性、滞后性、持续反应性、灾害放大性。 6、环境问题---广义：由自然力或人力引起生态平衡破坏，最后直接或间接影响人类的 生存和发展的一切客观存在的问题。狭义：只是由于人类的生产和生活活动，是自然生态系统失去平衡，反过来影响人类生存和发展的一切问题。 环境问题的分类---原生环境问题；次生环境问题：环境污染、生态平衡 上世纪世界八大公害事件 1）马斯河各烟雾事件，发生于1930年比利时马斯谷工业区，由于二氧化硫的粉尘，一周内近60人死亡，千人呼吸系统疾病。 2）洛杉矶光化学烟雾事件，发生于1943年美国洛杉矶，由于大量汽车尾气在紫外线照射下产生光化学烟雾，大量居民出现眼睛红肿、流泪等症状。 3）多诺拉烟雾事件，发生于1948年美国宾夕法尼亚州多诺拉镇，由于大气严重污染，有5900多人患病，17人死亡。 4）伦敦烟雾事件，发生于1952年英国伦敦，由于烟尘和二氧化硫在浓雾中积聚不散，先后死亡1万多人。 5）四日市事件，发生于1961年日本四日市，由于废气严重污染大气，许多居民患上哮喘病，多人死亡。 6）水俣病事件，发生于1953～1956年日本熊本县水俣市，人们食用被汞污染的鱼、贝等水生生物，造成大量居民中枢神经中毒，60多人死亡。 7）富山痛痛病事件，发生于1955～1972年日本富山县，人们食用用含镉废水污染的河化和稻米而中毒，死亡一百多人。 8）爱知米糠油事件，发生于1968年九州爱知县一带，人们食用含多氯联苯的米糠油后造成中毒，患者超过1万人，16人死亡。 一、生态学基础 7、生态系统---生命系统与环境系统在特定空间的组合。在自然界的一定空间内，生命 系统与环境系统构成的统一整体，在这个统一整体中，二者相互影响，相互制约，不断演变，并在一定时期内处于相对稳定的动态平衡状态。 生态系统的组成---生物成分：生产者、消费者和分解者 ---非生物成分：环境要素，包括温度、光照、大气、水、土壤、气候、各种矿物和非生物成分的有机质等。 8、生态系统的结构--形态结构空间、时间；营养结构 11、生态平衡--生态平衡应包括三个方面：即结构上的平衡、功能上的平衡，以及输入和输出物质数量上的平衡。如果某生态系统各组成成分在较长的时间内保持相对协调，物质和能量的输入和输出接近相等，结构和功能长期处于稳定状态，在外来干扰下，能
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).