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Panel estimation for income inequality and CO2 emissions

Panel estimation for income inequality and CO2 emissions
Panel estimation for income inequality and CO2 emissions

Panel estimation for income inequality and CO 2emissions:A regional analysis in

China

Chuanguo Zhang ?,Wei Zhao

School of Economics,Xiamen University,Xiamen 361005,PR China

h i g h l i g h t s

We investigated the impact of income and its inequality on China’s CO 2emissions. Income growth increases China’s CO 2emissions.

The effects of income growth on CO 2emissions vary across regions.

Income inequality impacts on CO 2emissions in Eastern and Western regions.

a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:

Received 24February 2014

Received in revised form 13September 2014Accepted 15September 2014Available online 2October 2014Keywords:

Income inequality CO 2emissions

Environmental Kuznets Curve

a b s t r a c t

With rapid economic growth,China is facing tremendous pressures of emission–reduction and serious income inequality issues.The existing research is concerned with the relationships between income inequality and CO 2emissions in recent years,but little attention has been paid to the regional differences in China.This paper investigated the impact of income and its inequality on CO 2emissions at the national and regional levels using the panel data from 1995to 2010in China.The empirical results show that income growth increases China’s CO 2emissions.The effects of income growth on CO 2emissions vary across regions.Further,the impact of income inequality on CO 2emissions in the Eastern region is greater than that in the Western region.This research reveals that a more equitable income distribution may help control CO 2emissions in developing China,and there is a win–win situation of income redistribution and emission–reduction.Our ?ndings merit particular attention from policy makers in China.

ó2014Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

1.Introduction

China has undergone rapid economic growth since the 1980s,and has passed Japan to become the world’s second-largest econ-omy.However,with rapid economic growth,China is facing serious challenges of massive carbon emissions;its emissions increased from 0.671billion metric tons in 1995to 2.248billion metric tons in 2010,and will increase to 10.300billion metric tons by 2035[2].The massive carbon emissions have not only caused ecological deterioration,a serious threat to sustainable development,but also brought tremendous international pressures of emission–reduc-tion [13].

Meanwhile,China is also facing serious income inequality issues.The Gini coef?cient,a rich-poor index,reached 0.47in China in 2012,higher than the warning level of 0.40set by the United Nations [43].Although income inequality is a common phenome-non in the process of rapid economic growth,fairer income distribution is a fundamental move to safeguard equity and justice as well as social stability and harmony.If the income gap continues to widen,it will become conducive to internal contradictions and social in stability.

As an inherent requirement of ‘‘building a harmonious society’’,China needs to develop an economy with emission–reduction strat-egy,and to solve the problems of equity and ef?ciency in order to prevent the country from stepping into the ‘‘middle-income trap’’.These issues have drawn nationwide attention in China.In the Out-line of the 12th Five-Year Plan,China aims to reduce CO 2emissions per unit of GDP by 17%compared with the 2010level.Income distri-bution reform was eventually introduced in February 5,2013after a ten year investigation process that started in 2004.Increased atten-tion to policy has provided renewed stimulus to investigating nexus between income disparity and emission–reduction in China.

In the existing literature,the relationships between income inequality and CO 2emissions have been discussed [23,18,12].Some scholars hold the view that income inequality is detrimental to carbon reduction efforts,while others maintain the effect is uncertain and time-varying.A consensus has not been reached in

https://www.doczj.com/doc/fd9515274.html,/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.0480306-2619/ó2014Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

?Corresponding author.Tel.:+8659213720898826;fax:+865922186366.

E-mail address:cgzhang@https://www.doczj.com/doc/fd9515274.html, (C.Zhang).

academic circles.Furthermore,China has vast territory and large regional differences,but little of the existing research is carried out with consideration for regional differences in China[15].

Our study investigated the relationship between income inequality and CO2emissions in China by whole and regional anal-yses based on the theoretical framework of Environmental Kuznets Curve(EKC),with a panel data covering28provinces in China over the period1995–2010.Considering regional differences in China, we divided the provincial database into three subsamples:the Eastern region,the Central region and the Western region.This paper aims to investigate whether the relationship between income inequality and CO2emissions differs across regions,and whether income redistribution goes hand in hand with emission–reduction in China.Our research merits particular attention from policy makers in China.

Some scholars are convinced that an imbalanced income distri-bution is detrimental to the improvement of environmental qual-ity.The pioneering study was published by Boyce[5]who argued that the greater inequalities of power and wealth lead to more environmental degradation resulting from an unequal income dis-tribution.Joan[17]also concluded that the imbalance of income distribution harms the improvement of environmental quality. Later,Torras and Boyce[37]and Magnani[24]introduced the pub-lic good choice approach to explain how the income inequality affects society’s environmental quality demand,and Marsiliani and Renstrom[25]conducted a similar study through the go-between theory,since the demand of the environment-goods is more?exible,the relative increased go-betweens with high level of income will consume more environment-friendly goods. Gawande et al.[11]adopted the GINI coef?cient to measure the gap in income distribution and con?rmed that a greater gap in

Fig.1.The map of China showing the three regions.

C.Zhang,W.Zhao/Applied Energy136(2014)382–392383

average better than the inland regions.Jun et al.[18]structured the econometric model and concluded that there is a negative relation-ship between income inequality and environmental quality.Golley and Meng[12]proposed that the redistribution of income from rich to poor households would reduce aggregate urban household emissions based on Chinese survey data.

In summary,the consensus regarding the relationship between income inequality and environmental quality has not been reached in academia.Most studies concentrate on investigating the rela-tionship between income inequality and carbon emissions from a national perspective without consideration of regional differences. This work is different from previous research in three aspects:First of all,this paper examined the determinants of CO2emissions using the Gini coef?cient as one explanatory variable with Chinese panel data.Secondly,we built a non-linear regression model based on EKC theory,and the model contained income inequality as an explanatory variable to reveal the effect on CO2emissions.Finally, the analysis in this paper was carried out both on whole country and on three regional levels.We divided the provincial database into three subsamples:the Eastern region(including Beijing,Tian-jin,Hebei,Liaoning,Shanghai,Jiangsu,Zhejiang,Fujian,Shandong and Guangdong provinces),the Central region(including Shanxi, Anhui,Jilin,Heilongjiang,Jiangxi,Henan,Hubei and Hunan prov-inces),and the Western region(including Sichuan,Guizhou,Yun-nan,Shannxi,Gansu,Qinghai,Ningxia,Xinjiang,Guangxi and Inner Mongolia provinces)(Fig.1).

3.Methodology

The EKC is a common theoretical framework used to investigate the relationship between economic growth and environmental problems.Torras and Boyce[37]assumed that the inequality power may be associated with the levels of pollution.Furthermore, Heerink et al.[14]con?rmed that income distributional issues can be brought explicitly in the discussion of EKC theory.Recent stud-ies[7,12]focus more on the pollution levels impacted by the income inequality factor.For example,Jun et al.[18]found income inequality can be used as an explanatory factor in EKC.The pollu-tion levels,taken as the environmental damage variable,are spec-i?ed as a function of income level.The equation can be written in the following form:

POL?b

0tb1y ktb2y2

k

tb3y3

k

tb4V kte ke1T

where POL denotes pollution levels,y is income per capita,and V is a vector of other variables.In particular,according to the EKC,the reduction in emissions at higher levels of income is driven by changes of other variables.Referring to Jun et al.and Du et al. [18,9],we use GDP per capita,Gini-coef?cient,composition of industry,technological improvements,rate of urbanization as the independent variables.To analyze the impact of income inequality on CO2emissions in China,our model takes the speci?cation as:

ln TC it?a itb1PGDP ittb2ePGDP itT2tb3ePGDP itT3th1GINI it th2EI itth3STR itth4URB ittf ite2T

where TC means total carbon emissions,an indicator of environ-mental quality;PGDP is GDP per capita;GINI denotes Gini-coef?-cient,measuring the degree of income inequality in EKC, introduced by Torras and Boyce[37];EI(energy intensity)is used to measure the technology improvement[2];STR(industry struc-ture)is the share of the industry sector in GDP,for usually the energy intensive industry emits more carbon and taking account of the share of industry can help us to capture possible variations in industry compositions over time;URB is a variable which mea-sures urbanization by using the percentage of non-agriculture pop-ulation.Transforming TC into logs,we focused on the log-level because the log-levels deliver substantially higher adjusted R2val-ues than the other equations,with signi?cant coef?cients of all the variables[12].This paper adopted the non-equal calculation method proposed by Thomas et al.[36]to calculate the GINI coef?-cients.Formulations are as follows:

GINI?

1

l

X N

i?2

X ià1

j?1

P i j y iày j j p je3TGINI?

X N

i?1

W i y

i

t2

X Nà1

i?1

W ie1àS iTà1e4T

where l stands for the expected value of the total income,N is the total population of the group divided,y i is the average income,P i is the proportion of the population of the i group in the whole,W i is the proportion of the whole population grouped in the whole and S i is the accumulation of y i from1to i.

As for the GINI coef?cient of the total residents,we calculated the urban and rural GINI coef?cient,respectively,for the income data in China are divided into separate group,urban and rural areas.Thus,we got GINI coef?cient for the total residents by the method of Sundrum[35]as follows:

GINI?p

u

l l

l GINI utp r

l l

l GINI rtp u p r

l

r

àl u

l

e5T

where GINI u and GINI r are the urban and rural GINI coef?cients, respectively;p u and p r are the proportion of urban population and rural population,respectively;l,l u and l r are the value of the income per capita of the whole,urban and rural residents,respectively.

Before estimating the model,we did the basic tests in two steps. First,to verify the stationary of the data series,several panel unit root tests were applied following the research of Coondoo and Dinda[7],including the ADF test,the Phillips–Perron test(PP) [30],the Levin,Lin and Chu test(LLC)[21]and Im,Pesaran and Shin (IPS)test[16].Second,to investigate the long-run equilibrium rela-tionship between the integrated variables,panel co-integration test was adopted[29].

We estimated the impact of income inequality on CO2emissions for the whole sample and the three regions in six different estima-tion methods:FE,White,Newey-West,DK,PCSE and FGLS,generat-ing24models.Considering of heterogeneity bias,the FE estimation, a within estimator being consistent and valid for?xed effects model,was applied following the Robust Hausman test.Moreover, group-wise heteroskedasticity,autocorrelation and cross-sectional independence may exist within the dataset,so White,Newey–West and DK were used to determine more reliable estimation methods when the classic hypotheses were violated.By the White[42]and Newey–West[28]tests for panel-data models,we con?rmed the presence of heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation in the all mod-els.DK[8]was carried out to detect cross-sectional correlation.In addition,FGLS(the feasible generalized least squares)and PCSE (the linear regression with panel-corrected standard errors)were applied to deliver more reliable estimators as reference.FGLS is suitable in panel when T>N and the standard errors would under-estimate true variability[4],while PCSE is for panel when N>T and the estimated coef?cients would be with Prais–Winsten adjusted regression.Both FGLS and PCSE as reference models are supplied.

4.Data description

4.1.Data source

We used a balanced panel dataset of28provinces in China over the period1995–2010.The data of GDP was collected from China Statistic Yearbook,was standardized to a constant price.The data of the provincial demographics and the urban population were

384 C.Zhang,W.Zhao/Applied Energy136(2014)382–392

collected from China Statistical Yearbook and China Compendium of Statistics,respectively.The share of industry sector in GDP was drawn from China Compendium of Statistics.In addition,the data of energy use were provided by China Energy Statistical Yearbook. And the data of CO2emissions was calculated according to the for-mula provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)(2006)(Provided by website:http://www.ipcc-nggip.ige-s.or.jp/).Table1gives de?nition of the variables:

4.2.Data description

Figs.2and3re?ect GDP per capita and CO2emissions of the Eastern,Central and Western regions as well as the whole country from1995to2010.Both GDP per capita and CO2emissions in China rose rapidly during1995to2010.GDP per capita in the Eastern region grew fastest,followed by the Central and Western regions,with a gradually widening gap.CO2emissions increased gradually before2002,and accelerated thereafter.The Eastern region had more emissions than the Central or Western region, showing that the region with higher income also produced more CO2emissions in China.This is in line with the view of Clarke-Sather et al.[6]that CO2emissions in more developed regions of China are still more than those in less developed regions.It is also notable that the share of CO2emissions in the Western region changed from20.9%in1995to24.8%in2010,with highest increase rate among three regions.

Fig.4illustrates the tendency of GINI coef?cient of the Eastern, Central and Western regions as well as the whole country from 1995to2010.Income inequality in three regions showed a similar pattern of upward?uctuations,with varying slightly after2002 and then decreasing in2010.And income inequality in the Western region is higher than that in the Central and Eastern regions.

Table1

De?nition of variables and acronyms.

Variable Units of measure De?nition

Total CO2emissions(TC)10,000tons Total CO2emissions

GDP Per capita(PGDP)Yuan per capita(1952prices)GDP divided by population at the end of the year

Gini-coef?cient(GINI)—Measure difference of income distribution

Energy intensity(EI)Tce per10,000Yuan Total energy use divided by GDP

Share of industry sector(STR)Percent The ratio of industry sector value added in GDP

Urbanization(URB)Percent The percentage of the urban population in total population

The data of Xizang,Hainan,Hong Kong,Macao and Taiwan are

excluded.

C.Zhang,W.Zhao/Applied Energy136(2014)382–392385

5.Empirical results

As shown in Tables A–D in appendix,ADF,PP,LLC and IPS tests cannot reject the null hypothesis at levels.We applied the same tests to the?rst differences,and all the statistics reject null of no unit roots,so all time series in the panel are?rst difference station-ary.The long-term relationships among variables at the whole country and the three regions levels are in Table2.

As reported from Tables3–6,all combined F-stats robustly reject the null hypothesis.At the national level,all the three stats are signi?cant at the level of1%,illustrating the existence of group-wise heteroskedasticity,within-correlation and cross-sec-tional dependence.The Wald-stat and F-stat are signi?cant while the CD-stat is not at the level of1%in the Eastern region.For the Central and the Western regions,all stats are signi?cant.As for the estimation results,we focus on DK estimation(model4,16

Table2

Panel co-integration test.

Statistics Whole country Eastern region Central region Western region

Panel v-Statisticà3.1170***à1.4840à1.7170*à3.3550***

Panel q-Statistic 3.7260*** 2.9150*** 2.5820** 2.0940**

Panel pp-Statisticà12.3270***à5.9840***à2.5310**à21.0550***

Panel ADF-Statisticà5.2640***à6.1680**à3.7370***à7.5330***

Group q-Statistic 5.7970*** 4.2230*** 3.2850*** 3.2940***

Group pp-Statisticà19.4770***à7.6650***à6.8340***à25.2670***

Group ADF-Statisticà3.4090***à6.3460***à4.5410***à7.0140***

*Means signi?cant at con?dence level10%.

**Means signi?cant at con?dence level5%.

***Means signi?cant at con?dence level1%.

Table3

Panel estimation:carbon emissions in whole country.

FE(1)White(2)N–W(3)DK(4)PCSE(5)FGLS(6)

PGDP 3.243e-04*** 3.243e-04*** 3.243e-04*** 3.243e-04*** 3.585e-04*** 3.526e-04***

(1.510e-05)(3.120e-05)(3.880e-05)(1.070e-05)(2.820e-05)(1.150e-05)

(PGDP)2à1.750e-08***à1.750e-08***à1.750e-08***à1.750e-08***à2.020e-08***à1.990e-08***

(1.060e-09)(2.130e-09)(2.610e-09)(1.610e-09)(2.020e-09)(6.910e-10)

(PGDP)3 2.910e-13*** 2.910e-13*** 2.910e-13*** 2.910e-13*** 3.310e-13*** 3.260e-13***

(2.060e-14)(4.090e-14)(4.920e-14)(2.920e-14)(4.010e-14)(1.180e-14)

GINI 2.4953*** 2.4953*** 2.4953*** 2.4953*** 1.2869***0.8707***

(0.2786)(0.3432)(0.4616)(0.1821)(0.5141)(0.1417)

EI0.0419***0.0419***0.0419***0.0419***0.0260***0.0274***

(0.0055)(0.0087)(0.0117)(0.0069)(0.0095)(0.0021)

STR0.0179***0.0179***0.0179***0.0179***0.0042**0.0033***

(0.0059)(0.0064)(0.0065)(0.0056)(0.0019)(0.0007)

URB-0.0010-0.0009-0.0009-0.00090.00140.0007**

(0.0011)(0.0015)(0.0021)(0.0011)(0.0011)(0.0003)

Cons 6.8908*** 6.8908*** 6.3237*** 6.8908*** 6.8914***7.1122***

(0.1369)(0.2079)(0.1606)(0.1064)(0.1783)(0.0824)

Province——Yes Yes Yes Yes Year——————R20.86000.86000.86000.9898

Robust Hausman test F-stat=2.900e+13***

Heteroskedasticity test chi2(28)=1478.6400***

Autocorrelation test F(1,27)=69.4990***

Cross-sectional independence test CD=13.6710***

Obs.448448448448448448

**Means signi?cant at con?dence level5%.

***Means signi?cant at con?dence level1%.Figures in parentheses are the standard errors.

386 C.Zhang,W.Zhao/Applied Energy136(2014)382–392

and22),while putting emphasis on N-W estimation for the Eastern region(model9).Reference models are supplied when coef?cients in DK or Newey–West are failed in t-tests.We choose PCSE for national case(model5)and FGLS for three regions(model12,18 and24).

5.1.Whole analysis

The empirical results of panel estimation at the national level are shown in Table3.It can be seen that apart from the coef?cient of urbanization,those of other variables are statistically signi?cant at the1%level(model4).The coef?cient of GDP per capita(3.243e-04)is signi?cantly positive,implying that CO2emissions will increase when China’s GDP per capita is improved.The square and cubic coef?cients of GDP per capita are estimated at the same time.The coef?cient of square is negative,while the cubic is posi-tive,showing that the income levels rise corresponds to a non-monotonic but eventually continuous increase in CO2emissions.

The coef?cient of GINI is2.4953,implying that a fall of1unit in GINI coef?cient will cause a reduction of approximate2.5%in CO2

Table4

Panel estimation:CO2emissions in the Eastern region.

FE(7)White(8)N-W(9)DK(10)PCSE(11)FGLS(12)

PGDP 2.972e-04*** 2.972e-04*** 2.972e-04*** 2.972e-04*** 2.840e-04*** 2.722e-04***

(1.430e-05)(1.510e-05)(1.080e-05)(9.310e-06)(1.720e-05)(7.080e-06)

(PGDP)2à1.330e-08***à1.330e-08***à1.330e-08***à1.330e-08***à1.240e-08***à1.180e-08***

(8.490e-10)(9.950e-10)(1.320e-09)(6.330e-10)(1.070e-09)(3.560e-10)

(PGDP)3 1.980e-13*** 1.980e-13*** 1.980e-13*** 1.980e-13*** 1.730e-13*** 1.710e-13***

(1.540e-14)(1.960e-14)(1.440e-14)(1.350e-14)(1.950e-14)(1.790e-15)

GINI 2.0056*** 2.0056*** 2.0056*** 2.0056***0.8578**0.8416***

(0.4229)(0.4334)(0.3641)(0.4183)(0.3890)(0.1410)

EI0.1470***0.1470***0.1470***0.1470***0.0912***0.0855***

(0.0135)(0.0146)(0.0179)(0.0257)(0.0175)(0.0077)

STR0.0161***0.0161***0.0161***0.0161***0.0153***0.0137***

(0.0028)(0.0033)(0.0025)(0.0026)(0.0026)(0.0008)

URB0.00230.00230.00230.00230.0027**0.0021***

(0.0019)(0.0017)(0.0012)(0.0008)(0.0012)(0.0005)

Cons 6.5923*** 6.5923*** 6.5923*** 6.5923*** 6.3556*** 6.5404***

(0.1524)(0.1380)(0.1299)(0.2231)(0.1824)(0.1088)

Province——Yes Yes Yes Yes Year——————

R20.95210.95210.95210.9960

Robust Hausman test F-stat=3.600e+12***

Heteroskedasticity test chi2(28)=30.9500***

Autocorrelation test F(1,27)=130.0650***

Cross-sectional independence test CD=0.9590

Obs.160160160160160160

**Means signi?cant at con?dence level5%.

***Means signi?cant at con?dence level1%.Figures in parentheses are the standard errors.

Table5

Panel estimation:CO2emissions in the Central region.

FE(13)White(14)N–W(15)DK(16)PCSE(17)FGLS(18)

PGDP 3.109e-04*** 3.109e-04*** 3.109e-04*** 3.109e-04*** 3.068e-04*** 3.386e-04***

(3.680e-05)(4.910e-05)(7.100e-05)(3.200e-06)(4.850e-05)(3.170e-05)

(PGDP)2à2.730e-08***à2.730e-08***à2.730e-08***à2.730e-08***à2.470e-08***à2.880e-08***

(5.100e-09)(4.380e-09)(6.350e-09)(5.470e-09)(7.250e-09)(4.770e-09)

(PGDP)37.970e-13***7.970e-13***7.970e-13***7.970e-13*** 5.970e-13**7.260e-13***

(2.120e-13)(1.540e-13)(2.130e-13)(1.930e-13)(2.940e-13)(1.930e-13)

GINI0.31590.31590.31590.31590.05800.2038***

(0.3661)(0.3306)(0.3797)(0.4744)(0.3916)(0.1875)

EI0.030***0.0309***0.0309**0.0309**0.0256***0.0247***

(0.0058)(0.0098)(0.0123)(0.0147)(0.0084)(0.0052)

STR0.00140.00140.00140.0014-0.0006-0.0013***

(0.0019)(0.0025)(0.0027)(0.0021)(0.0011)(0.0005)

URB0.0301***0.0301***0.0301***0.0301***0.0287***0.0258***

(0.0027)(0.0035)(0.0049)(0.0021)(0.0036)(0.0018)

Cons7.810***7.811***7.8109***7.8109***8.2968***8.3461***

(0.1531)(0.1548)(0.3084)(0.2122)(0.2783)(0.1571)

Province——Yes Yes Yes Yes Year——————

R20.91590.91590.91590.9955

Robust Hausman test F-stat=3.300e+12***

Heteroskedasticity test chi2(28)=919.7600***

Autocorrelation test F(1,27)=59.5830***

Cross-sectional independence test CD=5.3380***

Obs.128128128128128128

**Means signi?cant at con?dence level5%.

***Means signi?cant at con?dence level1%.Figures in parentheses are the standard errors.

C.Zhang,W.Zhao/Applied Energy136(2014)382–392387

emissions.When income inequality falls,China’s CO2emissions tend to go down.So an equalizing redistribution of income,ceteris paribus,would decrease CO2emissions.

The results indicate that a rise of1unit in energy intensity and industry structure will cause an increase of0.0419%and0.0178%in CO2emissions,respectively.Energy intensity together with indus-try structure is signi?cant in pushing up CO2emissions.Urbaniza-tion is failed to pass t-test in model(4)and(5).

5.2.Regional analysis

China has vast territory and large regional differences among the Eastern,Central and Western regions.So we extended our anal-ysis to region level in order to reveal the differences between income inequality and CO2emissions in three regions.

As shown in Table4,all variables in the Eastern region are sta-tistically signi?cant in N–W model at con?dence level of1%,except for urbanization.GDP per capita is with a coef?cient of2.972e-04, lower than that of the whole country.The coef?cient of GINI is 2.0056,the highest among three regions.One unit drop in GINI coef?cient would decrease about2%CO2emissions in the region. Energy intensity explains CO2emissions well in the region with parameter of0.1470.Industry structure has strong explanatory power with parameter of0.0161,but fails to affect CO2emissions signi?cantly in the other two regions.The coef?cient of urbaniza-tion is still not signi?cant in model9,but passes the t-test in model 12at the level of1%.

The Central region is quite different from the whole country and the Eastern region(Table5).The coef?cient of GINI is not statisti-cally signi?cant in model16,but it is signi?cant in FGLS(model 18)with the parameter of0.2038,the smallest among three regions.It indicates that there is a weak relationship between income inequality and CO2emissions in the Central region and the impact of GINI coef?cient on CO2emissions differs across regions.The coef?cients of GDP per capita and energy intensity are3.109e-04and0.0309,respectively.The urbanization increases CO2emissions with the coef?cients of0.0301,while industry struc-ture has insigni?cant effect on CO2emissions.

In the Western region,as shown in Table6,the coef?cient of industry structure fails to pass t-test,but it is signi?cant in FGLS. Other explanatory variables are statistically signi?cant.The coef?-cient of GDP per capita is signi?cantly positive with parameter of 8.338e-04,followed by one in the Central region(3.109e-04)and in the Eastern region(2.972e-04).GINI coef?cient is with a param-eter of0.9722,meaning that one unit drop in GINI coef?cient will decrease CO2emissions by0.9722%,similar to the case of the East-ern region and the whole country.The coef?cient of energy inten-sity is with parameter of0.0574.Urbanization coef?cient appears to be extraordinary with the signi?cantly negative coef?cient(-0.0047),meaning that an increase of1%in urbanization will reduce 0.0047%CO2emissions.In the Western region,urbanization helps to reduce CO2emissions.

6.Discussion

We found several interesting phenomena from our empirical results.

The?rst?nding is that income growth increases CO2emissions in China.This positive relationship has also been proved by Coon-doo and Dinda[7],Jun et al.[18],Golley and Meng[12,22],whose research found that there is a positive relationship between income growth and CO2emissions.With rapid economic growth, China,the largest developing country,stepped into the process of industrialization and urbanization.In2011,the industry sector has dominated half of the gross output and the urban population reached50%for the?rst time,directly accelerating energy con-sumption and CO2emissions[27].Moreover,China’s energy ef?-ciency is still three times lower than that of the US,and?ve times lower than that of Japan.The energy composition relies heavily on fossil energy with88.3%on fossil fuels and70.4%on coal [44].In China,when the economy increases by1%,CO2emissions go up about15million tons.A similar monotonic relationship

Table6

Panel estimation:CO2emissions in the Western region.

FE(19)White(20)N–W(21)DK(22)PCSE(23)FGLS(24)

PGDP8.338e-04***8.338e-04***8.338e-04***8.338e-04***8.696e-04***8.439e-04***

(8.400e-05)(7.950e-05)(1.090e-04)(7.520e-05)(9.250e-05)(4.370e-05)

(PGDP)2à9.730e-08***à9.730e-08***à9.730e-08***à9.730e-08***à1.040e-07***à1.020e-07***

(1.910e-08)(1.760e-08)(2.320e-08)(1.940e-08)(2.100e-08)(1.140e-08)

(PGDP)3 4.330e-12*** 4.330e-12*** 4.330e-12*** 4.330e-12*** 4.670e-12*** 4.490e-12***

(1.360e-12)(1.220e-12)(1.560e-12)(1.250e-12)(1.420e-12)(8.190e-13)

GINI0.9722**0.9722*0.9722**0.9722**0.34330.3794***

(0.3948)(0.4959)(0.4881)(0.3575)(0.4367)(0.2122)

EI0.0574***0.0574***0.0574***0.0574***0.0513***0.0498***

(0.0075)(0.0092)(0.0150)(0.0092)(0.0085)(0.0031)

STR0.00440.00440.00440.00440.00350.0063***

(0.0047)(0.0046)(0.0059)(0.0049)(0.0045)(0.0019)

URBà0.0047***à0.0047***à0.0047***à0.0047**à0.0027**à0.0026***

(0.0012)(0.0011)(0.0016)(0.0017)(0.0012)(0.0004)

Cons7.0504***7.0504***7.0504***7.0504***7.6427***7.5956***

(0.2536)(0.2369)(0.2600)(0.2095)(0.2488)(0.1254)

Province——Yes Yes Yes Yes Year——————R20.92850.92850.92850.9912

Robust Hausman test F-stat=1.0000e+14***

Heteroskedasticity test chi2(28)=112.5300***

Autocorrelation test F(1,27)=5.8240**

Cross-sectional independence test CD=3.1500***

Obs.160160160160160160

*Means signi?cant at con?dence level10%.

**Means signi?cant at con?dence level5%.

***Means signi?cant at con?dence level1%.Figures in parentheses are the standard errors.

388 C.Zhang,W.Zhao/Applied Energy136(2014)382–392

between CO2emissions and income growth has been found in Tur-key[1].However,it is not applicable to all cases that income growth will enhance CO2emissions.According to the EKC hypoth-esis,the relationship between income growth and environmental degradation takes the form of an inverted U-shape,and further income growth is expected to overcome the environmental degra-dation occurred in earlier phases of development[19].It has been proved in the group of OECD countries conducted by Galeotti et al.

[10].The developed areas take the lead in stepping into the down-ward section of the EKC[38],as an expected negative relationship existing in US also con?rms the view[3].

The second?nding is that the impact of income on CO2emis-sions declines continuously from Western region to Central and Eastern regions.This is in accordance with the?ndings of Lu and Lo[23]and Wang and Wei[40].In our opinion,it may be attribut-able to technical progress and human capital.First,the income growth appears to provide incentives for investments in technol-ogy innovation[41].Technical progress,promoting the optimiza-tion of industrial structure,leads to a decrease in CO2emissions effectively[46].By2010,the number of patent applications granted in the Eastern region was562,521pieces,far greater than that in the Central region(84,010)and the Western region(72,753) [45].The level of innovation in China has a gradient distribution from the Eastern region to the Central and Western regions.Sec-ond,the accumulation of human capital is the key to solving the dilemma between income growth and environmental quality [18].The investment in human capital is crucial for economic growth and enhances the mindfulness of energy-saving.By2010 the total stock of human capital in the Eastern region was 183,349units,greater than that in the Central region(128,597) and the Western region(104,324)[45].The total stock of human capital also shows a tendency decreased from the Eastern region to the Central and Western regions.

The third?nding is that the impact of income inequality on CO2emissions in the Eastern China is greater than that of the Western region,while that in the Central region is insigni?cant. Reducing income inequality has a signi?cant impact on CO2 emissions in the Eastern and Western regions.This?nding coin-cides with the view of Meng et al.[26]who con?rmed that an equalizing income growth across regions may reduce emissions. However,it is in contrast with the conclusion by Heerink et al.

[14]that the imbalance in income distribution may improve environmental quality.In our opinion,it can be interpreted by the go-between theory[24].Since the demand of the environ-ment-goods is more?exible,as the income grows,the structure of goods shall be changed to be environment-friendly.As income continues to rise,the income distribution tends to be equal,the relative income of the go-between shall be increased and they would pay more to environment-friendly goods,and environ-mental quality shall be improved.This is in line with the cases of the Eastern and Western regions.We?nd that a more equaling income distribution and a high income level exist in the Eastern region,inducing relatively more typical go-betweens with focus on environmental products.It is similar to a prior conclusion reached by Scruggs[32]that the rich would pay more attention to environmental quality.On the contrary,the Western region, with a greater income distribution gap and a lower income level, has the limited amount of go-betweens willing to consume environmental-friendly products.Also the excessive inequality negatively affects the diffusion of innovations,which harms the development of environmental technologies[39].As for the Central region,the in?uence of income inequality on CO2 emissions is insigni?cant.Other causes such as energy market integration[34],the change of industrial structure,human capital [18]and urbanization may as well remarkably affect environ-mental quality.7.Conclusion and policy implications

Using panel data covering28provinces of China over the period 1995–2010,this paper analyzed the impact of the income and income inequality on CO2emissions with the consideration of regional differences based on the EKC theory.Our results con-cluded that income growth increases CO2emissions in China.The in?uences of income growth on CO2emissions vary across regions. The impact of income inequality on CO2emissions in the Eastern region is greater than that in the Western region.Reducing income inequality has a signi?cant impact on CO2emissions in the Eastern and Western regions.

These results not only contribute to advancing the existing lit-erature,but also deserve particular attention for policy-making. First,China should develop in a more sustainable way.Considering the economic growth potential,China’s CO2emissions are on upward trend.It requires China focus more on quality of economic development.Some efforts,such as low-carbon economy pilot demonstration,environmental taxation reform and trading emis-sions permits are worth exploring in order to control emissions. Other policies related to energy conservation,emission–reduction and climate adaptation should be made following the principle of fairness.Second,policy measures of emission–reduction should allow for regional disparities.The Eastern region,with cleaner technologies and higher energy ef?ciency,has a comparative advantage in emission–reduction.The Central and Western regions face more dif?culties in emission–reduction than the Eastern region.The two regions should be given special consideration when new policies are designed,such as the practice of green tax system,carbon emissions limits and carbon emissions trading. Finally,income redistribution should be further highlighted.Our results reveal that income redistribution from the rich to the poor is bene?cial to environmental improvement.So a more equitable income distribution is a wise response in the developing China, and there is a win–win situation of income redistribution and emission–reduction.In China,income redistribution reform still lies in the guidance and principle,and is lacking of the detailed rules for implementation.To curb rising income inequality,multi-ple measures of income redistribution reform should be taken,spe-ci?cally in aspect of distinguishing tax regulation for low-income and high-income earners,standardized senior executive compen-sation and state-owned enterprises dividends.

Some limitations also exist in our paper.Our analysis only pro-vides an initial interpretation of the impact of income inequality on CO2emissions at the province level.And the mechanisms for income inequality affecting CO2emissions processes are still unknown.In addition,this study is constrained to the years from 1995to2010,due to the lack of availability of statistics.Future research considering dynamics should identify,at what level of income inequality,CO2emissions would reduce in the Eastern, Central and Western regions.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank two anonymous referees for their detailed and constructive comments.We are also grateful to the Editor,Prof.Jerry Yan,for his encouragement and high ef?ciency.

This research is supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(No.20720140001)and also supported by Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University of Ministry of Education of China(No.NCET-12-0327).

Appendix A.

Tables A–D.

C.Zhang,W.Zhao/Applied Energy136(2014)382–392389

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Table C

Results of panel unit root tests in the Central region.

Variables Levels First difference

LLC IPS ADF PP LLC IPS ADF PP TCà0.5870 2.3550 6.7430 5.7730à5.1710***à3.2160***36.7820***32.3360***

PGDP11.337015.2730 1.88500.2910à0.5060 1.6350*11.2140*18.3980*

GINI 1.20500.801015.849028.0670à6.3220***à4.1290***43.1400***83.1340*** EIà7.6020***à4.0510***42.5770***45.9310***à6.8770***à4.0620***44.3150***43.9100*** STRà1.1320à0.178019.189020.7690à7.2090***à5.1370***53.0420***69.6990*** URBà2.053**à2.2370**31.8170**25.8770*à6.5080***à4.2410***45.1330***53.0950***

*Means signi?cant at con?dence level10%.

**Means signi?cant at con?dence level5%.

***Means signi?cant at con?dence level1%.

Table D

Results of panel unit root tests in the Western region.

Variables Levels First difference

LLC IPS ADF PP LLC IPS ADF PP TCà1.8950** 1.964016.8890 4.5650à4.6260***à3.5060***45.5040***55.0840***

PGDP9.982017.25600.14600.22700.3290à0.4320*41.6600***56.5040*** GINI 2.69100.404016.786017.4790à5.5350***à3.8510***48.1650***73.3280*** EIà5.2800***à4.1080***48.4980***29.1580*à1.5150**à1.2580***27.5120**62.8450*** STR0.4530 1.960011.364011.8180à4.2730***à2.5920***43.5810***59.5420*** URB 2.6630 3.8250 6.0390 5.9090à5.4690***à2.5420***36.8380**37.3180**

*Means signi?cant at con?dence level10%.

**Means signi?cant at con?dence level5%.

***Means signi?cant at con?dence level1%.

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PH10户外全彩LED显示屏

PH10户外全彩LED显示屏 设 计 方 For personal use only in study and research; not for commercial use

案 书 For personal use only in study and research; not for commercial use For personal use only in study and research; not for commercial use For personal use only in study and research; not for commercial use 目录

第一章简介 (3) 第二章屏体概述 (4) 第三章屏体结构说明 (5) 第四章系统主要参数 (8) 第五章系统报价……………………………………… 10 第六章编辑播放软件………………………………… 11 第七章节目制作软件………………………………… 13 第八章系统可靠性及维护性………………………… 14 第九章工期………………………………………… 17 第十章安装、调试、验收售后服务 (17) 第十一章工程案例图片………………………………… 22 第十二章 LED显示屏基础知识………………………… 27

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教育心理学的名词解释

教育心理学的名词解释 1、教学:从心理学角度,可把教学看作是企求诱导学习的一种活动系统或工作制度。 2、课:课是教学的一个基本单位,指在一定的时间内,教师和学生相互作用达到教学目的。它包括三个要素,即一段时间、教师和学生及师生相互作用。 3、正式的学生群体含义:即根据上级正式文件或学校内部正式规定而建立的各种学生群体组织。分类:团结的班集体,散聚的班集体,离散的班集体。 4、教师对学生期望:可以是一种潜移默化的作用,从而有助于学生学习的进步。教师期望的这种效应就是著名的“罗森塔尔效应”、也叫“皮格马利翁效应”。 5、学习目标:行为目标,是对学习者通过教学以后将能做什么的一种明确的、具体的表述。美国俄亥俄州立大学的泰勒教授是学习目标之父。 6、发展的概念:是随着生理年龄的推移,作为经验和内部相互作用的结果而在个体的整个体系内产生的机能构造上的变化过程。这是一种向着更高级的适应发展的不可逆过程。发展的方向:头—尾梯度;近末稍梯度。顺序:感觉运动向主观的直观的“前概念水平”;接着可能在具体的情境中进行逻辑运算;更进一步又发展到形式的、抽象水平上的逻辑运算。发展的一般趋势:综合的分化、平衡化、概念化、社会化、个性化。

7、组织:促使过程系统化和组成连贯系统倾向。调节环境倾向称之为适应。图式:一个有组织的,可重复的行为或思维模式。 8、同化:是儿童使新的感知事物或刺激时间与现有的行为模式,即皮亚杰所谓的图式一体化的过程。 9、顺应:当主题不能利用原有的图示接受或解释新的刺激时,其认知结构随新刺激影响而改变的过程。 10、学习:广义“学习是指学习者在某一特定的情境中由重复经验而英气的对于那个情境的行为的变化,而这种行为的变化是不能更具先天的反应倾向、成熟或学习者的暂时状态来解释的。”“学习是人类倾向或才能的一种变化。这种变化要持续一段时间,而且,不能把这种变化简单地归之于成长的过程。”“学习是人及动物在生活中获得个体的行为经验的过程。”狭义的学习:特指人类的学习。学习这种现象的关键:a要有变化的发生b变化相对持久;c变化与成长或成熟导致的变化分开d变化本身并不具备价值意义,学习不等于进步e是行为变化的过程,而非学习后表现出的结果。学生学习的特点:A间接性学习为主,直接性学习为辅。B组织计划性。C有效性。D年龄差异性。E面向未来特征。 11、消退:条件反射形成后,如果条件刺激不再伴随无条件刺激出现,也就是说不再强化,条件反射的强度将逐渐减低,最后会降低到条件反射不再发生的程度。 12、恢复:消退现象发生后,如个体得到一段时间休息,条件刺激再度出现,这时条件反射可能又会自动地恢复。这种未经强化而条件反射自动重现的现象就被称为恢复。

名词解释简答题

一、名词解释 1、法律规范是国家立法机关制定或认可的、具体规定权利义务及法律后果的行为规则。 2、推定行为是指当事人用语言文字以外的有目的、有法律意义的积极活动来表达他的意志。 3、要物(实践)法律行为是指除当事人的意思表示之外,还需要以实物的交付为成立要件的法律行为。如保管合同、仓储合同、质押合同等。 4、委托代理是指按照被代理人委托授权而产生代理权的代理行为,也称授权代理或意定代理。 5、撤销权是指当债务人有放弃其到期债权、赠与或低价转让等行为,对债权人造成损害的,债权人可以依法请求人民法院撤销债务人所实施的行为。 6、代理是指代理人在代理权限内,以被代理人的名义进行民事活动,其权利义务后果直接归属于被代理人的一种法律关系。 7、表见代理是指无权代理人因与本人有一定关系,而使第三人信其有代理权,因而与他进行民事行为。 8、预期违约又称先期违约,是指在合同履行期限到来之前,一方虽无正当理由但明确表示其在履行期到来后将不履行合同,或者其行为表明在履行期到来后将不可能履行合同。 9、要约是指当事人一方以订立合同为目的,而向对方提出确定的意思表示,即订约提议。 10、承诺是指受要约人明确同意要约的意思表示,即接受提议。 11、合同是指民事法律关系中平等主体的自然人、法人和其他经济组织之间设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系的协议。 12、要约邀请是指希望他人向自己发出要约而作出的意思表示,也称要约引诱。 13、合同解除是指合同有效成立后,当具备合同解除条件时,因当事人一方或双方的意思表示而使合同权利义务终止的一种法律行为。 14、不可抗力是指不能预见、不能避免并不能克服的客观情况。 15、格式合同又称标准合同,是指合同的条款由一方当事人预先拟定,另一方当事人只能全部接受或一概拒绝,不能就个别条款进行商洽的合同。 16、抵押(权)是指债务人或第三人不转移对财产的占有,而将该财产作为债权的担保,即当债务人不履行到期债务时,债权人享有对该部分财产进行变现并就其价款优先受偿(的权利)。 17、质押(权)是指债权人为担保债权而根据合同占有债务人或第三人的财产,当债务人到期不履行债务时,能够以该财产折价或以拍卖、变卖该财产的价款优先受偿(的权利)。 18、留置权是指债权人因合同约定占有债务人的动产,如果债务人不履行到期债务,债权人可以留置已经合法占有的债务人的动产,并就该动产优先受偿的权利。 19、公司章程是公司内部组织机构安排和各项活动的基本准则和纲领性文件。 20、公司资本是指公司成立时章程规定的,由股东出资构成的财产总额。 21、法定资本制:设立公司时,必须在公司章程中载明公司的资本总额,并在公司成立时由发起人认足或者缴足的一种资本制度。 22、公司债券是指公司依照法定程序发行的、约定在一定期限还本付息的有价

户外全彩LED显示屏设计方案范本

概述 LED 显示屏是集光电子技术,微电子技术,计算机技术和视频技术为一体的高科技产品,它的发光部分由 LED (即光发二极管)拼装组成的,其优点是耗电量少,亮度高,工作电压低,驱动简单,寿命长,性能稳定。显示屏面积可以根据需要由单元模块任意拼装,响应速度快。 LED 显示屏的出现弥补了以往磁翻板,霓虹灯等信息发布媒体效果的缺陷。以其变化丰富的色彩,图案,实时动态的显示模式,完美的多媒体效果和强大的视觉冲击力,将信息、文字、图片、动画及视频等多种方式显示出来,成为信息传播的划时代产品,在铁路、民航、体育场馆、会议厅堂、高速公路、广场、大型商场、银行、证券市场以及多种监控调度中得到了广泛的应用。 LED 电子显示屏是一种显示文字、图像、二维或三维动画及电视、录像、 VCD 等视频信号的理想的公众信息显示媒体,作为当代高科技发展的产物,它与广告牌、灯箱、霓虹灯等传统宣传媒体比较,具有无可比拟的优势: 1、可实时播放无限的信息(每秒钟高达 60 幅图像); 2、是目前世界上各种宣传媒体中亮度最高的;3、图像清晰、视觉大、功耗低、 寿命极长等。现已在城市的各种行政事业单位得到了广泛的应用,在提高形象和知名度及渲染单位主办各项活动的气氛等方面起到了良好的作用。 1、起到方便公众的作用。 2、起到政务公开的作用。 3、起到宣传相关法规、条例的作用。 4、起到普及知识的作用。 5、起到公告板的作用。 6、起到公益广告的作用。通过显示屏幕可播放天气预报、《文明市民公约》及重要新闻等。 7、起到烘托气氛的作用。通过显示屏幕可播放上级领导及各种贵宾莅临参观、指导的欢迎词,各种重大节日的庆祝词等。 系统实现设计方案 1、LED 生产流程 2、LED 外观设计 公司针对每块显示屏安装的环境,对其进行独特的造型设计,在设计阶段我们认真分析项目的需求,通过与客户的沟通,了解项目的需求关键,根据我们丰富的 LED 大屏幕制作经验以及原厂商的支持、参与,我们制定整个项目的设计方案,确保该方案能够满足系统的功能要求,并具有高实用性、高可靠性、高观赏性。我们的设计原则是功能、结构、外形三位一体,协调统一。既要保证显示屏的功能完善、结构合理、外观现代、大气,同时又要与周围环境很好的融合与呼应,让整个显示屏在所安装的环境中独具匠心。 3、系统软件组成及功能 3.1 系统软件组成系统软件主要由节目编辑软件、播放软件、自动化控制软件、远程通讯软件等几部分组成。软件功能见系统功能部分。

心理学名词解释

名词解释0、心理学:是研究人的行为和心理活动规律的科学。 1、教育心理学:是一门研究学校情境中学与教的基本心理规律的科学。 2、教学内容:教学内容是学与教的过程中有意传递的主要信息部分,一般表现为教学大刚、教材和课程。 3、教学媒体:是教学内容的载体,是教学内容的表现形式,是师生之间传递信息的工具。 4、教学环境:教学环境包括物质环境和社会环境两个方面。在教育心理学看来,教学环境不仅是课堂管理研究的主要范畴,也是学习过程研究和教学设计研究不能忽视的重要内容。 5、教学过程:教师设计教学情境,组织教学活动,与学生进行信息交流,从而疏导学生的理解、思考、探索和发现的过程,使其获得知识、技能和态度。 6、学习过程:学习过程指学生在教学情境中通过教师、同学以及教学信息相互作用获得知识、技能和态度的过程。 7、观察法:是指研究者通过感官或借助一定的科学仪器,在一定的时间内有目的、有计划地记录、描述客观对象的表现来收集研究资料的方法。 8、心理发展:所谓心理发展是指个体从出生、成熟、衰老直至死亡的整个生命进程中所发生的一系列心理变化。 9、学习准备:学习准备是学生原有的知识水平或心理发展水平对新的学习的适应性,即学生在学习新知识时,那些增进或妨碍学习的个人生理、心理发展的水平和特点。 10、关键期:这是个体早期生命中一个比较短暂的时期,在此期间,个体对某种刺激特别敏感,过了这一时期,同样的刺激对之影响很小或没有影响。

11、守恒:是指指儿童认识到客体在外形上发生了变化,但其特有的属性不变。 12、最近发展区:前苏联心理学家维果斯基认为,儿童有两种发展水平:一是儿童的现有水平,二是即将达到的发展水平。这两种水平之间的差异,即最近发展区。 13、人格:又称个性,是指决定个体的外显行为和内隐行为并使其与他人的行为有稳定区别的综合心理特征。 14、自我认识:个体对自己的心理特点、人格特征、能力及自身社会价值的自我了解与自我评价。 15、认知方式:又称认知风格,系指个体在对信息加工过程中表现出来的个体差异,它是一个人在感知、记忆和思维过程中经常采用的、受到偏爱的和习惯化了的态度和风格。 16、学习:广义的学习指人和动物在生活过程中,凭借经验而产生的行为或行为潜能的相对持久的变化。 17、人的学习:是在社会生活实践中,以语言为中介,自觉地、积极主动地掌握社会和个体的经验的过程。 18、学生的学习:是在教师的指导下,有目的、有计划、有组织、有系统地进行的,是在较短的时间内接受前人所积累的科学文化知识,并以此来充实自己的过程。 19、桑代克提出的一种学习理论,他把人和动物的学习定义为刺激与反应之间的联结,联结是通过盲目尝试、逐步减少错误而形成的,即通过试误形成的。尝试—错误说提出了效果律、练习律、准备律三条学习规律。 20、完形—顿悟说:是由格式塔心理学家苛勒等人提出的学习理论,他们认为学习不是盲目尝试,而是对情境的一种突然领悟和理解,是在主体内部构造完形的过程。

侵权责任法期末复习习题分解

以下资料选自王轶主编:《民法练习题集》(第二版),中国人民大学出版社,2008. 一、名词解释 1紧急避险,是侵权民事责任的免责事由之一,是指为了使公共利益、本人或者他人的财产、人身或者其他合法权益免受正在发生的危险,而不得已采取的致他人较小损害的行为。其构成要件如下: (1)危险的紧迫性。所谓紧迫性,即合法权益正遭受危险。(2)避险措施的必要性。所谓必要性,是指避险人在不得已的情况下采取避险措施。不采取该措施就不足以使合法权益免受正在遭受的危险,不足以保护较大的合法权益。 (3)避险行为的合理性。所谓合理性,是指避险行为适当并不得超过必要的限度。必要限度要求避险行为造成的损害应当小于危险可能造成的损害。 2特殊侵权行为,是指当事人因与自己有关的行为、物件、事件或者其他特别原因致人损害,依照民法上的特别责任条款或第其

特点在于:者民事特别法的规定应当承担民事责任的行为。.一,特殊侵权行为适用严格责任或者公平责任。第二,特殊侵权行为由法律直接规定。此处的法律包括民法的特别规定和民事特别法的规定。第三,特殊侵权行为在举证责任的分配上适用倒置原则,即由加害人就自己没有过错或者存在法定的抗辩事由承担举证责任。第四,法律对特殊侵权行为的免责事由作出了严格规定。第五,特殊侵权行为的责任主体和行为主体存在分离现象。3严格责任是侵权责任的归责原则之一,是指基于法律的特别规定,受害人能够证明所受损害是加害人的行为或物件所致,即推定加害人存在过错并应当承担民事责任,加害人能够证明存在法定抗辩事由的除外。严格责任的特点在于:第一,免除受害人对加害人的过错所承担的举证责任。第二,实行举证责任倒置,由被告就自己没有过错承担举证责任。第三,严格责任的适用有明确的限制,即主要适用于《民法通则》规定的几种特殊侵权行为,法律对严格责任的免责事由作出了严格的规定,主要包括受害人的过错、第三人的过错、不可抗力等。 4共同危险行为,又称为准共同侵权行为,是指两个或者两个以上的行为人实施可能造成他人损害的危险行为并实际致人损害,而无法确定加害人的侵权行为。由于无法确定加害人,法律推定各行为人的行为与损害后果之间都存在因果关系。因此,各行为人都是加害人,并承担连带责任。根据法律规定,如果加害人可以举证证明推翻因果关系的推定,即加害人能够证明损害后果

管理心理学重点名词解释

心理:是感觉、知觉、记忆、思维、情感、意志和气质、能力、性格、等心理现象的总称。 个性:个性是个体带有倾向性的本质的,比较稳定的心理特征的总和,其中包括气质、性格、能力等。 气质:气质是人的个性心理特征之一,指某个人典型地表现于心理过程的强度、速度和稳定性以及指向性特点等 动力方面的特点。 挫折:当个人从事有目的的活动时,在环境中遇到阻碍或干扰,其动机不能满足时的情绪状态。 群体:由相互依赖、相互影响的人为了某种共同目标,按照一定方式结合在一起的集合体。 需要:人们对某种目标的渴求或欲望 期望:是指一个人根据以往的经验在一定时间里希望达到目标或满足需要的一种心理活动。 情感:情感是人脑的机能,是人们对客观事物的一种态度的体验,是对事物好恶的一种倾向 性格:在一个人的生理素质的基础上,在社会实践活动中逐渐形成发展和变化的,并且具有一定复杂性、独特性、 整体性和持续性 社会认知:是指个体在社会环境中对自己及他人的心理特征和行为进行感知、判断和解释以作进一步反应的 心理过程。

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单位主办各项活动的气氛等方面起到了良好的作用。 1、起到方便公众的作用。 2、起到政务公开的作用。 3、起到宣传相关法规、条例的作用。 4、起到普及知识的作用。 5、起到公告板的作用。 6、起到公益广告的作用。经过显示屏幕可播放天气预报、《文明市民公约》及重要新闻等。 7、起到烘托气氛的作用。经过显示屏幕可播放上级领导及各种贵宾莅临参观、指导的欢迎词, 各种重大节日的庆祝词等。 系统实现设计方案 1、LED生产流程 2、LED外观设计 公司针对每块显示屏安装的环境, 对其进行独特的造型设计, 在设计阶段我们认真分析项目的需求, 经过与客户的沟通, 了解项目的需求关键, 根据我们丰富的LED大屏幕制作经验以及原厂商

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P户外表贴全彩LED显示屏报价

P6户外表贴全彩LED显示屏 设 计 方 案 书 项目联系人:钟文金 联系电话: 设计公司: 深圳市科彩芯光电科技有限公司 设计日期: 2017年6月2日 一、企业介绍 1.公司概括: 深圳市科彩芯光电科技公司初成立于2012年,主营室内外LED全彩显示屏,是LED显示屏应用领域综合服务供应商、深圳知名LED显示屏OEM/ODM供应商。 从最初的生产LED模组、器件,发展到具有行业领先技术研发实力的LED全彩显示屏,科彩芯专注于服务一系列的专业化市场:广告传媒、地产商圈、各类高级卖场、体育场馆、大型活动与娱乐、市政工程等,为之提供形态各异的LED应用产品解决方案。今天,科彩芯的LED显示屏产品,被广泛运用于全球数十个国家,不断在国内外树立样板,逐渐成为业界颇具竞争力的知名品牌。 科彩芯光电秉承“诚信!负责!共荣!”、“终身合作!”的经营理念,多年来在国内外成功树立近1000多个典型案例!公司的信誉和服务得到业届一致好评,

LED显示屏领域未来领先企业之一!诚信是我们的形象,沟通协作是我们的服务宗旨。公司一直本着“客户至上,质量第一”的理念,依托雄厚的财力和济济人才,致力在高端LED领域坚持创新,坚持领先,为世界和中国光电子高科技的发展,为国家半导体照明工程作出贡献。我们热诚欢迎海内外客商亲临指导,交流,携手共创LED应用产业美好未来! 深圳市科彩芯光电研发制造的LED应用产品种类齐全、产品结构多样化,其中: ◆ LED显示屏系列涵盖户内和户外,包括:1、租赁产品;2、广告牌;3、高速公路牌;4、异型彩屏;5、球场屏;广泛应用于各种公共场所,如商业广场、政府机构、体育场馆、交通设施、金融构等所在,在国内市场占据着行业主导地位。 深圳市科彩芯光电以“认真、严格、主动、高效”的服务风格,在全球范围内承诺并履行着对客户专业的服务与指导。有一支服务国际的专业技术队伍,关注于对客户的工艺流程答疑,个性化方案解决;作好备品备件的匹配、网络沟通、上门检修排难等综合性专业而精深的服务工作,使产品服务体现个性化、全方位、长周期、少缺陷,从而赢得客户的信心、放心、诚心与开心! 价格优势:拥有市场同一产品中最具竞争力的价格,同时拥有相同甚至更佳的品质; 性能优势:均匀性好,一致性程度高,视角大,可实现单色单灯维修; 质量优势:材料到成品,研发到生产的全程可控性,成为产品质量可靠性的保证; 服务优势:同等条件下更加完善的服务,同样的服务,具备更加全面的合作。 2. 公司掠影: 办公区 SMT生产车间

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