英语词汇学知识点整理

Conversion1.Definition of ConversionConversion / Functional shift/ Transmutation （转化法/功能转换法/转移法）is the word-formation by converting words of one class into another class (part of speech) without adding any affix.It is also called derivation by zero suffix (零位后缀派生法) zero derivation(零位派生法).2.Features of Conversion (P29)3.Types of Conversion1)Conversion to VerbsDe-nominal (nouns →verbs) (7 types)De-adjective (adjectives →verbs) : To make…/to become…2)Conversion to NounsDe-verbal (verbs → nouns ) (5 types)De-adjective (adjectives →nouns)Full conversion: both as nouns and adjectivesPartial conversion: the+adj.Miscellaneous3)Conversion to Adjectives:Nouns as attributives and predicativesMiscellaneous给大家推荐一个英语微信群-Empty Your Cup英语微信群是目前学习英语最有效的方法，群里都是说英语，没有半个中文，而且规则非常严格，是一个超级不错的英语学习环境，群里有好多英语超好的超牛逼的人，还有鬼佬和外国美眉。

英语词汇学怎么考英语词汇学必背知识点英语词汇学考试难吗？那么该课程怎么考？要知道英语考试并不是一蹴而就的，所以考前应该日记月累的学习，在最后考试的时候才能更好的通过考试，我们来看看英语词汇学必背知识点吧。

英语词汇学怎么考英语词汇学是一门理论知识课，每个知识点应该说都重要，所以重点和一般本来就难以界定。

从掌握知识来说，不要去分重点和一般，对每章每节都要以搞懂弄通为原则。

1、考前重点词汇复习方法要知道语法填空重点考查的词：动词、形容词、副词和派生词。

其中重点是动词，要把考点的设置与拼写的可能形式结合起来(如从谓语动词的角度来看，就要考虑动词的时态、语态和主谓一致所带来的动词变化。

其中过去式是考查重点，所以对动词的过去式，尤其是不规则动词的过去式和过去分词的拼写，自然就成为后期复习的重点。

至于另外三大词类也完全可以如此类推。

<br>2、词汇积累学习加强短文背诵，增强“词不离句”意识。

背诵是非常原始的英语学习方法，但也是非常积极、有效的学习方法。

优选一些名家名篇，做为背诵的素材;或从课文中精选一些精悍之作，作为研习的精典，不但能够迅速提高语感，而且容易激发兴趣，形成活生生的词库，为单词的准确使用打下良好的基础。

3、英语主观题拿分技巧首先是单词拼写，这是所有题目中考生得分最低的一个部分，通常平均分不超过3分，所以大家不要太在意，20个单词，对4个，能有2分就很不错了，如果想要提高这部分，大家还要有准备的背单词，因为这里面的单词，并不全是课本课后单词表的单词，其中很多都是以前在中学学过的，所以要准备这一部分，需要的是买一本自考英语的词汇大纲，按里面的词汇背记才有意义。

如果大家对英语词汇学课程学习有难度，那么可以通过在线视频学习的，以上三点就是学赛小编对英语词汇学必背知识点学习方法，希望大家能更好的学习。

点击进入&gt;&gt;&gt;。

Chapter 1Word-Structure1. The definition of morpheme1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language?- morphemeWhat are words composed of? - Words are formed by morphemes. A word is the smallest unit that stands alone to communicate meaning.1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents对应词of morpheme? 语素词素-形位2.1 Morphemes may be classified into free and bound.Free morphemes, also called content morphemes, may constitute words by themselves. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. So we may say that free morphemes are free roots.Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as grammatical morphemes, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words, e.g. recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes).Task:(1) Read the following words and find the root in each word.heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty, heartiness,sweetheart, heartbroken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly.(2) What is your definition of root?A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed.(3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why?2.2.1 Two types of roots- Free rootIn English, many roots are free morphemes, such as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith.- Bound rootHowever, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes. For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive; mit in permit, commit, submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur, occur, incur, etc.these roots cannot be used to form new words.2.2.2 Two types of affixesAffix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.- Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to expressthe following meanings:(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes;en in oxen.(2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s.(3) the verbal endings: for example,a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third personsingular present tense.b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the presentparticiple or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or pastparticiple.(4) the comparative and superlative degrees:e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest,hardest.- Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes)can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.•(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g: unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech.- en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich- be- as in words like befriend, belittle- a- as in words like asleep, aside • (2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g.: darkness, worker. By the addition of the suffix,the word is usually changed from one part ofspeech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.2.3 Relationship between the two classifications of morphemesMorphemeIt is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.a) Bound morphemes are morphemes which alone can be used as words .What is an allomorph?An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。

英语专业词汇学的部分重点1）heart and soul: adv. 全心全意地2）white elephant: n. [a. + n.] something useless and unwanted but big and costly. 大而无用的东西，白象，累赘物3）high tea: n. A fairly substantial meal that includes tea and is served in the late afternoon or early evening. 下午茶下午或傍晚前进食的非常丰富的餐食包括茶水4）cold shoulder: n. Informal Deliberate coldness or disregard;a slight or a snub 怠慢故意的冷落或轻视；怠慢或轻慢5）red herring: n. Something that draws attention away from the central issue. 转移注意力者把注意力从中心论题转移开的东西6）narrow escape: n. 九死一生，幸免于难7）brain trust: n. [n. +n.] a group of people with special knowledge who answer questions or give advice. 智囊团，专家顾问团一个通常非正式地担任顾问和政策制定者的专家小组，尤指政府部门中的8）flesh and blood: n. [n. + conj. + n.] relatives or family一个人的血亲；亲属（2）Human nature or physical existence, together with its weaknesses. 人的本性包括各种弱点的人的本性或物质存在9）an apple of discord: n. [n. + prep. + n.] cause of disagreement or argument, etc. 争端，祸根10）Jack of all trades （Jack of all trades and master of none 三脚猫）：n. 万事通；博而不精的人11）fly in the ointment: n. [n. + prep. +n.] something that spoils the perfection of something. 小挫折12）brain drain: n. 智囊流失13）the ins and the outs: n. 执政党和在野党，复杂情况14）son and heir: n. 子嗣15）part and parcel: n. 重要的部分16）a friend in court: n. 有势力的朋友17）wet blanket: n. 弄湿的毯子，扫兴的事One that discourages enjoyment or enthusiasm.18）cat's paw: n. 受人利用者；傀儡19）king's weather n. 好天气20）Achilles' heel: n. A seemingly small but actually mortal weakness. 阿喀琉斯的脚踝一看来很小但致命的弱点21）cut and dried: adj. [a. + a.] already settled and unlikely to be changed. 固定的；已成定局的；已决定的；不大会改变的/?????/22）as poor as a church mouse: adj. [as + a.+ as+ n.] having, or earning, barely enough money for one's needs. 一贫如洗，赤贫的/??????/23）wide of the mark: adj. [a. + prep.+ n.] not at all suitable, correct etc. 毫不相关24）beyond the pale: adj. [prep.+ n.] beyond the limit of proper behaviour. 在…范围之外25）up in the air: adj. [adv. +prep. +n.] uncertain. 悬而未决26）high and dry: adj. （船）在岸上；孤立无援，被遗弃【a. + a.】He left me high and dry. 他使我陷于困境27）up to the hammer: adv. 第一流，极好28）null and void: adj. 无效的29）high and mighty: <口> 趾高气扬地；骄傲自大的；位高权大的30）on the go: （1）[口]在进行活动，忙碌；（2）刚要动身31）on call: adj. 随叫随到的，待命的32）wet behind the ears: adj. 少不更事的，初出茅庐的，乳臭未干的33）look into: 调查，研究34）go on: continue35）put off: 推迟，拖延，搪塞，使分心，使厌恶，扔掉，脱掉，劝阻36）turn on:37）get away with: do something wrong without being punished. （phrasal verbs）侥幸成功，逃避惩罚[责备，追究] 38）put down to: state that something is caused or explained by.（phrasal verbs）把……归结于39）follow one's nose: [v. + poss. + n. ] go straight ahead, go in the same direction. 笔直走，凭本能做事（verb phrases）40）make it: [v.+ pron.] arrive in time; succeed. 及时赶到，成功（verb phrases）41）fall flat: [v. + a.] fail completely in its intended or expected effect. 达不到预期效果，完全失败（verb phrases）42）give sb. the bag: [v. + pron. + n. ] fire or dismiss somebody. （verb phrases）43）sing a different tune: [v. + a. + n.] change one's opinion or attitude （verb phrases）44）call it a day: [v. + pron. + n.] decide or agree to stop either temporarily or for good. 暂时停止；结束一天的工作（verb phrases）45）chop and change: [v. + conj. + v.] fluctuate or vary constantly; keep changing one's opinion, etc. 持续浮动或变动；不断变换注意和观点，等等（verb phrases）46）swim against the stream: [v. + prep. phrase] do the opposite of what most people want to do; go against the way things are happening. 反潮流；逆潮流行事（verb phrases）47）come back to earth: [v. + adv. + prep. phrase] stop imagining or dreaming. （verb phrases）48）make ends meet: [v+n+v] earn what it costs to live. 收支相抵（verb phrases）49）keep the pot boiling: [v+n+v-ing] earn enough to maintain an adequate standard of living; keep a situation active, amusing, etc. 谋生，维持生活，使保持活泼（verb phrases）第一章1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. "woman" means 'Frau' in German, 'Femme' in French and 'Funv 'in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound/rait/ can mean right, rite and write, though denoting different things, yet have the same sound.3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）。

￥English Lexicology(英语词汇学)lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。

Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。

and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself” and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary`（5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。

初中英语词汇积累知识点总结英语的词汇积累是学习英语的重要环节之一。

在初中阶段，学生需要通过课本和其他学习资料积累大量的英语词汇，提高自己的词汇量和应用能力。

以下是一些初中英语词汇积累的知识点总结。

1. 词根和词缀了解英语中常见的词根和词缀可以帮助我们更好地理解和记忆词汇。

例如，"bio-"表示生物，"tele-"表示远程，"re-"表示再次。

通过学习词根和词缀，我们可以将很多生词归纳到相应的词根或词缀，并且可以根据词根和词缀的含义推测词汇的意思。

2. 同义词和近义词学习英语词汇时，我们经常会遇到一些相近的词，它们的意思可能有一些细微的差别。

了解这些同义词和近义词的区别对于准确运用词汇是非常重要的。

例如，“happy”和“glad”都表示高兴，但“happy”更强调长期的幸福感，“glad”则更强调暂时的高兴。

3. 词性和词义变化英语中的很多词汇可以根据上下文及其词缀发生词性和词义的改变。

例如，“advice”是名词形式，“advise”是动词形式，“advise”的过去式是“advised”。

学生需要注意词性和词义的变化，以正确地运用词汇。

4. 常见词组和搭配学习英语词汇的过程中，我们还需要了解一些常见的词组和搭配。

这些固定搭配通常具有一些特定的意义，而且很多时候无法通过词的字面意思猜测。

例如，“break up”表示分手，而不是字面意思的“破碎”。

了解这些常见的词组和搭配可以帮助我们更准确地理解和运用词汇。

5. 同源词英语词汇中存在很多同源词，即来自于同一个词根的词。

了解同源词可以帮助我们扩展词汇量，并且可以通过对比和类比来加深对词汇的理解。

例如，“nation”（国家）和“nationality”（国籍）都来自于“nate”（出生）这个词根。

6. 重点词汇记忆初中英语学习中，我们会遇到很多重要的词汇，这些词汇在课堂和考试中经常出现，并且在日常生活中也有广泛应用。

Chapter10 English Idioms⏹10.1 Introductory Remarks⏹10.2 Sources of English Idioms⏹10.3 Classification of Idioms⏹10.4 Syntactic, structural and stylistic analysis of idioms10.1 Introductory Remarks♦Idiom: is a combination of two or more words which are usually structurally fixed and semantically opaque, and function as a single unit of meaning.♦English idiom: is a group of words with a special meaning different from the meanings of its constituent words.eg. a feather in sb.’s cap –an honour ,success ,of which one can be prouddraw a blank–to fail to discover or find out about sth. after searching hard and asking many questions .*Idioms are usually semantically opaque, i.e. metaphorical rather than literal.An idiom functions as a unit of meaning.♦Features: a. semantic opaqueness; b. structural invariability.♦English idioms form an essential part of the general vocabulary.Idioms reflect the environment, life, history and culture of the native speakers, and are closely associated with their innermost spirit and feeling.10.2 Sources of English IdiomsMany idiomatic expressions come from:1)Everyday life of the English people;eg. to keep one’s shirt on要有耐心; 别紧张; 指不要紧张t o give sb. the cold shoulder冷落某人2)Agricultural life;eg. to go to seed花谢结子; 走下坡路; 花谢结籽to lead sb. up the garden path迷惑某人,使某人产生错觉,花言巧语3)Nautical and military life;eg. be in the same boat with同舟共济to be in deep waters陷入困境4)Business life;eg. to come under the hammer将要落锤to talk shop三句不离本行5)Student life;eg. to speak by the book引经据典to turn over a new leaf重新开始(改过自新,过新生活)6)Food and cooking;eg. to keep the pot boiling仅足糊口;苟延残喘to be in the soup陷入困境7)Sports and cad-playing;eg. to keep the ball rolling不使中断to reach first base取得初步成就8)The Bible;eg. a thorn in the flesh肉中刺,眼中钉,烦恼的根源to turn the other cheek忍气吞声t he apple of one’s eyes掌上明珠9)Shakespeare’s plays;eg. to flutter the dovecotes扰乱鸽棚to give the Devil his due勿掩恶人善，平心而论10)fables, myths or legends.eg. sour grapes（指某人因得不到某物而称该事物不好）酸葡萄the lion’s share（最大份额或最大的一份）狮子的份额10.3 Classification of IdiomsThere are several criteria of classification of idioms. We classify them by structural criterion.A.Phrase idioms 短语成语According to the central word , they may subdivided into:1.Verb phrase idiom*a)All common English verbs, most of which are of native Anglo-Saxon origin, can combine with adverbs and prepositions to form phrasal verbs.b)Most of the verb phrase idioms are often nearly synonymous with loan words of Roman origin.c)Verb phrase idioms can form noun compounds.d)Phrasal verbs usually more lively and expressive than single verbs.eg. fall flat大失所望; 残败bite the hand that feeds one以怨报德2. Noun phrase idiomThe commonest functions of noun phrase idioms:a)As the direct object of a clause;b)As the complement of a clause;c)As the object of a preposition.eg. a baker’s dozen 十三个Jack of all trades 万事通; 万金油3. Adjective phrase idiomThe commonest function of adjective phrase idioms is as complement of a clause.eg. high and mighty盛气凌人;趾高气扬wide of the mark毫不沾边4. Prepositional phrase idiomFunctions of prepositional phrase idioms are:a)As an adjunct modifying a verb; 附属修饰语b)As a complement;补语c)As a complement or adjunct;d)As a disjunct; 分离判断语，附加语e)As a connecting phrase.B.Clause idioms 无主语从句成语Most of these idioms are terse, colloquial, vivid and changed with life.1.Verb + complement pattern2.Verb + direct object pattern3.Verb + direct object + complement pattern4.Verb + indirect object + direct object pattern5.Verb + direct object + adjunct patternC.Sentence idioms句子成语1.Proverbs;2.Typical conversational expressionseg. Upon my word! 我敢担保!Well begun is half done.半途而废Kill the goose that laid the golden egg. 毁掉财路; 杀鸡取卵10.4 Syntactic, structural and stylistic analysis of idiomsA. syntactic function 句法的功能1.The syntactic function of most phrase idioms usually corresponds with the central word or components.2.The syntactic function of some phrase idioms can vary.3.Prepositional phrase idioms have very diverse functions.4.noun + noun phrases have diverse functions.eg. He has a gift of the gab.(the ability to talk readily and easily )B. transformational restrictions 结构转换的限制性Transformation is a matter of structural change, and the change may be of various kinds.1.Some verb phrases may change word order.2.Some cannot change their word order.3.Some verb phrases may be passivized, but some can not.4.Most of the clause idioms cannot be put into the passive voice, while some of them can be used either way.5.The direct object usually does not undergo passive transformation; only the indirect object can be passivized.6.Some clause idioms may be made passive with a meaning quite different from what it had in the active form.C. Collocative restrictions 搭配限制1. Words collocate with idioms as the subjects, objects, predicates etc. of different types of phrase and clause idioms.2. Some idioms have a wide range of collocates while some have a limited choice.3. For some idioms, one has to consider which collocates will serve as adjuncts.D. Structural variability结构变化Idioms are structurally fixed, and as a rule one are not supposed to change any element in an idiomatic expression. But it is not unusual for writers to give a new twist to an old saying by making slight changes for rhetorical effect.Some ways of alteration in idioms:1. The replacement of one element by another without affecting the meaning of the whole.2. Insertion of one or more words into an idiomatic expression without changing its basic meaning.3. Deletion of one or more words, especially articles.E. Stylistic features文体特征1. Most idioms are stylistically neutral;2. But some of them belong to informal spoken English;3. Some idiom phrases are slangy.。

第五章 Reference （领会） – the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference， a speaker indicates which things in the world （including persons） are being talked about. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction. Although reference is abstract， yet with the help of context， it can refer to something specific. Concept（领会） – which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It isn’t affected by language. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. Meaning belongs to language， so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are language in the world. Sense （领会） – denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. It is also abstraction. Motivation——accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. English does have words whose meanings can be explained to a certain extent. Most words are non-motivated. The connection of the sign and meaning dose not have a logical explanation. Onomatopoeic Motivation – the words whose sounds suggest their meaning. （Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning）. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example， bang， ping-pang， crow by cocks， etc. Such echoic words are also conventional for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other language. Morphological Motivation ——Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. （Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning）. For instance， airmail means to “mail by air”， miniskirt is “a small skirt”。

Chapter 3Word Formation I词语结构13.1 Morphemes词素1. the morpheme is ‘ the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’词素是“词语中最小的功能单位”。

2.Suffix：-ation：-tion, -sion, -ion.后缀：ation 的多变体，当它们有同样的意义和语法功能时它们属于同一个后缀3.Owing to different sound environment 因为存在不同的发生环境。

3.2 Allomorphs （语素变体）同质异晶，同质异象变体1.Morphemes are abstract units.‘They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning’语素是抽象的单位,它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体.The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone:语素是一个音素发音的形素①single morphs单一语素词：bird, tree, green, sad, want, desire,Most morphemes are realized by single morphs,Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.大多数语素通过单个的形素实现，语素与词相同叫做单一语素词.These morphemes coincide withe words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.这些语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。

Chapter 1Lexicology 词汇学Context 语境Pragmatics 语用学Phoneme 音素Morpheme 词素Semantic fields 语义场Lexicology: is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language.Morphology 形态学Semantics 语义学Etymology 词源学Lexicography 词典学Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components, is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation.构词法Morphemes: the smallest meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words.最小的、有意义的构词单位Semantics: is often defined as the study of meaning.Etymology: is the study of the whole history of words.Lexicography: is closely related to the words in a given language.What is a word?Word：is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of letters bounded by spaces.以空格为界的字母序列Word: an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes.由一个或多个词素组成的不可分离的结构单元Word: is viewed as a minimal free form which can occur in isolation and have meaning but which cannot be analyzed into elements which can occur alone and also have meaning. （除复合词）最小的、有意义的、可独立存在的、不可分离的语言单位Major features of wordsA word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.任意的、发声器官Pitch 音高Juncture 停顿A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.The word is uninterruptible unitA word has to do with its social functionalA word may consist of one or more morphemesWords are part of the large communication system we call language.A word occurs typically in the structure of phrasesA word receives some of its meaning as it fills the grammatical slot in a sentence.Syntax: 句法学Discourse analysis: 语篇分析Word classesClosed classes: preposition pronoun determiner conjunction auxiliary verb封闭词类:介词代词限定词连词助动词Open classes: noun adjective verb adverb开放词类：名词形容词动词副词Lexical words(词汇词)= form open classesGrammatical words(语法词)=closed classes and so onInflectional words(8): 名词复数、所有格，动词三单、过去式、过去分词、现在分词，形容词的比较级、最高级。

《英语词汇学》知识点归纳English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）thepronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of thedifference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot （暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. （2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-， mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman) (2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面 (phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面 (dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.:BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. Inconcatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy.Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the samein denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent) Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand. Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage insimple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）： this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’) The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language. e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes bothin form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble （粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的） sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举 [scream and shout]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia(<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New International Dictionary>（2）Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000]（3）Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。

华中师《英语词汇学》（一）English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs （谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举 [scream and shout]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there]of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：增加删除替换位置转移分解。

Morphemes: is a minimal meaning units of a language, and a smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.Morphes: are discrete units which realize abstract morphemes in speech. Morphs are actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning.Monomorphemic:Free morphemes: is one stand alone as a word.Bound morphemes: be function together with root of word. The morphemes cannot occur as separate words.Affixes: forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.1)inflectional: are affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships.2)derivational: are affixes added to other morphemes to create new word.2.1prefixes: is a formation by adding prefixes to stems. Their chief function is to change meaning of the stems.2.2suffixes: is the formation by adding suffixes to stems. Their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems.Stem: a part of a word to which affixes of any kind can be added.Root: is a basic forms of a word which cannot be further analyse without total loss of identity.Bound root:is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning.Creation: refer to the formation of new words by using the existing material, namely roots, affixes and other elements.Affixation（词缀法）: as the formation of words by means of adding affixes to stems.Compounding/composition（复合法）: is the formation of words by joining two or more stems into one word.(joining stem)Conversion/zero-derivation（转换法）: is the formation of new words by coverting words of one class to another class.(coverting words class)Blending（拼缀法）: a formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.(combining parts of two wordsActonymy/initialisms（首字母缩写）: a formation by joining the initial letters of names of phrases.(joining the initial letterBack-formation（逆词法）: a formation by removing the supposed suffixes.Clipping（截断法）: a formation by cutting a part of the origin, and using remains instead.By use frequencyBasic words:1)All national character;2)Stability;3)Productivity;4)Polysemy;5)Collocability.Non-basic words:Terminology(术语) particular field (2)Jargon（行话）:the language used for a particular activity or by a particular group of people (3)slang （俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）particular group of people （5）Dialectal words(方言) particular area(6) Archaisms（古语）an archaic word or expression (7) Neologisms （新词语）a new word and expression or new meaning of a wordBy notionContent words: denote clear notions.Functional words: do not have notions of their own, express the relation between notions, words and sentences.By originNative words: are those of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number.Borrowed words: is take over from foreign languages.Reference: it is the relationship between language and the world.Concept: it is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense: it denotes the relationships inside the language.Motivation: means which words acquire their meanings .the relationship between the linguistic symbol/structure of word/form and its meaning.1)Onomatopoeic拟声理据: words whose sounds suggest their meaning, creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises associable .2)morphological形态理据: words whose meaning derive from the total sum of the morphemes involved.3)semantic语义理据:（words whose figurative sense derives from its literal sense through）refer to the mental association suggested by the conceptual meaningof a word.4)etymological词源理据: words whose meaning are related directly to the origin.Lexical meaning:1)conceptual: form the core of word meaning. It is the denotative in that it concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes , orrefers to. the meaning given in the dictionary2)associative: secondary meaning supplements to the conceptual meaning.connotative: the overtone or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning.stylistic: that a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.affective: that indicates the speaker’s attitude.collocative: that suggested by the association in its collocation.Primary meaning: is the only meaning that a word when it was fist created.Derived meaning: are the meaning that a word get from primary meaning. At different stages of its development in the course of time.Polysemy（多义词）: be used to refer to that one word has two or more sense or meanings.1)Diachronic approached: is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meaning from its primary meaning in the cause of time.2)Synchronic approached: is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period oftime.radiation: a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings.concatenation: a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense until, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed.Homonymy（同形异意）: a term used to refer to two or more words which have the same form or sounds but differ in meanings. defined as words different in meaning1)perfect: (same name)identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)homographs: (same spelling)identical only in spelling but different in meaning and sound.3)homophones: (same sound)identical only in sound but different in meaning and spelling.Synonymy（同义词）: be used to refer to words which are similar or the same in meaning, but different sound and spelling.Antonymy（反义词）: can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Hyponymy（上下义关系）: deal with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is , the meaning of a specific word is included in that of another more general word.1)superordinates: is refer to some general words .(which are concrete and precise).2)subordinates: denote those more specific words.(which convey only a general and vague idea).Extension/generalization（扩展法）: is a process by which the specialized meaning has become generalized. is a term referring to the widening of meaning Narrowing/specialization（缩略法）: is a process by which the word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. is a term referring to the shrinkingof meaningDegradation/deterioration（降级法）: is a process by which words with a commendatory meaning fall into derogatory sense.Elevation/amelioration（升级法）: is a process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance.Transfer（转换法）: is a process in which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing.A semantic field: is a meaning area where words share the same concept. A semantic field is useful because it helps pin down the meanings of words in relation to other words in the semantic field. Often, a word is not known until the words that operate with it become known.Specialized dictionary: is a dictionary concentrating on a particular area of language or knowledge.Linguistic Context : refer to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears.Lexical Context – refers to the words occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring word.Grammatical context – The meanings of a word may be inflected by the structure in which it occurs. Refer to syntactic structure in which a word is used. the role of context content has three major functionelimination of ambiguityindication of referentsprovision of clues for inferring word meaning(1) Old English (450 ~ 1150). After the Romans, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came in great numbers. Soon they permanent control of the land, which was to be called England. Their language, historically known as Anglo - Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic. Now people generally refer to Anglo - Saxon as Old English. The introduction of Christianity had a great impact on the English vocabulary. In the 9th century the land was invaded again by Norwegian and Danish Vikings. With the invaders, many Scandinavian words came into the English languages. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50000 ~ 60000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German. Therefore, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs had complex endings or vowel changes, or both, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.(2) Middle English (1150 ~ 1500). The Norman Conquest in 1066 started a continual flow of French words into English and Norman French became the polite speech. But by the end of the 13th century, English gradually came back. During this period, Britain had trade relations with Holland and as a result, as many as 2500 words of Dutch origin found their way into English.(3) Modern English. Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. During the Renaissance, enormous numbers of Latin words became part of English vocabulary. In the mid - seventeenth century, British tentacles began stretching out to every corner of the globe, thus enabling English to absorb words languages of the world. Since the beginning of this century, thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions, and scientific achievements. In modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language from all major.Loan-word借词 :are borrowed from other languages.Alien非同化词：are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.Denizens同化词: are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language.Differences between compound and free phrases:1)phonetic feature:2)semantic feature, every compound should express a single idea just as a word.3)grammatical feature, a compound tend to play a single grammatical role in a sentence.Idioms can be classified into five groups:1)idioms nominal in nature.2)Idioms adjective in nature.3)Idioms verbal in nature.4)Idioms adverbial in nature.5)Sentence idioms.Metaphor(隐喻): Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to anotherMetonymy(借代): Metonymy is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes.Synecdoche(提喻): Synecdoche means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these.Analogy(类比): Analogy is a process whereby words are created in imitation of other words.What is the role of context?What is collocative meaning? Give one example to illustrate your point.How do you account for the role of native words in English in relation to loan-words?Why do we say “English is a heavy borrower”? Please justify it.The “pen” is mightier than the “sword”Explain what “pen” and “sword” mean respectively using the theory of motivation.Analyze the morphological structure of following words and point out the types of the morphemes.Recollection, nationalist, unearthly.What are the differences between compounds and free phrases?How many groups may idiom be classified into?What are the special features of a Chinese-English Dictionary?How would you explain the difference between back-formation and suffixation?Analyze the three causes of meaning change within the scope f linguistic factors, based on the words given below: Gold,bulbDeer,beast,animals.Fortuitous, fruition.What are the linguistic factors of meaning changesWhat are actonyms? Please illustrate it with at least two examples.Please illustrate the grammatical meaning of a word with at least one example.Supply two example to illustrate that the influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. Explain the three different periods of the English development.What is word-formation? What are the three major processes of word-formation?What is the symbolic connection between a sound and meaning?In the following sentence, what type of transfer has the word in bold undergone?You should address your remarks to the chair.What is the appropriate antonym for ”sharp” in the following statement?Jack heard the sharp noise from the dark house.Comment on the following pairs of sentences in terms of superordinates and subordinates.The man said he would come to our school next week.The visiting scholar said he would visit our university next Monday.Use examples to illustrate the similarity and difference between absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.Explain the logical relationships of the following terms: free morphemes, affix, morphemes, bound root, bound morphemesIn which aspects do compounds differ from free phrases？What is the difference between superordinates and subordinates? Explain it with the given words “flower, elephant, tiger, rose, tulip, animal.”Take “a laconic answer is a short answer” as an example to illustrate etymological motivation.Comment on the following groups of words in terms of types of antonyms：contradictory terms, contrary terms, relative terms.“dead-alive, yound-old, employer-employee”What are the three main sources of new words in present-day English vocabulary? Match the following expressions with the three sources as examples. “green revolution, fast food, the fourth world, Mao jeckets” , open heart surgery.欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！致力为企业和个人提供合同协议，策划案计划书，学习资料等等打造全网一站式需求。

2012词汇学复习资料The development of the English Vocabulary1.Indo-European Language FamilyThe Indo-European Language Family is considered as one of the most important language families. It includes most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. Those languages, which are believed to have originated from this language family and developed alone different lines, show various degrees of similarity to one another. They fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern Set东部诸语族: Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语, Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语族, Armenian 亚美尼亚语族and Albanian阿尔巴尼亚语族; a Western Set: 西部诸语族Celtic凯尔特语族, Italic 意大利语族, Hellenic希腊语族, Germanic日尔曼语族. All the languages in both sets shed some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has lent words into the English vocabulary.Prussian普鲁士语Lithuanian立陶宛语Polish波兰语Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语Czech捷克斯洛伐克语Bulgarian保加利亚语Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语RussianAlbanian阿尔巴尼亚Persian波斯语Hindi北印度语Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语系Bengali孟加拉语Romany，吉卜赛语Armenian亚美尼亚语PortugueseSpanishItalic意大利语族ItalianRoumanian罗马尼亚语FrenchIndo-EuropeanLanguage FamilyIrishCeltic凯尔特语BretonScottishNorwegian挪威语Icelandic，冰岛语Danish丹麦语Germanic Swedish瑞典语日尔曼语言EnglishDutchFlemishGermanHellenic，古希腊语- GreekChapter 1A General Survey of A WordThe Definition of Word• A word is(1) A minimal free form of a language;(2) a sound unity;(3) a unity of meaning;(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.A word is a minimal free form that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A word is a smallest unit of a language.1. The development of English vocabularyThe history of English language can be divided into 3 periods:a/ Old English period (449—1100)The former inhabitants, the Celtic, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons and Jutes Anglo-Saxon as Old English, Old English contains 50-60 thousand words, which consists of the basic word stock.b/ Middle English period (1100-1500)characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.The French loan words were found in law and governmental administration (judge, justice)c/ Modern English period (1500--)the early stage of this period ( including the years between 1500-1700), the Renaissance brought great changes to the vocabulary. borrowing from Latin, Latin were now mostly connected with science and abstract ideas. Greek borrowings were mostly literary, technical and scientific words2.Classification of English Words According to Different CriteriaA. By Origin: native words and loan (borrowed ) wordsIn English language, most native words in Modern English are monosyllabic. They form the great majority of the basic word stock of English language.The fundamental features of the basic word stock are:1. National character;2. Stability;3. Word-forming ability;4. Ability to form collocationsSince the great majority of the basic word stock are native words, they are naturally the ones used most frequently in everyday speech and writing.B. By level of usage1. Common words ( P11 words connected with ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life: “The repeated telephone calls only annoyed me but made my sister very angry.”)2. Literary words (P12 words are chiefly used in writing, formal speeches, e.g. Feeling fatigued, Tom retired early.): a. Archaic words; b. Poetical words See P133. Colloquial words: Words used mainly in spoken English, in conversation among friends and colleagues,e.g. “John was fired for petty thieving”4. Slang wordsC. By notion: function words and content ( P 17)function words are short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, and so on, they serve grammatical meaningContent words have lexical meaning, such as nouns, main verbs, adj and adv.e.g. The passerby was hit by the truck.Chapter 2Word-Structure and Word-Formation(1)1. The definition of morpheme1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language?- morphemeWhat are words composed of? - Words are formed by morphemes. A word is the smallest unit that stands alone to communicate meaning.1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents of morpheme? 语素词素-形位2.1 Morphemes may be classified into free and bound.Free morphemes,also called content morphemes, may constitute words by themselves. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. So we may say that free morphemes are free roots.Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as grammatical morphemes, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words, e.g. recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes).Task:(1) Read the following words and find the root in each word.heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty, heartiness,sweetheart, heartbroken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly.(2) What is your definition of root?A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed.(3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why?2.2.1 Two types of roots- Free rootIn English, many roots are free morphemes, such as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith.- Bound rootHowever, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes. For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive; mit in permit, commit, submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur, occur, incur, etc.these roots cannot be used to form new words.2.2.2 Two types of affixesAffix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.- Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to expressthe following meanings:(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes;en in oxen.(2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s.(3) the verbal endings: for example,a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third personsingular present tense.b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the presentparticiple or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or pastparticiple.(4) the comparative and superlative degrees:e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest,hardest.- Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes) can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.•(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g: unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech. task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech.- en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich- be- as in words like befriend, belittle- a- as in words like asleep, aside•(2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g.: darkness, worker.By the addition of the suffix,the word is usually changed from one part ofspeech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.2.3 Relationship between the two classifications of morphemesMorphemeIt is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.a)Bound morphemes are morphemes which alone can be used as words.What is an allomorph?An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。

英语知识点大全一、词汇1. 同义词与反义词：学习英语词汇时，同义词和反义词的掌握非常重要。

对于同义词，我们可以丰富自己的词汇量，使得表达更准确精炼；对于反义词，我们可以对照理解，进一步理解词语的意思。

2. 词根与词缀：英语中的词根和词缀是构建单词的重要组成部分。

了解一些常见的词根和词缀，可以帮助我们更好地理解和记忆新单词，提高词汇的积累。

3. 难以区分的词汇：英语中有一些容易混淆的词汇，如“affect”和“effect”、“accept”和“except”等。

了解这些词汇的区别和用法，可以避免在写作和口语表达中出现错误。

二、语法1. 句子结构：英语的句子结构包括主语、谓语、宾语等成分的组合。

熟悉不同句子结构的用法和语序规则，可以提高我们的语言表达能力。

2. 时态和语态：掌握英语中的各种时态和语态，是准确表达自己意思的重要基础。

时态决定了动作发生的时间，语态则关注于句子的主语和对象。

3. 从句和状语从句：从句是句子的一部分，可以用来修饰主句或提供更多的信息。

状语从句则用来修饰动作的方式、原因、条件等。

三、听力与口语1. 听力技巧：英语听力是提高英语能力的重要一环。

掌握一些常用的听力技巧，如捕捉关键词、辨认听力材料中的上下文线索等，可以更好地理解听力内容。

2. 口语表达：口语是英语能力中最实用的部分之一。

通过多听、多说、多模仿，我们可以在实践中提升自己的口语表达能力，流利地交流。

3. 礼貌用语：在英语交流中，礼貌用语是必不可少的。

掌握一些常见的礼貌用语，如“thank you”、“please”等，可以让我们的交流更加得体。

四、阅读与写作1. 阅读技巧：阅读是提高英语水平的有效途径之一。

掌握一些阅读技巧，如快速浏览、寻找关键信息等，可以更高效地阅读英语文章。

2. 写作结构与表达：英语写作需要有清晰的结构和连贯的表达。

学习如何组织文章结构、使用合适的过渡词和句子、运用恰当的扩展句式等，可以使我们的写作更加生动有力。

英语词汇学复习提纲英语词汇学复习提纲Part I概念题1.（glossary） a list of the difficult words used in a piece of writing orsubject, with explanations of their meanings2. (phrase) a group of words that form a unit within a clause3.(expression) unclassified linguistic unit of any length: words, phrases,sentences, paragraphs, etc.4.(diction) the choice of words used in a speech or piece of writing5.(vocabulary) words in general known, learnt, used, etc. or a list ofwords, usually in alphabetical order and with explanations of their meanings6.(lexicon) all the words and phrases in a language or a dictionary7.(lexis) all the words in a language8.(word) the smallest unit of spoken or written language which has meaningand can stand alone9.(Etymology) the study of origins and development of words10.(Lexicography) the writing and making of dictionaries11.(Lexical semantics) the study of words and their meanings12.(lexicology) the study of meanings and uses of words13.(morphology) the study of how words are formed in a language14.(phraseology) the words and phrases used in a particular professionor activity, or a particular way of putting words together to express something15. (collocation) a group of words which "naturally" go together throughcommon usage16. Morpheme: the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, notdivisible or analyzable into smaller forms17. Root: a root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveysthe main lexical meaning of the word.18.Affix: a collective term for the type of formative that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme. It can further be divided inflectional and derivational types.19. Prefix: a derivational or an inflectional affix that can be addedto the beginning of a morpheme.20.Suffix: a derivational or inflectional affix that can be added to theend of a morpheme./doc/d0*******.html,pounding/composition: a word formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.22.Derivation/ affixation: a word-formation process by which new wordsare created by adding a prefix, or suffix or both to the base.23.Conversion: a word-formation process whereby a word ofa certainword-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.24.Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of wordsto form a proper name, a technical term or a phrase; it is pronounce letter by letter.25.Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of anorganization or a scientific term, etc; they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters.26.Blending/hybrid: a word-formation process in which a new word isformed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.27.Back-formation: a term used to refer to a word-formation process bywhich a shorter word is coined by deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.28.Clipping: a word-formation process by which a word is shortened bydeleting one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.29.Motivation: refers to the connection between word symbol and its sense.Most English words are non-motivated. Motivation can arise in three major ways: phonetic motivation, morphological motivation and semantic motivation.30.Polysemy : a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical itemwhich has a range of different meanings.31.Homonyms: words identical in sound or spelling or both but differentin meaning.32.Synonyms: words differing in sound but identical or similar inmeaning.33.Antonyms: words that are opposite in meaning34.Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific andgeneral lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter.35.Context in its narrowest sense consists of the lexical items that comeimmediately before and after any word in an act of communication.36. Euphemism: an act of using agreeable language when speaking of anunpleasant or embarrassing fact (such as death, disease, etc) and of taboo subjects (such as sex and the excretive processes of the body).37.Metaphor: is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison basedon association of similarity, in which a word or phrase ordinarily used for one thing is applied to another, a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning.38.Metonymy: a figure of speech by which an object or ideais describedby the name of something closely related to it. Part II 常用英语词汇学术语Acronym 首字母拼音词Acronymy首字母拼音法Affix 词缀Affixation 词缀法Antonym 反义词Antonymy 反义关系Back-formation 逆构词，反成法Blend 拼缀词Blending 拼缀法Collocation 搭配，组合Complementaries 互补反义词Complete antonym 完全反义词Composition 复合法Compounding 复合构词法Compound word 复合词、Concept 概念Conceptual meaning 概念意义Connotative meaning 内涵意义Context 语境Conversion 词类转换法Denotative meaning 外延意义Degradation of meaning 词义的降格Derivation 派生法Elevation of meaning 词义的升格Etymology 词源学Euphemism 委婉语Homonymy 同音（形）异义Hyponymy 上下义关系Idiom 成语Inflectional affix 屈折词缀Initialism：首字母缩略词Metaphor：隐喻Metonymy：换喻，转喻，借代Morpheme 词素Morphology 词形学，形态学Motivation of word 词的理据Neologism 新词语Onomatopoeic word 拟声词Phonetics 语音学Polysemy 一词多义Register 语域Root 词根Semantic field语义场Semantics 语义学Synonym 同义词Synonymy 同义关系Word-formation/building 构词法Part III True or False Statements1.It is usual that some affixes have far more frequent productive uses thanothers. There are some significant relations between affixes, especially antonymy, as with pre- and post-, -full and –less. (T)2.Though most prefixes can occur as independent words, they can on occasionbe detached to permit coordination, as in pre- and post-hysterectomy. (F) /doc/d0*******.html,pounding can occur onlyin three main word classes, nouns and to alesser extent, adjectives and, to least extent, verbs. (F)4.Semantically, compounds can often be identified as havinga main stresson the first element and a secondary stress on the second element. (F) 5.English compounds can be analyzed according to different criteria, suchas orthographic criteria, semantic criteria, and phonological criteria.(T)/doc/d0*******.html,pounds can be divided into three categories according to word classes: noun compounds, adjective compounds and verb compounds. (T)/doc/d0*******.html,pounds indicate the relations of the compounding elements by syntacticparaphrases. (T)8.Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item is adapted orconverted to a new word class without the addition of an affix. (T) 9.Conversions from verb to noun and from verb to adjective are the mostproductive categories. (F)10.There are two types of conversion: full conversion and partialconversion. (T)11.The most important kinds of alteration in conversion are the voicingof final consonants, and the shift of stress. (T)12.Words formed through acronymy are called acronyms orinitialisms,depending on the spelling of the new words. (F)13.Back-formation is the method of creating new words by removing thesupposed suffixes. (T)14.Motivation has nothing to do with the explanation for the reason thata particular form has a particular meaning. (F)15.The conceptual meaning of a word is often unstable and hard todetermine. (F)16.By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning ofa particularword is related to its origin. (T)17.Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguisticelement and the non-linguistic world of experience, while reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.(F)18.In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic andinherent relation to the physical world of experience. (T)19.Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaningfrom or reduce meaning to observable contexts. (T)20.The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all itswords and phrases put together. (F)21.Both semantics and pragmatics study how the speakers of a languagechoose their words to effect successful communication. (F)22.The meaning of an isolated word from a dictionary is usually abstractand context-independent. (T)23.Indo-European refers to the family languages spoken originally inEurope. (F)/doc/d0*******.html,tin and French belong to the different language groups. (F)25.English belongs to the West-Germanic language group of Indo-Europeanlanguage family. (T)26.The first people in England about whose language we have definiteknowledge are the Celts. (T)27.Certain Germanic tribes, Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes were thefounders of the English nation. (T)28.Old English has much less loan words compared with modern English.(T)29. The Norman Conquest virtually introduced French-Englishbilingualism into England. (T)30.Collocation is the relationship between two words or groups of wordsthat often go together and form a common expression. (T)31.Collocations are not transparent in meaning; that is, the meaning ofthe whole cannot be worked out from the meaning of each of the words in it. (F)32.Lexical collocations normally consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs andprepositions. (F)33. A fixed lexical collocation is a collocation of two or moreco-occurring lexemes in an unchanging syntactic and semantic relationship.(T)34. A Dictionary of the English Language by Dr. Samuel Johnson in 1755is a symbol for modern English Dictionary. (F)35.Webster’s two-volume 1828 dictionary, The American Dictionary of theEnglish Language, published when he was 70 years old, was by far the largest and the most impressive dictionary produced in America up to that time. (T)36.From pronunciation, British dictionaries as well as American onesgenerally use International Phonetic Alphabet. (IPA). (F)37.Bilingual dictionaries usually do not have etymological labels dueto the limitation of the length. (T)Part IV. Practices for Word-formation Processes.Section A: Explain the meanings of the following compounds in English1.Pickpocket2.Housebreaking3.Off-white4.Sleepwalker5.Brainstorming6.Self-styled7.Tenderfoot8.Good-looking9.Quick-freeze10.DragonflyKeys:1.A person who steals things from people’s pockets2.Entering a building without right or permission in order to commit a crime3.A color that is nor pure white but has some grey or yellow in it4.A person who walks around while asleep5.Method of solving problems in which all the members of a group suggestideas which are then discussed/doc/d0*******.html,ing a name, title etc. which one has given oneself, esp. without havingany right to do so7.A person who has recently arrived in a rough place8.Having a pleasant appearance9.Freeze very quickly for storing so that it keeps its natural qualities10.Insect with a long thin body and two pairs of wingsSection B 根据例词，写出另外同类型转换的例子1.Garage to garage _______ ______ _______2.Water to water ________ ________ _______3.Core to core _______ ________ _______4.Nurse to nurse _______ ________ _______5.Hand to hand _______ -________ ______。

• 2. Dialects and regional English: • relative synonyms in British and American usage • British American lift elevator car park parking lot
• Types of synonyms • 1. Complete or absolute synonyms（完全/绝对同 义词）:It refers to the two words are totally synonymous and they are fully identical in meaning and interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotative, affective and stylistic meanings. e.g. • fatherland -- motherland, word-formation -- wordbuilding. • 2. Relative synonyms or more accurate quasisynonymous words（相对同义词）:It refers to the words are synonymous in meaning basically but there are some small differences. e.g. beautiful, pretty, good-looking, handsome, attractive, charming are synonymous words.
II. 词与词之间的同义关系
词与词可以因表达同一的逻辑概念结合在一起，这 些词称之为同义词(synonyms)。 同义词只是意义相同，但形位结构、音位形状和用 法不同。 一对或一组同义词并不是一成不变，一个词可与 一部分或另一部分词构成同义词。如: look与see, watch, observe 构成同义词，表示“看”的概念， 也可以与seem, appear 构成同义词，表示“看上 去”的概念。