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Chapter Four Syntax

Chapter Four  Syntax
Chapter Four  Syntax

Chapter From Word to Text

要点精梳

1.Introduction 简介

1)Definition of syntax句法学定义

It refers to the study of the rules governing, the way words are combined to reform sentences. Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the centre of grammatical Study. 句法学是指研究语言中此组合成句子的支配规则,或者简单地说,是研究句子的构造。通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位,所以句法长期以来是语法研究的中心。

2) Representative approaches to syntax 代表性的语法研究学派

Different linguistic theories first differ in their treatment .Of sentence structure. In this chapter, the following approaches to syntax will be introduced : the traditional approach , the Structural approach , the generative approach , the functional approach(the Prague school)and the systemic-function grammar

(Holliday’s appro ach).

不同的语言理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。本章将要介绍一下几种流派:传统学派,结构主义学派,生成学派,功能学派(布拉格语言学派)和系统功能学派(韩礼德学派)。

2.Syntactic Relations

The syntactic relation refers to the relation between words in a sentence ,which can be studied from both vertical and latitudinal perspectives .generally speaking ,the syntactic relations include three basic types: positional relation ,relation of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence .the first type belongs to overt relations, while the rest two belong to covert relations .

2.句法关系

句法关系是指在句子组合中词和词之间的关系,通常可以从水平和垂直两个维度来考查。一般说来,句法关系有三种:位置关系,替代关系和共现关系。第一种关系是显性关系,后两种则是隐性关系。

positional relation

It refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language . So it is also called word order. It is the basic syntactic relation , and also the requirement of grammatical acceptability and semantic intelligibility of human language.

位置关系

位置关系是指语言中词的排列顺序。因此位置关系又叫词序。位置关系是任何人类语言中的基本句法关系,也是语言的句法可接受性和语义可以理解性的需求。

relation of substitutability

It refers to classes of sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in the same sentence.

替代关系

替代关系是指在同一句子中相同此类或形同词汇集合的词从语法的角度讲可以相互替换。co-occurrence

It refers to that words of different sets or classes may permit , or require ,the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.

共现关系

共现关系是指不同词类的不同词汇集合准许另一个词类或集合的词出现构成一个句子或句子的某一个特定部分。

traditional approach

Traditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words . The study of sentence formation , therefore , involves a great of the study of word , such as , the classification of words in term of parts of speech , the identification of function of words in terms of subject , predicate ,etc . These parts of speech and function are sometimes called categories.

3传统语法学派

传统语法认为句子是词的序列。因此句子构成的研究涉及了对词的大量研究。例如,词类是对词进行的分类,主语,谓语是对词的功能的描写,等等。这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。Number, gender and case

①Number :it is an inflectional category basically distinguishing reference to one individual from reference to more than one . Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun . There are usually two terms of number: singular and plural . But language like classical Greek and Arabic have a third number :dual , something like the English "both" . Chinese is said to have none .

数、性和格

①数:数是指把所指从一个或多与一个中区别开来的曲折范畴。数,主要是名词和代词的范畴。数一般有两种:单数和复数。但是在古希腊语,阿拉伯语等语言中,还有第三种数:双数,类似英语中的both、(双方,两者)。斐济群岛语还有第四种数:三数。汉语中没有数的范畴。

②Gender : it is a grammatical category dividing nouns into classes basically characterizable by reference to sex . Gender is also mostly a category of nouns and pronoun. In English , the gender distinctions are on the whole natural , determined by the biological gender of the creature . However , exactly speaking , the gender here , means the grammatical gender , which includes feminine , masculine and neuter . The gender in French belongs to grammatical gender .

②性:性指的是依照性别把名词分成不同类列的语法范畴。性主要是名词和代词的范畴。在英语中,性的差别是自然的,由动物本身的生理性别决定。然而,准确地讲,性在这里指的是语法性,语法性主要有阴性、阳性和中性三种。法语中性的范畴就是语法性。

③Case:it is an inflectional category , basically of nouns , which typically marks their role in relation to other parts of the sentence . The category of case is prominent in the grammar of Latin, with six distinctions of nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative and ablative . According to Fillmore , case can be divided into thirteen types : agent , experience , instrument , patient , source , goal , locative, time , path , dative, benefactive, comitative and essive .

③格:格主要是名词的屈折范畴,它典型地标识着它们和句子其他部分之间的关系。格在拉丁语语法里是很显著的。它有六种格:主格,宾格,呼格,属格,与格和离格。根据菲尔墨格可以为十三中:施事,感情,工具,受事,源点,终点,方位,时间,行径,承受,受益,伴随和永存。

the grammatical categories of verbs - tense , aspect and mode

tense and aspect are the categories of verbs . Tense and aspect are not separated in traditional grammar .

动词的语法范畴-——时态、体和语气时态、体和语气是动词的范畴。在传统语法中,时态和体并不区分。

①tense

Definition : it is inflectional category whose basic role is to indicate the time of an event , etc . In relation to the moment of speaking. Based on the tense system in Latin grammar, English used to be said to have sixteen tense as follow : simple present , simple past , simple future, simple past future , present progressive , past progressive , future progressive , past future progressive , present perfect , past perfect , future perfect , past future perfect , present perfect progressive , past perfect progressive , future perfect progressive , past future perfect progressive .

Distinction between tense and time

Time is universal concept , which every language is capable of expression . Tense is a linguistic concept , which varies from language to language .

①时态

时态的定义:时态是表明相对于说话者时刻时间所发生的时间的屈折范畴。基于拉丁语语法的时态系统,一般认为英语有以下十六种时态:一般现在时,一般过去时,一般将来时,一般过去将来时,现在进行时,过去进行时,过去将来时,现在完成时,过去完成时,将来完成时,过去将来完成时,现在完成进行时,过去完成进行时,将来完成进行时,过去将来完成时。

时态和时间的区别

时间是一个通用的概念,每一种语言都能表达。时态是个语言学概念,不同语言的时态千差万别。

②Aspect

Definition : it is a general term for verbal category that distinguishes the status of events , etc. In relation to specific periods of time , as opposed to their simple location in the present , past , or future .

Distinction between tense and aspect

The distinction between tense and aspect is that the former is DEICTIC , i.e. Indicating time relative to the time of utterance ; while the latter is not deictic , the time indicated is not relative to the time of utterance , but relative to the time of another event described , or implied, in the narrative . As a result, there are only two tense: present and past. The so-called future tense is not expressed in the same way as these two. That is, it is not expressed by morphology, not y the different forms of the verb, but by various other means .

②体

体的定义:体是相对于具体时间段而言,是区分事件地位的动词范畴的总称,和简单的现在、过去和将来时间定位相反。

时态和体的区别

时态和体之间的区别在与:时态是指示性的,也就是说指明的时间与说话的时间相关;体则不是指示性的,指明的时间与说话的时间没有关系,却与叙述中描写或者暗示的另一件事情的时间相关。所以现在一般认为有两种时态:现在时和过去时。所谓的将来时跟他们并不采用相同的表达方式。将来时不用形态学表达,不用动词的不同形式表达,而是其他手段表达。

③Mood

Mood is a grammatical category distinguishing modality. Modality is a category covering indication either of a kind of speech act of the degree of certainty with which something is said

③语气

语气是区别情态的语法范畴。情态就是包含着对一种言语行为或谈及之事的肯定程度的某种提示的范畴。

⑶Relations between categories: concord and government

When different categories appear together in the same sentence some of them must control the others because of their differences in types and features. There are two major types of control :concord and government.

⑶范畴之间的关系:一致与支配

不同的范畴同时出现在一个句子中时,范畴的类别和性质不同,其地位也不同,一些范畴总是要控制另外一些范畴。控制有两种:一致与支配。

①Concord:

It is also called agreement; it is a syntactic relation between words and phrases which are compatible, in a given construction, by virtue of inflections carried by at least one of them. There are types of concord; notioal agreement and grammatical agreement.

①一致:

一致是在一个给定的语言结构中,词与短语之间利用至少他们中的一个所携带的屈折形式相互匹配的语法关系。一只有两种:概念一致和语法一致。

②Government:

it is a syntactic relation of another type of control, which is realized in three possible forms. First,, the relation between a head and an object or other complement, second, a relation between such a head and the case of an object; third, a relation elements development in “Government and Binding theory” into a general principle by which elements are assigned by other elements that command them.

②支配:

支配是另一种控制形式的句法关系,支配有三种形式:第一种形式是主词对其宾语和补语的支配。第二种是主语对其支配,第三种是从“管辖和约束理论”发展来的一个一般原则,根据这个原则,语言要素的格是由“成分统制”他们的要素分配的。

⒋Structural approach

The structural approach to the analysis of language was started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in the beginning of the twentieth century. the linguistic theories of this approach regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.

⒋结构主义学派

结构主义学派的创始人是二十世纪初瑞士语言学家费尔迪南.德.索绪尔。结构主义学派理论认为语言单位是在一种结构中相互互联的,不是孤立的。

⑴Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

In S aussure’s view, language is a system of signs, each of consists of two parts, signified and signifier. and the relationship between two parts is arbitrary

⑴组合关系与聚合关系

索绪尔认为语言是一个符号系统,每个符号有两部分组成:所指和能指。这两者之间关系是任意的。

①Syntagmatic relation:

It is a relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc, e.g. between s,p, and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such as Bill hunts. The syntagmatic relation is also called horizontai relation or chain relation.

①组合关系:

组合关系就是构成同一形式,序列或结构的要素之间的关系,例如同一形式spring中的s,p和r三者之间的关系或者同一结构Bill Hunt中的主语和谓语之间的关系。组合关系又叫做水平关系或链条关系。

②Paradigmatic relation:

It is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure. The paradigmatic relation is also called vertical relation or choice relation.

②聚合关系:

聚合关系是指在一个结构中某一个特定位置上可相互替换的各要素之间的关系。聚合关系又叫做垂直关系或选择关系。

⑵Immediate constituent analysis

①Definition of IC analysis

It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents.—word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.

①直接成分分析法定义

直接成分分析法是指先把句子分析为直接成分—词组(或短语),再把这些直接成分依次切分,得到各自的直接成分,层层切分,直到最终成分为止。

②Features of IC analysis

Advantage:

through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.

②直接成分分析法的特点:

优点:

通过IC分析法,句子的内在结构可以清晰的展现出来,如果有歧义也会被揭示出来。

Problems:

first,at the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions, any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts, but this is not always possible. Second, construction with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for three diagrams in IC analysis. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.

问题:

首先,开始的时候,有些提倡者坚持二元切分,任何结构体在任何层面都分成两个部分。但实际上并不总是如此。其次,含有不连续成分的结构体会给IC分析法的树形图造成技术困难。更严重的问题是有些结构的歧义不能用IC分析法来揭示,分析。

⑶Endocentric and exocentric constructions

Construction is the grammatical structure of a sentence or any smaller unit, represented by a set of elements and relations between elements. It can be divided into two types: endocentric construction and exocentric constructions

⑶向心结构和离心结构

结构是由相互之间有关系的要素组成的句子或比句子小的单位。结构可分为向心结构和离心结构。

①Endocentric construction:

It refers to the construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents which serves as a head or a center of the whole. So, it is also called headed construction. The endocentric construction can be further divided into the following two types: subordinate endocentric construction and coordinate endocentric construction.

①向心结构:

向心结构是指一个其分布功能可以等于其中一个充当主次或中心词的结构的成分。所以,向

心结构又叫做主词结构。根据结构中两个分词之间关系,向心结构又可细分为:从属向心结构和并列向心结构。

Subordinate endocentric constructions:

Those endocentric constructions where there is only one head, with the head dominant the other constructions being modifiers are called subordinate endocentric constructions

从属向心结构:

凡是结构中有一个以上支配性主语,其他成分为该主词的修饰成分,这样的向心结构成为从属向心结构。

Coordinate endocentric constructions:

Those endocentric constructions where there are more than one heads, with equal syntactic status and no one dependent on the other, are called coordinate endocentric constructions.

并列向心结构:

凡是结构中有一个以上句法地位相等的主词,互不依靠,这样的向心结构称为并列向心结构。

②Exocentric construction:

It refers to a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents, none of which serves as a noticeable head or a centre of the whole.

②离心结构:

离心结构是指一个其分布功能不等于它的任何一个成分,没有明显的主词或中心词结构。⒌Generative approach:

The theory of generative approach originated with the American linguist Noam Chomsky.In 1957,he published Syntactic Structions, after that the theory has undergone a number of changes.

⒌生成语法:

生成学派是由美国语言学家诺姆.乔姆斯基创立的。1957年发表了《句法结构》,从此以后这理论经历了一系列变化。

Syntactic Category 句法类

Definition : A syntactic category usually refers to a lexical category or phrasal category that performs a particular grammatical function .

定义:句法类是指履行某一特定语法功能的一个单词语类或短语语类

②Classification: The syntactic category can be divided into two types: lexical category and phrasal category .

分类:句法类包括单词语类和短语语类。

Lexical category ; It is also called part of speech ,in English ,there are four major lexical categories ,that is, noun ,verb ,adjective and adverb .So ,the major lexical category is almost content category .

单词语类:单词语类又叫做词性,英语中有四种主要单词语类:名词、动词、形容词和副词。因此,单词语类多为实义语类。

Phrasal category: It includes four kings , I .e. NP, VP, PP and AP.

短语语类:短语语类包括名词短语、动词短语、介词短语和形容词短语。Syntactic Movement and Movement Rules 句法移位和移位规则

Syntactic movement : It refers to the movement of any constituent in a sentence out of its original place to a new position . We’ll discuss three kinds of movement here : NP-movement , Wh-movement and AUK-movement.

句法移位:句法移位是指一个句子的成分从原来的位置移到另一个新位置。这里我们讨论三种移位:NP移位,WH-移位和AUK-移位。

-movement : It is relative to two constructions, I.e. passive sentence and raising construction. Generally speaking , the passive sentence is produced by the movement of the active sentence; in the raising construction, there are two kinds of raising of: raising verbs and raising adjectives.

NP移位:NP移位涉及两种结构:被动句和提升结构。一般认为,被动句是由主动句移位产生的。NP移位不仅发生在被动句,而且发生在提升结构中,主要有两种提升结构:一类是含有提升动词的结构,另一类是含有提升形容词的结构。

WH-movement: Ihe movement mostly takes place in wh-question sentences, including direct wh-question sentences, indirect wh-question sentences and relative clauses.

Wh-移位:主要发生在wh-问句,包括直接wh-问句和间接wh-问句以及关系问句中。----- Aux-movement: It refers to the movement of such words as be , have , do , may ,can , shall , should, and so on , from the original position to the beginning of the sentence .

AUX-移位:是指诸如be, have, do , may, can, shall, should 之类的助动词从原来的位置移动到居首。

②Deep structure and Surface Structure 深层结构和表层结构

Deep structure : It refers to the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction , I,e, the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.

深层结构:深层结构是指一个结构体的语法属性的抽象表述,即不同成分之间的结构关系的潜在层面。

Surface structure :It is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction , which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce .

表层结构:表层结构是结构体句法派生过程的最后阶段,与人们的实际发送,接受的结构组织是相符合的。

Move-ɑrule (move-ɑ规则)

It is a general movement rule which accounts for the syntactic benavior of any constituent movement.这个规则是指任何成分可以移动到任何位置。

6. Functional Approach {the Prague school}功能学派(布拉格学派)

The Prague school thinks that a sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side .

布拉格学派认为句子能从语法的角度分析,也能够从功能的角度分析。

①Vilem Mathesius ,held that apart from the analysis of a sentence in terms of subject and predicate from the formal point of view ,there may be a functional analysis in terms of THEME and RHEME

马太`休斯认为句子除了用主语和谓语来进行形式分析外,还可以用另一套术语:主位和述位。

Theme: It refers to that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds.

主位:主位是指已知的信息或至少在语境中是明确,说话者从它开始谈话。

Rheme: It refers to what the speaker states about , or in regard to , the starting point of the utterance.

述位:述位是指说话者的陈述有关,或者涉及,话语起点的内容。

Another method to analyze a sentence from the functional perspective is Communicative Dynamism , CD for shot , which is proposed by J.Firbas.

从功能角度分析句子的另一种方法是J.Firbas 提出的交际动力分析法,简称CD分析法。

Communicative Dynamism : It refers to the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication . According to J.Firbas view, the theme is constituted by the elements carrying the lowest degree of CD within the sentence , while the rheme is constituted by the sentence elements carrying the highest degree of CD within the sentence .

交际动力:它是指句子成分对交际发展所做的贡献的程度。根据J.Firbas 的观点,主位是由句子内交际动力程度最低的部分构成,而述位是由句子内交际动力程度最高部分构成。

7 Systemic- functional Grammar (Halliday’s Approach)系统-功能语法学派

This linguistic theory has been developed by the British born Australian linguist M.A.K.Halliday. As the name suggests , it has two characteristics: systemic and functional . What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functions of language to its structures .HE argues that there are three general functions of language: ideational , interpersonal and textual 这一理论由出生在英国的澳大利亚语言学家韩礼德发展来的。如名称所示,它由两个特征:系统的和功能的。韩礼德的创新之处在于她把语言功能跟结构联系起来,他认为有三种普遍的语言功能:概念功能.人际功能和语篇功能。

三.补充术语

Simple sentence : It is a sentence that consists of a simple clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

简单句:是指只含一个简单的子句,只有一个主语和一个谓语的句子。

Coordinate sentence ;It is a sentence that consists of two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”,”but””or”

并列句:是指含有两个子句,句子之间由类似和但是或者等连接词在一起的句子。Complex sentence : It is a sentence that contains two or more clauses , one of which can be incorporated into the other

复合句:是指含有两个或两个以上的子句,其中一个包含在另一个里面Recursiveness: It is a rule that can reapply to a form that is itself partly or wholly derived by it . For instance , an NP can contain a PP, for example , [the fish[in the pool]],and a PP can again contain an NP and the NP can contain another PP,[the fish[in[the pool [in the garden]]],and so on . 递归性:是指规则可以重新应用到某一部分或全部使用这种规则得到的结构上。例如,根据句法规则,一个名词短语可以包含一个修饰性介词短语【the fish[in the pool]】,介词短语中又可包含一个名词短语【the fish [in[the pool[in the garden]]],名词短语还可以包含一个介词短语,依次类推。

Conjoining : It refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another . the sentences made up in this way can be understood as instances of coordination .

连接:指的是一个小句与其他小聚并列或连接的过程。通过这种方式组成的句子理解为并列句。

Embedding: It refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence(main clause)in syntactic subordination.

嵌入:指的是将小句包含到句子里使其在句法上处于从属地位的一种方式。

Argument of poverty stimulus: It means that it is impossible for children to acquire some particular language knowledge resulting from the contact of language data in the process of Their L1 acquisition.

刺激贫乏论:即有些语言知识不可能是靠母语习得的过程中所接触到的语言材料获得的。Innateness Hypothesis: This is proposed by Chomsky, by which language is a product of human

brain is born with language Faculty or language Acquisition Device which is genetically-based. When a child was born ,his language Faculty is in initial state, with constant exposure to native language, the LF is developed from initial state ti steady state.

先天性假说:由乔姆斯基提出,按照这种假说,语言是人脑的产物,人脑=生来就具有一种语言器官或称为语言习得机制,这种语言器官是由遗传基因决定的。儿童出生时,人脑的语言器官处于初始状态,随着儿童不断地接触母语,其语言能力由初始状态发展为稳定状态。Universal Grammar: Human language knowledge consists of two kinds of knowledge: one is genetically endowed and the other is acquired later. The generally endowed language knowledge is identical when they were born: therefore the gifted an universal language knowledge in human brain containing common language rules of all natural languages in the world is termed Universal Grammar.

普通语法:人类的语言知识有两部分组成:一部分是与生俱来的语言知识,另一部分是后天获得的。如果有一部分语言知识是天生的,那么所有人出生时所具有的语言知识必然是相同的。这种人类大脑中生而有之的、含有世界上所有自然语言的共同特征的普遍语言知识叫做普遍语法。

Parameters: The language knowledge of UG related to a particular language is known as parameters, which manifest language variations and usually have two parameters values realized by various language differences.

参数:普遍语法中和人类语言中的个别现象有关的语言知识,称为参数。参数反映了语言与语言之间的差异,参数通常有两个参数值,不同语言之间的差异体现为不同的参数值。Principles : The language knowledge of UG related ti common rules of human language is called principles, which is ,in nature ,highly abstracted grammatical knowledge applicable to any human language. A particular language does not necessarily have all such principle, however no human language can be against such principle.

原则:普遍语法中和人类语言中的共有现象有关的语言知识,称为原则。原则是指适用于任何语言的高度抽象的语法知识。莫以具体语言并不一定具有所有这些原则,但是没有任何语言可以违反这些原则。

C-command: If a does not dominate b an every c that dominate a also dominates b , then a c-command b. In plain English then, the term C-command refers to the relation between an element ab another of the same level and under the same node in a tree diagram, and any others under the latter element as well.

成分统制:如果a不主导b,c不但主导a而且主导b,那么a就c统治b。在通俗英语中成分统制是指一个成分和树形图中同一节点下,同一层级的另一个成分及后者的下级成分之间的关系。

四.考点评述

本章主要介绍句法研究的各个学派。各个学派研究的视角不同,因此涉及到不同的句子分析方法。本章的基本概念较多,历来是英语专业研究生考试的重点。本章扼要介绍了传统语法、结构语法、生成语法和功能语法四种主要语法流派。具体的考点如下:

1.传统学派:范畴、数、性、格、时态和体、一致关系和组合关系等基本概念。

2.结构主义学派:组合关系和聚合关系、向心结构和离心结构、直接成分分析法(优点和问题),重点要学会用直接成分分析法或树形图分析句子。

3.生成学派:表层结构和深层结构的基本概念的理解和掌握是重点。

4.功能学派:主要掌握主位和述位的概念。

5.系统功能学派:主要掌握韩礼德提出的三种普遍的语言功能:概念功能、人际功能和语篇功能。

五重点高校历年考研真题精选及模拟练习

Ⅰ.Define the following terms

IC analysis (中国人民大学2006年考研题)

endocentric and exocentric constructions (北京交通大学2006年考研题)

cincord (or :agreement)

Immediate constitument

Move-@

Embedding

Suface structure 8. theme 9 rhyme 10 recursiveness

Aspect 12 immediate analysis 13 C-command

14 syntagmatic relation 16 lexical category

Ⅱ.Multiple Choice

Directions: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question or to complete the sentence.

_refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. So it is also called word order. Positional relation B. Positional relation C. Co-occurrence relation

_is also called agreement; it is a syntactic relation between words and phrases which are compatible, in a given construction, by virtue of inflections carried by at least one of them. Government B. Concord C. Binding D. C-command

The structural approach to the analysis of language was started by the Swiss linguist_in the beginning of the twentieth century.

Chomsky B. Halliday C. Saussure D. Fillmore

4._is a general term of for verbal category that distinguishes the status of events, etc .in relation to specific periods of time, as opposed to their simple location in the present, past or future.

A. Tense

B. Time

C. Mode

D. Aspect

5.The relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc.,e.g. between s,p, and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such bill hunts is called_.

A.Synatagmatic relation

B. Paradugnatic relation

C. Positional relation

D. Relation of substitutability

6.In English, theme and rhyme are expressed by_and_.

A. Subject; object

B. Subject; predicate

C. Predicate; relation

D. object; predicate

7.Classical Greek and Arabic have a third number:_, something like the English "both".

A. Single

B. plural

C. dual

D. Trial

8.Another method to analyse a sentence from the functional perspective is the _, which is proposed by J.Firbas.

A. C-command

B. Immediate constituent analysis

C. Deep structure

D. Communicative Dynamism

9. Those endocentric constructions where there is only one head dominant and the other constituents being modifiers ,are_____.

A. subordinate endocentric construction

B. coordinate endocentric constructions

C. exocentric construction

D. endocentric construction

10.________ refers to the movement of any constituent in a sentence out of its original place to a new position.

A. Syntactic category

B. Syntactic movement

C. Deep structure

D. Surface structure

11. The language knowledge of UG related to a particular is known as ___________.

A. Universal Grammar

B. Principles

C. Parameters

D. C-command

12._________ means that it is impossible for children to acquire some particular language knowledge resulting from the contact of language data in the process of their L1 acquisition.

A. Language Faculty

B. Language Acquisition Device

C. Universal Grammar

D. Argument of poverty stimulus

ⅢComplete each of the following statements

1.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called ________.( 北京第二外国语学院2008年考研题)

2. Different linguistic theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structure. In terms of syntax there are some representive approaches: the traditional approach, the generative approach ,_______ and the systemic-functional grammar( Halliday’s approach).

3. The syntactic relation refers to the relation between words in a sentence which can be studied from both vertical and latitudinal perspectives. It is the basic relation and also very easy to understand. Generally speaking, the syntactic relations include three basic types: _________ ,_________and________.

4. Traditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation, therefore, involves a great of the study of the word, such as, classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc. these parts of speech and function are sometimes called_________.

5. Gender is a grammatical category dividing nouns into classes basically characterizable by reference to sex. Gender is also mostly a category of nouns and pronouns. The grammatical gender includes feminine, masculine and _________.

6. There are two types of concord: __________and___________.

7. A relation holding between elements replacement with each other at a particular place in a structure is called __________.

8. The endocentric construction can be further divided into the following two types: ________endocentric construction and _________endocentric construction.

9. The syntactic category can be divided into two types: _________ and phrasal category.

10. Based on the different features of the movement elements, the syntactic movement can be divided into two types: NP-movement and __________.

11.Vilem Mathesius, held that apart from the analysis of a sentence in terms of subject and predicate from the formal point of view, there may be a functional analysis in terms of ________ and ________.

12.What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functions of language to its structure, He argues that there are three general functions of language:__________, interpersonal and textual.

13. _________ is a sentence that contains two or more clauses, one of which can be incorporated into the other.

14.In traditional grammer , _________is the only word class which can function as a substitute for another item . (中山大学2006年考研题)

Ⅳ.Answer the following questions.

1.Why did Chomsky make the distinction between Deep and Surface structures?(中国人民大学2006年考研题)

2.Look at the sentence :“Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”.Explain why the sentence is semantically odd even though it is syntactically well formed.(北京外国语大学2006年考研题)

3.Distinguish between the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers”by mean of IC analysis.(北京第二外国语学院2006年考研题)

4.How do you understand systemic-functional grammar?(北京交通大学2006、2007年考研题)

5.Which of the following sentences are ambiguous?If you know how,use tree diagrams to show hoe these sentences are ambiauous?

(1)The children put the toy in tile box.

(2)The professor’s appointment was shocking.

(3)No smoking section is available.

(4)Jack refused to change his decision.(南京大学2006年考研题)

6.Discuss the tense and asspect system in the English language.(上海交通大学2006年考研题)

7.Give an account of what you know about the English present perfect tense.(北京外国语大学2007年考研题)

8.What are the main concerns of syntax?(北京航空航天大学2007年考研题)

9.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others ,such as sytagmatic and paradigmatic relations?(北京航天航空大学2008年考研题)

10.What are the three major types of sentences?

https://www.doczj.com/doc/fd5983851.html,ment on the differences between tense and time ,tense and aspect.

12.What is the essence of the functional sentence perpective?

13.How many stages has Chomsky’s TG Grammar undergone?

六.参考答案及精解

Ⅰ. Define the following terms .

(略)

Ⅱ. Multiple Choice.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

A B C D A B C D A B C D

Ⅲ. Complete each of the following statements.

1. syntax

2. the functional approach ( the Prague school)

3. positional relation ; relation of substitutability; relation of co-occurrence

4. categories

5. neuter

6. notional agreement; grammatical agreement

7. paradigmatic relation 8. subordinate; coordinate 9. lexical category

10. Wh-movement 11. theme; rheme 12. ideational 13. Complex sentence 14. pronoun IV. Answer the following questions.

英美文化与英汉翻译(1-12)

制作时间:2004年7月21日英美文化与英汉翻译(第1-12期) 作者:snowry_yhn 编辑、制作:yangbb 第1期 MAVERICK (2) 第2期 FBI & SLOAN-KETTERING (3) 第3期 AMA (4) 第4期 GATT (5) 第5期 WESTERN (6) 第6期 GIS & YANK (7) 第7期 GILTS (8) 第8期 JV (9) 第9期 AT&T (10) 第10期 GDP (11) 第11期 MAFIA (12) 第12期 GURU (13) 转载请注明出处,谢谢!

制作时间:2004年7月21日[yangbb语] 终于完工了,而且今天是自己的生日,就把这个包子作为生日 礼物送给自己吧!呵呵,好高兴啊! 其实做包子真的是件比较苦的事情,而且体力劳动远大于脑力劳动。但是我想,如果自己辛苦做出来的包子没有人分享,那才是真正 可悲的事情。所以沪友一定要支持我们的劳动啊! 还有两点提醒一下(不要骂我啊,我马上就说完): 1.本文档版权归沪江所有,尊重原创,请网友在转载时注明出处,非常感谢! 2.本文档按A4幅面制作,有条件的网友可直接打印。 [snowry_yhn语] 了解英美文化对我们的英语学习是很有必要的,特别是对于翻译! “白象牌运动鞋”怎么翻译呢?是“White Elephant Sports Shoes” 吗?大家知道White Elephant 在英语中是什么意思吗?”yellow pub lications"又该怎么翻译呢?是"黄色出版物"吗? 由于缺乏对英美文化的了解而造成的误译、谬译或交际中断经常发生。我们这个栏目就是希望让大家更多的了解一些英美文化,基于snow的实际水平,有错误的地方请大家多多包涵! 第1期 Maverick Maverick

英美文化与英汉翻译

Introductory Remarks ①.White elephant昂贵而无用的东西 ②.Yellow publications低级趣味出版物 ③.Lame duck跛鸭:不能连任的人 ④.Disinformation假情报 ⑤.Hegemony势力范围 ⑥.Mentor保护人 ⑦.Deep throat秘密消息的来源 ⑧.Paint lily多此一举 ⑨.Smoking gun确凿的犯罪证据 ⑩.Be in high cotton兴隆 ?.Barter trade交换贸易 ?.BBS电子布告栏系统 ?.Anonymous remailer匿名转信站 ?.Cybersalon网络咖啡厅 ?.Cyberspace网络世界 ?.Online prank网络恶作剧 ?.CPI消费者物价指数 ?.ISDN综合服务数字网络 ?.OPEC石油输出国组织 ?.Mitnick affair米尼克事件 21.World Wide Web万维网,全球信息网 22.Cellular phone蜂巢式移动电话 23.Genetic engineering遗传工程 24.The economics of Cloning复制人的经济分析 25.G-7七大工业国集团 26.Reaganomics里根经济学 27.Junk bond垃圾债券 28.Face the music了解美国军队惩罚违纪士兵的方式方法 29.Talk turkey了解美国白人的伪善 30.Come down to the brass tacks了解美国工人的过去 31.Go to the dogs了解英美人破产的辛酸 32.Samaritan源自《圣经》中,指乐善好施者 33.Green Berets指头戴绿色贝雷帽的美国特种部队 34.An Eagle Scout指美国的飞鹰童子军 35.American Dream表意是“美国梦” 36.Forbes list指美国《富布斯》富翁排行榜 37.Madison Avenue是麦迪逊大街,代指美国广告中心 38.A rags-to-riches legacy是美国梦的一个重要的内容,指“留下一笔‘白手起家发财’的遗产” 39.Social Security指美国的“社会保障条例” 40.Medicare指美国为65岁以上的老人专设的“老年保健医疗制” 41.Negative income tax指美国社会的“最低收入补贴” 42.A scapegoat替罪羊

英语专业翻译类论文参考文献

参考文献 一、翻译理论与实践相关书目 谢天振主编. 《当代国外翻译理论导读》. 天津:南开大学出版社,2008. Jeremy Munday. 《翻译学导论——理论与实践》Introducing Translation Studies---Theories and Applications. 李德凤等译. 北京:商务印书馆,2007. 包惠南、包昂. 《中国文化与汉英翻译》. 北京:外文出版社, 2004. 包惠南. 《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司. 2001. 毕继万. 《世界文化史故事大系——英国卷》. 上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2003. 蔡基刚. 《英汉汉英段落翻译与实践》. 上海:复旦大学出版社, 2001. 蔡基刚. 《英汉写作对比研究》. 上海:复旦大学出版社, 2001. 蔡基刚. 《英语写作与抽象名词表达》. 上海:复旦大学出版社, 2003. 曹雪芹、高鄂. 《红楼梦》. 陈定安. 《英汉比较与翻译》. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 1991. 陈福康. 《中国译学理论史稿》(修订本). 上海:上海外语教育出版社. 2000. 陈生保. 《英汉翻译津指》. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998. 陈廷祐. 《英文汉译技巧》. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社. 2001. 陈望道. 《修辞学发凡》. 上海:上海教育出版社, 1979. 陈文伯. 《英汉翻译技法与练习》. 北京:世界知识出版社. 1998. 陈中绳、吴娟. 《英汉新词新义佳译》. 上海:上海翻译出版公司. 1990. 陈忠诚. 《词语翻译丛谈》. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 1983. 程希岚. 《修辞学新编》. 吉林:吉林人民出版社, 1984. 程镇球. 《翻译论文集》. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社. 2002. 程镇球. 《翻译问题探索》. 北京:商务印书馆, 1980. 崔刚. 《广告英语》. 北京:北京理工大学出版社, 1993. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译技巧》. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社. 1990. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译讲评》. 北京:对外贸易教育出版社. 1989. 邓炎昌、刘润清. 《语言与文化——英汉语言文化对比》. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 1989. 丁树德. 《英汉汉英翻译教学综合指导》. 天津:天津大学出版社, 1996. 杜承南等,《中国当代翻译百论》. 重庆:重庆大学出版社, 1994. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集(1894-1948)》. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社. 1984. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集(1949-1983)》. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社. 1984. . 范勇主编. 《新编汉英翻译教程》. 天津:南开大学出版社. 2006. 方梦之、马秉义(编选). 《汉译英实践与技巧》. 北京:旅游教育出版社. 1996. 方梦之. 《英语汉译实践与技巧》. 天津:天津科技翻译出版公司. 1994. 方梦之主编. 《译学辞典》. 上海:上海外语教育出版社. 2004. 冯翠华. 《英语修辞大全》,北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 1995. 冯庆华. 《文体与翻译》. 上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2002. 冯庆华主编. 《文体翻译论》. 上海:上海外语教育出版社. 2002. 冯胜利. 《汉语的韵律、词法与句法》. 北京:北京大学出版社, 1997. 冯志杰. 《汉英科技翻译指要》. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998. 耿占春. 《隐喻》. 北京:东方出版社, 1993.

英汉翻译的差异

地域政治与社会生活差异对翻译的影响 莎士比亚十四行诗中把情人比作夏天可爱而温柔Shall compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate:Rough wind do shake the darling buds of May And summer’s lease hath all too short a date(译文:我可否将你比作夏日?你更可爱,更温柔:暴风摇撼五月钟爱的嫩芽,而夏日的周期太过短暂)。由于地理位置的关系,“夏天”带给中国人和英国人的联想和感受是不相同的。在中国,情人象夏日,有你受的。 风俗习惯差异对翻译的影响 同一件事物, 不同的文化背景, 看法大相径庭。在汉文化中龙(dragon) 凤( phoenix) 是一个图腾形象。在封建社会, 龙比喻是皇帝, 凤比喻皇后, 帝王成婚称龙凤呈祥。在汉语中, 龙和凤都用于好的意思。如龙凤, 龙虎、凤毛、山窝里飞出金凤凰。汉语中还有不少表示欢乐、愿望而气势磅礴带龙的成语: 龙飞凤舞、龙盘虎跃、生龙活虎、藏龙卧虎、攀龙附凤、望子成龙。龙在中华民族的心目中是顶礼膜拜的, 所以称自己是龙的传人。但在圣经中, 与上帝作对的恶魔撒旦(San tan) 被称为the Great Dragon. Dragon 总是代表邪恶, 令人感到恐怖。说一个人象龙不是一句好话, 尤其是讲女人象龙, 指的是又凶恶又歹毒、令人讨厌。She is a bit of a dragon around this place. (她是一个很专横跋扈的人)。Phoenix 在西方的传说中是一种鸟, 在沙漠中生存了五、六百年后, 将自己烧成灰烬, 然后从中又诞生一只的Phoenix, 所以英语中Phoenix, 有再生、复活的意思。英语习俗差异是多方面的, 最典型的莫过于对狗这种动物的态度上。西方人把狗当作宠物来养, 狗是人类最好的朋友, 所以, 英语中大部分用狗的形象词语比喻的是普通人的形象, 毫无侮辱的意思。如love me love my dog. 爱屋及乌。Every dog has its day. 凡人皆有得意日。He works like a dog.他干得十分卖力。Dog doesn’t eat dog. 同类不相残。Y ou lucky dog . 你这个家伙真走运!中国人当然也养狗, 但对狗的看法大不相同, 与狗的成语总是含贬义, 表示坏人恶行,典型的如走狗、狗仗人势、狗眼看人低、狗嘴里长不出象牙来、狼心狗肺、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗改不了吃屎、狗娘养的、狗屁等。孔雀(peacock) , 汉文化中,peacock 是吉祥的象征, 孔雀开屏是大吉大利的事。傣族人跳孔雀舞来表达自己美好的愿望。在英语中, 孔雀的意义基本上是否定的, 强调它骄傲的一面。如: He attempted to peacock his way through the world。他想名扬世界。Mary was peacocking about in the classroom. 玛丽在教室里趾高气扬地走来走去。 3宗教信仰与历史典故、谚语对翻译的影响 中西文化的历史渊源不同, 宗教信仰不同, 典故、谚语的来源不同。汉英语言中涉及宗教的词语数目庞大,蔚为壮观。大多数西方人信基督教, 崇拜的神称为上帝(God) , 上帝只有一个, 但包括三个位格(Person) 即: 上帝圣父(God the Father)、上帝圣子(God the Son )、上帝圣灵(God the Holy Ghost ) , 统称为三位一体(Trinity). 这三位不是三个神, 而是同具一个本体的独一真神。中国有盘古开天、道教的玉帝, 有佛教的阎王和观音(Buddhism Guan Ying, the Goddess of Mercy) 有神话的龙王。典故、谚语是每个民族文化的一个重要组成部分, 也是语言的重要组成部分, 人们常常在不自觉运用各民族文化遗产的典故、谚语。中国人常说“东施效颦”“叶公好龙”“真是马后炮”“原来又是个空城计”。中国人的典故多来自于《诗经》和中国的四大名著等。西方人的典故则来自于《圣经》和莎士比亚及希腊、罗马神话和传说。若缺乏对中西文化不同的宗教信仰和历史典故、谚语的个性深刻了解, 难以翻译出词语中的文化内涵。比如“Being a teacher is being at present at the creation, when the clay begins to breathe. ”要翻译出这个句子, 首先要弄清上帝之创造(Creation of God)。上帝用六天的时间创造了世界。第一天, 创造光, 划分昼夜。第二天, 创造空气, 划分天地。第三天, 划分海陆, 使陆地长植物。第四天, 创造日月星辰, 划分季节。第五天, 创造鸟类与鱼类。第六天, 创造昆虫、兽类, 并按照自己的形象造人。第七天, 安息日(Sabbath)。其次要明白(clay) 指的是人体(clay figure)。据圣经记载, 上帝用泥土造一个人形, 再在人体的鼻孔吹一口气, 人体就

论文化因素对英汉翻译的影响

论文化因素对英汉翻译的影响 院系 专业班级 姓名 _ 学号 年月日

目录 摘要 (2) ABSTRACT (3) 引言 (4) 一、绪论 (6) (一) 文化的概念 (6) (二) 翻译的概念 (6) 二、分论 (6) (一) 文化内涵的差异对翻译的影响 (7) 1 宗教文化的差异对翻译的影响 (7) 2 历史文化的差异对翻译的影响 (8) (二) 生活方式的差异对英汉翻译的影响 (6) (三) 价值观的差异对翻译的影响 (10) 三、结语 (11) 参考文献 (12)

文化(culture)是一个内涵丰富而又复杂的概念。语言是文化的重要组成部分,是文化的载体和核心,也是文化赖以语言传播的物质表达形式。翻译是两种语言之间的转换活动,是信息和思想的交流,是语言表达的艺术再创造,而不是文字上的对译。语言与文化的密切关系注定了翻译与文化的密切关系。翻译是把一种语言转换成另一种语言。不言而喻,两种语言转换的过程中必然涉及到两种文化。翻译实质上是不同文化间的交流。 本文在阐述文化和翻译概念的基础上,试从中西文化的相似和差异性,包括不同的文化内涵、生活方式以及价值观等方面,对此问题进行深入的分析和探讨,指出两种语言翻译中应注意的文化问题。 关键词:英汉翻译;文化因素;影响

Culture is a complex conception. Language is a very important part of culture. It is the core of culture. Translation is a transfer activity of two languages. It is the exchange between information and thoughts, but not the direct translation. The close relationship between the language and the culture means the close relationship between the translation and culture. In fact, translation is a kind of tool for us to communicate. This article tries to point out the problem, what cultural factors should be noticed during the translation, will be analyzed and discussed from the aspects of similarity and difference of eastern and western culture, including different cultural connotation, life-style, outlook on values in foundation of explaining idea of culture and translation. Key words: English-Chinese Translation; Cultural Factor;Effects

文化差异对英汉翻译的影响

[摘要]文化对语言的形成、发展和变化产生着深刻的影响。语言与文化有着紧密的关系。中西文化的差异可以在各自的语言上从不同的方面反映出来,并且对英汉翻译过程中的语义理解和传达产生一定的干扰和影响。本文主要从地理环境、历史背景差异,社会风俗习惯差异和宗教文化差异这三个主要方面,分别论述了中西文化差异对英汉翻译造成的影响,提示大家要充分了解中西文化背景,在真正理解原文内涵的基础上,精确译出原文。 [关键词]文化差异英汉翻译 文化是人类在社会历史发展过程中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和,如文学、艺术、教育、科学等等。而语言是人类思维的外在形式,人们通过语言来表达内心的丰富思想,进行相互间的思想感情交流。文化对语言的形成、发展和变化产生着深刻的影响。事实上语言并不是一种隔离的现象孤立地存在,语言是文化的一个整体的部分。文化是语言的内容,语言是文化的载体,语言与文化是密不可分的。中西文化之间存在着差异,可以体现在地理环境、社会习俗、宗教信仰、历史典故等多方面。这些差异可以在各自的语言上从不同的方面反映出来,并且对英汉翻译过程中的语义理解和传达产生一定的干扰和影响。所以在英汉翻译活动中,必须要考虑到中西文化差异的问题,从各自文化的角度充分理解原文的涵义,并采取适当的语义表达方式,精确地译出原文。在本文中,将从以下几个主要方面分别探讨文化差异对英汉翻译的影响。 一、地理环境、历史背景差异对英汉翻译的影响 由于所处的地域不同,相应地就有不同的自然条件和地理环境。地理环境的不同会引起文化上的个性和差异,形成一些独特的文化概念。这些文化差异都会体现在语言中,对英汉翻译产生一定的影响。例如,中国东临大海,西部为高山,所以在中国,“东风”是“春天的风”,“西风”却是凛冽的。而英国的地理环境与中国相反,英国西临大西洋,报告春天消息的却是西风。西风在英国人心中是温暖宜人的。英国著名诗人雪莱的《西风颂》就是对温暖西风的讴歌:“It’s a warm wind, the west wind, full of bird’s cries”(那是温暖的风,温暖的西风,伴随着百鸟欢唱)。在英汉翻译中要充分理解这些差异,才能更好地理解原文。再如,英国的天气变化无常,所以人们见面爱谈论天气。“Lovely day, isn’t it? ”(天气多好啊)。而中国人见面打招呼则会说,“去哪儿啊?”,“吃饭了吗?”。 与地理环境一样,中西文化的历史背景也会反映在语言中。在英语中,与Dutch有关的词语往往带有贬义。如Dutch act(自杀),Dutch courage(酒后之勇),I got mad and I talk like a Dutch uncle.(我勃然大怒,于是就严厉地训人),If it is the fact, I’m a Dutchman(如果这是事实,我就不是人)。因为在17世纪初,英国和荷兰曾经激烈交战二十多年,使英国大伤元气,所以英国普通民众对荷兰人恨之入骨。这一历史背景,使英语带有了民族性,理解了这一点,我们就不难理解这些英文的真正含义了。 二、社会风俗习惯对英汉翻译的影响 在社会风俗习惯方面,欧美人和中国人也存在很多差异,这对翻译也造成了一定的影响。同一件事物,不同的文化背景,看法大相径庭。比如,龙是古代汉族人崇拜的图腾形象,象征着吉祥、尊贵、权势和奋发向上。我们自称是龙的传人,意思是一个伟大而杰出的民族。龙是比喻皇帝,凤是比喻皇后。在汉语中,有关龙和凤的词语大都是褒义的,如藏龙卧虎、龙飞凤舞、生龙活虎、龙凤呈祥等。但是在英语中,dragon却含有不好的意思。这是因为在《圣经》中

英美文化与英汉翻译(原-)

Part II. Translate the following English into Chinese 1. Martin Luther King (p. 8英美文化与英汉翻译) 马丁。路德。金 ―To be a Negro in America is to hope against hope,‖ wrote Martin Luther King in the last year of his life. The advance of the black man in the United States, from the position of slave to that of proud and equal citizen, is slow. The black man‘s hopes have often ended in despair. ―Of the good things in life he has about one-half those of whites; of the bad he has twice those of whites,‖ wrote Dr. King . half of all black people lived in poor houses. They received about half as much pay as whites. They had twice as many of their people out of work and twice as many babies dead for lack of proper care. Allowing for their numbers, twice as many black men as white fought in the war in Vietnam, and twice as many died in that war. Most black people still did work that was unpleasant and poorly paid. It was the only work they could get. “在美国,做一个黑人就等于在无望中抱存一线希望,”马丁·路德·金在他生命的最后一年这样写道。在美国,黑人的社会地位由奴隶上升为自豪和平等的公民,这个发展历程是缓慢的。黑人的希望常常以绝望而告终。 “他所拥有的生活中的幸福只有大约白人的一半;而他所经受的痛苦却是白人的两倍,”马丁·路德·金博士写道。黑人中的一半都住在破旧的房子里。他们的工资大约是白人的一半。他们拥有两倍于白人的失业人数。他们因缺少适当的照顾而死亡的婴儿是白人的两倍。考虑一下这些数字,两倍于白人的黑人男子在越南战场中作战,两倍于白人的黑人男子在那场战争死亡。大多数黑人仍然做着那些低级,收入很低的工作。这是他们唯一能够找到的工作。 2. Prohibition(p.20英美文化与英汉翻译) 禁酒 There exists in the United States at this time a powerful group of persons who are specializing in the pursuit of crime on an organized scale. They utilize the latest technologies and scientific know-how in the conduct of their operations, which span the continent from coast to coast. Until recently, the most important underworld tycoons came from an older generation, which won fame during the era of Prohibition. Now, a younger group of persons is striving to gain greater influence in criminal circles as some of the older criminals are dying out. 美国目前存在一个有很大势力的犯罪团伙,专门有组织地从事犯罪活动。他们利用最新技术和科学知识做案,行踪遍及美国全境。在这之前,最有影响的黑社会老大都是在禁酒时期起家老一辈。现在,一些年事已高的犯罪首领都相继死去,一群年轻人正在犯罪集团中扩大势力范围。 3. Democracy(p. 21英美文化与英汉翻译) 民主 Almost all Americans want to be democratic, but many Americans are confused about what, exactly, democracy means. How do you know when someone is acting in a democratic---or an undemocratic –- way? Recently several groups have spoken out with particular bitterness against the kind of democracy that means equal opportunity for all, regardless of race or national origin. They act as if all human beings did not belong to one species, as if some races of mankind were inferior to others in their capacity to learn what members of other races know and have invented. Other extremists attack religious groups---Jews or Catholics---or deny the right of an individual to

浅谈英汉翻译中的文化差异

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要受到各自认知模式( cognitive model)的制约和影响。一般来说,认知模式由“源认知域”( source do-main)和“目的认知域”( target domain)构成,这两个认知域的具体组成成分是各自的“认知价元”( va-lence) .(刘华文,2003: 56)由于不同民族认知模式的形成依赖于各自的心理经验,因而不同民族心理经验的异同就会造成不同语言认知体系的差异。实际上,翻译的过程就是在目的语的心理空间中为源语价元寻找认知心理理据的过程。由于源语和目的语各自包含的认知模式不尽相同,在翻译过程中,这两个认知模式之间会发生以下各种相似或相异的映射关系。 一、等价映射 在人类的认知经验中,我们常常借助于较为清晰的、容易理解的概念去表达比较陌生的、较为抽象的概念,以达到新的认知,即从具体语域---“源认知域”向抽象语域---“目的认知域”映射。两域之间关联意义的产生、两域在特征上的匹配以及由此形成的认知模式受社会、文化、生活方式、思想观念等影响。在翻译中,如果源语和目的语在其认知模式上产生概念的通约,就会形成认知模式的等价映射。这时,源语中的认知模式所包含的源认知域和目的认知域,以及其映射关系与目的语的源认知域和目的认知域形成相似的映射关系,这种映射关系可原封不动地保留在翻译转换中。如: ( 1) But,mark my words,the first woman who fi-shes for him,hooks him. ( William Thackeray: VanityFair)可是,瞧着吧,不管什么女人钓他,他都会上钩。(杨必译)在此句中,源语

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英汉翻译讲解(1) I.英汉之间的差别: “对于中国学生最有用的帮助是让他认识英语和汉语的差别。”------吕叔湘 国内学者的共识是:汉语是综合性的,描写性的,而英语是分析性的,逻辑性的。在语言学上最重要的区别在于形合和意合的对比(contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis),英语重形合(形式上的融合),汉语重意合(意思或意境的融合)。在句法方面,有学者形象地把英汉比喻为以下几种: 1.雄孔雀/雄狮-----即英语习惯于把最着重的事物放在句首先说出来,开门见山,一语破的,然后再把各种标志一条条补述,一步步交代,慢条斯理,从容不迫,形成一条头短尾长地线性链,象头小尾大地雄孔雀。而汉语则相反,其线性序列的展开好比画龙点睛,先把外围的环境与衬托一一交代周到,最后点出话语的信息中心,水到渠成,给人以豁然开朗之感,形成雄狮型头大尾小地局式。 例如:I was all the more delighted when, as a result of the initiative of your Government it proved possible to reinstate the visit so quickly. 译文:由于贵国政府的提议,才得以这样快地重新实现访问。这使我感到特别高兴。 又如:The assertion that it was difficult, if not impossible, for a people to enjoy its basic rights unless it was able to determine freely its political status and to ensure freely its economic, social and cultural development was now scarcely (不足地,不充分地;一定不,绝不)contested (斗争;比赛). 译文:如果一个民族不能自由地决定其政治地位,不能自由地保证其经济、社会和文化的发展,要享受其基本权利,即使不是不可能,也是不容易的。这一论断几乎是无可置辩的了。 2.葡萄/竹竿-----即把英语句子比作“葡萄型”结构,葡萄主干很短,其上附结着丰硕的果实。而汉语句子则较短,一个短句接一个短句地往下叙述,逐步展开,内容像竹竿一样一节一节展开,常称为“竹竿型”结构。 She was beautiful, with long dark hair and brilliant green eyes.她长得很美,一头乌黑亮丽的长发,一双晶莹明亮的绿色眼睛。 She has smooth akin as pale and iridescent as the moon shining over a snow-covered landscape.她光滑的肌肤白里透红,宛如皎洁的月光洒在茫茫血地上。 3.多枝共干----英语句子中还有两个或几个动词共受一个状语修饰,共有一个主语或宾语,或者两个或几个状语共同修饰一个动词,两个或几个主语或宾语共一个动词,这就好比几根树枝长在同一根树干上,我们称为“多枝共干”式结构。 4.也有学者认为英语是一种弥漫着“男子气”的语言。逻辑性、组织性和理性是以英语为母语的民族的思维支撑点,从而就形成了英语的“阳刚之美”。而汉语自有汉语之美。汉语不注重对客观现实作符合逻辑的形式的描摹,不执着于形式结构的规范,中国人的思维支撑点似乎更具有抽象,深邃和疏放的取向,由此繁衍生出的是显赫的暗示和幽远的意境从而形成汉语的“阴柔之美”。汉语的魅力在于她的流散和疏放,系于她超凡的暗示力和意境性。所以汉语的形式机制很弱,主谓宾没有形式标定,主谓间关系松散,宾语无定格,无定位,主语的超句承接功能很强。 如果说汉语是一种“人治”语言,那么,英语则是一种“理性”语言。汉语能化逻辑为内在,英语则必须将逻辑外化,化作种种行合的标记,化作启转承合的纽带。英语语法规范森严,理性十足;英语形式逻辑缜密,滴水不漏。 5.汉语是一种意境语言,一种艺术语言。寥寥数词,就能出意境,出氛围,出画面。

英语词汇学习与英美文化

浅谈中西方社交礼仪语言的差异 经济学院2010级交流生徐阳 118612020023 【摘要】由于各国的历史与文化底蕴不同,各国人民在进行礼尚交往时的习惯也有不少差异。特别是中西方之间,礼仪上的差别很大,因为不了解这些差异而引起的误会和笑话并不少见。随着东西方文化的不断发展,东西方的礼仪正在相互融合,西方人逐渐地接受了东方文化中重情感等合理因素,东方人也逐渐地接受了西方文化中先进文明的礼仪和交往方式。但在现实生活中,由于东西方文化的差异而对礼仪产生的影响还很多,尤其表现在语言的差异中。本文从社交礼仪语言的诸多方面分析其之间的差异,并分析原因。 【关键词】中西方;文化差异;社交礼仪;语言 语言与文化密切相关,语言是文化的载体,同时也是文化的重要组成部分。但不同语言和文化的国度有不同的社交表达方式,深刻理解中西社交礼仪的差异及其渊源,有利于跨文化交际双方增进文化交流,提高跨文化交际能力,保证跨文化交际的顺利进行。社交无处不在,而作为社交最基本的语言表达则在中西方文化交流中显得尤为重要。所以,我们必须正确认识这些差异,并在交往中避开因为这些差异而引起的交流不便。 一、差异比较 (一)、称谓和称呼方面 如何称呼一个人,实际上要受当时交际环境的制约,比如正式和非正式的交际场合,与交际双方的亲属关系等。一般来说,在正式的交际场合称呼方式的比较正式,在非正式的交际场合或比较亲密的交际双方之间,人们一般采用较随意和亲密的称呼方式。这些在中西方都有限制。 1、中国人重视传统观念,论资排辈,如学生见到老师一定要称呼其老师,不可直呼姓名,而在英美国家,辈分简单含混,界限不清,而且老师也希望学生可以直接称呼自己的名字,以示平等和关系亲密。 2、其实,在中西方国家,不同身份,地位的在日常生活工作中不可避免的会碰到一起,这就产生了不同身份,地位的人的交际问题。比如我们称呼的师傅,警察叔叔等等,将师傅翻译成英文就是master,就有点主仆关系的成分,不是很妥当。 3、汉语中,年轻人对长辈称叔叔,阿姨,对平辈称大哥,大姐。但英语中只有关系密切的亲属之间才回这样使用,且后面只带姓,不带名,如Uncle Tom,再比如,学生都知道teacher的含义是老师,也就相应的把王老师称呼为Teacher Wang。其实,英语中的teacher只是一种的职业,而在汉语中则又尊师的含义。由于这种文化差异,中国学生就简单的把老师等同于teacher,这让英美国家的人感到不可思议。 (二)、见面礼节方面 1、中国人通常是见面喜欢点点头,握握手或行拱手礼,或者微微欠身然后握手,而西方人觉得欠身似乎显得自卑。

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