Introduction 引言；前言；绪言
The opening decade of the twenty-first century has been overwhelmingly shaped by the American and world response to the terror attacks of 11 September 2001.Many analysts speak of a paradigm shift in foreign policy alignments, global economies, and domestic affairs.The events of the post (=late)-11 September world make the 1990s seem a vast, quaint (奇怪的) universe away.But we should note that analysts had christened (洗礼仪式) the last decade of the twentieth century as a ―New World Order‖ u nder the common umbrella of democracy and free market capitalism.Certainly the decade marked a decisive end to the ―post (after)-World War II‖ or ―Cold War‖ world and ushered in a new era.The 45-year period following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki the, division of the world into “free”and “communist”influences, and the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989 changed things.The world is still adjusting to those changes and countries rush (run) to realign (重新排列, 再结盟) the geopolitical order.
美国和世界对于2001年9月11日恐怖袭击的反应已经压倒性地充斥了21世纪的头十年。许多分析家谈到一个关于外交政策路线，全球经济和国内事务的范式转变。9月11日世界发生的事件让20世纪90年代不再是一个巨大的，奇怪的宇宙。但是，我们应该注意到，那些分析师已经把二十世纪的最后十年，洗礼成了民主和自由市场资本主义在―世界新秩序‖下的共同的庇护所。当然，这十年标志着一个决定性―二战后的‖或―冷战‖的世界的结束，也开辟了一个新的时代。在向广岛和长崎投下原子弹后的45年间，世界被―自由‖和―共产主义‖影响着，1989年柏林墙的倒塌也让事情产生了变化。世界仍然在适应这些变化，各个国家也趋向于重新调整地缘政治的秩序。
Historically, the world’s nations have always been involved in a struggle for power.In the twentieth century the rise of the United States of America to superpower status prompted many to label the era ―the American Century‖ and the dominance of American popular culture and products came to be called ―Americanization (美国化).‖ Currently th ere is a rise in what might be termed ―America-phobia (恐怖症)‖ as some groups seek to tear down the hegemony (霸权) held by the United States.There are widespread complaints about the cheapness of American culture with its runaway [逃跑, 失控的] materialism.Others fear the transformation of their own culture to mirror changing American patterns, from birth-control pills to gender equality. Still others, who refuse, or are too young, to remember when the United States was an indispensable part of ―the West‖ –buttressing (支持) Europe with an economic aid package called the Marshall Plan and protecting European and Japanese growth through military security –only see a selfish nation that goes its own way without a due respect for world opinion.There is no doubt that American military and economic power is in a league of its own.
从历史角度来看，世界各国一直被卷入一场权力斗争当中。在20世纪，美国超级大国地位的上升，促使许多人将这个时代为―美国世纪‖的时代，同时美国流行文化和产品所占的
主导地位，逐渐被称为―美国化‖。目前有一种可能被称之―美国恐惧症‖（的趋势）在上升，因为一些团体试图推倒美国持有的霸权。对于伴随着失控的廉价的唯物主义美国文化存在着广泛的投诉。其他一部分人担心自己的文化转型，所折射出的从避孕药到性别平等（等方面）不断变化的美国模式。还有一些人，他们（选择）拒绝，或者是（因为）太年轻了，而忘记了美国作为―西部大开发‖不可缺少的一部分扶持欧洲经济的紧急措施的马歇尔计划。同时，它通过军事安全和保护欧洲和日本的增长，（这让人们）只看到一个自私的国家按照自己的方式行事而没有给以世界舆论应有的尊重。毫无疑问，美国的军事和经济力量只有它自己的作为联盟。
The criticism is as justified as it is expected.As the leading world power, the United States gets the focus of world criticism on every issue domestic and international.This is not new. The discovery and colonization of the New World thrust America into the spotlight (聚光灯) in the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries. The eighteenth-century revolution against Britain that established a liberal nation and the unprecedented population and territorial growth of the nineteenth century kept the nation highlighted.The twentieth-century world wars of nationalism forged coalitions (合并) that put the United States in the preeminent (卓越的) global position by 1945, and the Cold War advanced American power to the position it now holds. The country’s unique standing has brought criticism not only for what it is and has been, but for the ways it acts and portrays its actions.
这种批评像它所预期的一样是合乎道理的。作为世界领先的力量，美国对于国内和国际的每一个问题都成为世界批评的焦点。这并不新鲜。在十五到十七世纪，新世界的发现和殖民将美国变成举世瞩目的焦点。十八世纪的英国革命反对建立一个自由和（拥有）前所未有的人口的国家，同时，19世纪的领土增长使它一直在被注视。20世纪的世界民族战争所锻造的联盟于1945年美国将美国推进了全球的卓越位置，同时，冷战又让美国的实力提升到和现在相同的位置。它的独特地位带来了批评，不仅因为它过去和现在是什么，同时也因为它起作用的方式对其行动的描绘。
America is new, or likes to assert that notion. Americans often think of themselves as a people of the future whose personal pasts can be overcome or reinvented, even if they will volunteer upon the first meeting with any stranger that their families came from Ireland, from Germany, from Vietnam, or from elsewhere outside the US.The key word is ―from‖ – as in, the Old World is a good place to be ―from.‖ With Americans, it is the right here and right now that has their attention.They seem to care more about the future and of what could become.Most Americans see themselves as risk-takers who grasp at chances to get a new life for themselves and their children.Sometimes that means leaving family and national ties behind to cross an ocean or a continent. Americans imagine themselves and their country in many ways; but when looking into a mirror, they are likely to see the reflected image of a dream that began not so long ago.
美国是新的，或喜欢断言这一概念。美国人往往认为自己作为一个拥有未来的人，其个人的过去是可以克服或改造的，即使他们会自愿和任何的陌生人进行第一次会面，这些陌生人的家人可能来自爱尔兰，德国，越南或美国以外的其他地方。关键的词是―来自‖，和正在一样，旧世界是个作为―来自‖的好地方。对美国人来说，这是他们随时随地所注意的。
他们似乎更关心将来可能成为什么。大多数美国人都认为自己作为冒险者把握机会，为自己和自己的孩子获得了新生。有时这意味着离开家庭和国家的关系然后越过海洋或大陆。
美国人在许多方面想象着自己和自己的国家。但当寻找到了镜子时，他们可能会看到一个不久前才开始的反射梦想的影像。
Much of what has happened in the history of the United States is based upon the European imagination of a New World.Europeans imagined America before they discovered it and, in the years since discovering it, they have been trying to define what it is that makes it different.Christopher Columbus never understood that he had located a new continent or continents in 1492, but died steadfastly (踏实地, 不变地) believing that he was somewhere in eastern Asia.Others spoke of the discovery of an Atlantis, a lost continent that had long filled the European imagination. In the sixteenth century, explorers from many nations – some using a new map, Amerika, named for the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci – canvassed (彻查) the coast of the New World, sailing into inlets, collecting souvenirs, and being astonished at what they did or did not find there.
在美国历史上发生了什么事大部分是根据欧洲一个新的世界的想象力。欧洲人想象美国才发现它，发现它几年以后，他们一直试图定义它是什么以使它与众不同的。克里斯托弗·哥伦布从未明白，他在1492年已经找到了一个新的大陆或大陆群，却坚定不移地相信，它是在亚洲东部的某处。其他的另一部分人提到（他们）发现了亚特兰蒂斯，那是一个早已充满了欧洲的想象力的失落的大陆。在十六世纪，来自许多国家的探险家，他们中的一些人使用新的地图。美国是以征询彻查新大陆的海岸的意大利探险家亚美利哥·韦斯普奇的名字命名的，他们航行进水湾，收集纪念品，并惊讶于什么所有他们找到和找不到的一切。
The seemingly unlimited areas of free land provoked speculation about a New Eden where Indians lived easily off the land in a state of innocence, with no need for clothing or work.Others reasoned that Indians, being so different, must be ―red devils‖ who should be summarily(立刻, 草率地) dealt with by the believers in Christ and civilization. Basically disregarding the claims of the Indians they encountered, Europeans saw the new land as a tabula rasa – a blank slate (石板) on which to write the dreams of national power by establishing colonies and exploiting raw materials.But whatever Europeans believed –and they believed many things – they were overcome with the possibilities of what could be gained from possessing a part of America.
这个看似不收限制的自由的地域机器了关于一个新的伊甸园的推测，在那里，印第安人可以以一种纯真的状态自由自在地生活，不需要为穿衣和工作为发愁。另外的一些人推断如
此不一样的印第安人必定是在基督文明可以草率地处理的信徒的“红色的魔鬼”。他们基本上无视他们所遇到的印第安人，欧洲人把这块新的土地看做一块白板，一块通过建立殖民地和原材料利用国家权力谱写梦想的空白的石板。但无论欧洲人怎样认为——他们相信很多事情——他们始终相信能够克服一切而得以拥有美国的一部分。
The idea of building something new on new land, of having the freedom to do so, of looking toward the future and not the past, of accepting the progress of change over the stasis (停滞) of continuity, and of individual rebirth/recreation, inspired European adventurers and became the story of the American people.During the Age of Discovery, Europeans tried to define the dream that might be; during the Age of Reason, philosopher John Locke made what has proven to be a long-lasting appeal to innocence: ―in the beginning, all the world was America.‖有权在新的土地上建设新的东西，面向的是未来而不是过去，接受变革的进展和停滞的连续性，以及个人能够重生，这样的想法激励着欧洲的探险家们并让它成为美国人民的故事。在大航海时代，欧洲人试图定义定义这个可能的梦想;在理性时代，哲学家约翰·洛克已证明这是一个对于童真的长期持久吸引：―在开始的时候，世界上所有的地方都是美国。―
The American Dream and American history stem directly from these European dreams and imaginings.From its discovery until the present day, America-the-place as well as America-the-idea has been discussed as opportunity. It has been seen as a ―safe haven‖ where conditions could be altered in favor of whoever needed change.Immigration, economic opportunity, and the chance for individual redefinition are central components of the American Dream.
美国梦和美国历史直接源于欧洲的梦想和想象。从它的发现至今，美国这个地方，以及美国这种想法已经变成一个机会被讨论。它一直被视为那些赞成需要改变的人可以改变条件的―避风港‖。移民，经济机会，和重新定义个人的机会，是―美国梦‖的核心组成部分。
At the 1950 Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm, the American author and literature winner, William Faulkner, told the audience, ―The big d ifference between Europe and America is that we are still adding stars to the flag‖ (quoted in T. Morgan, 1993: 11).This was a patriotic statement of Cold War logic as well as a literal prediction that saw Alaska and Hawaii added to the flag in 1959.Addition has been central to American history. Historian Ted Morgan calls the American experience an ―unending quest‖ and agrees with Faulkner that ―the American flag is unlike any other, because it’s an add-on flag, with room to grow‖ T. Morgan, 1993: 11).Morga n wrote of the exceptionalism (例外论) of the American experience because the seventeenth-century Europeans who would provide the impetus (推动力) for the new nation arrived before the government did, landing in places where no government had previously existed (American Indians notwithstanding) and where control by European governments was shaky and ever-changing.Both Faulkner and Morgan declare for youth and mobility in American thinking.
1950年在斯德哥尔摩举行的诺贝尔颁奖仪式上，美国作家和文学奖得主威廉·福克纳，告诉观众，―欧洲和美国之间最大的区别是，我们仍然在增加我们国旗上的星星。‖（引自T.摩根，1993：11）。这是一个涉及冷战逻辑和文字预测的爱国的陈述，它看到阿拉斯加和夏威夷在1959年加入的标志。增加已经变成了美国的核心。历史学家特德·摩根称美国的经验为―无止境的追求‖，并同意与福克纳所说：―是不同于其他任何美国国旗，因为它是一个拥有成长空间追加的标志。‖（T.摩根，1993：11）。摩根写道：美国的经验的例外论，因为17世纪的欧洲人在政府有所作为之前为新的国家政府提供推动力，而落户在一个此前没有政府存在的地方（尽管还有美国印第安人存在）和由欧洲各国政府的控制地方是不稳定和不断变化的。福克纳和摩根都宣布美国思维的青年化和流动性。
Egocentric (自我中心的) and religious, most Americans have believed that a divine Providence guided the nation.In the first years of the twenty-first century, nothing had changed the American belief in the country’s exceptiona l status.With the end of a Cold War putting an explanation point on the success of American individualism, and as immigrants continue to pour into the country, Americans still believe that every person in the world is a potential American citizen.
作为自我中心者和卫道士，大多数美国人都相信有一个神圣的地域在引导这个国家。在二十一世纪的头些年，什么都没有改变美国人的关于美国拥有特殊地位的信念。
随着冷战的结束推进了对美国的个人主义解释上的成功，随着移民不断涌入，美国人仍然相信，世界上的每个人是一个潜在的美国公民。
Americans are taught from childhood that anything or everything is possible. This American Dream is a decidedly bourgeois (中产阶级, 资产阶级) notion and it is formulated upon the belief that government will not limit individual ambitions, either by restrictive laws or by using transfer income to gain an equality of outcome for others.Americans have consistently and overwhelmingly resisted any equality other than the equality of opportunity to achieve merit, and, thereafter, the rewards that merit (优点, 价值) brings.
美国人从小就被教导，任何或一切皆有可能。美国梦是一个决定性的资产阶级（中产阶级，资产阶级）的概念，它构建了一个相信政府既不会限制个人野心，也不会通过限制性的法律或使用转让收益为他人获得一个平等的结果。美国人一直高票抵制任何平等而不是机会平等来实现的优点，此外还有优点带来的回报。
So why haven’t these dreams of equality and freedom been realized in contemporary America?Is there a basic hypocrisy (伪善) in the gap between what America stands for and what it is?For many of its critics, the United States is a nation built on the avarice (贪婪) of rich white Protestant males who laid waste to the environment of a pristine (质朴的) continent, killed the native inhabitants, enslaved Africans, warred against all peoples who stood in the way, suppressed women and ethnic minorities, abused the working class, and cannibalized (吃人肉) European culture into a vulgar materialism spread by Hollywood and McDonald’s.Despite the truths
inherent in these criticisms and the widespread knowledge of such actions, non-white and non-Protestant immigrants of both sexes continue to arrive, chasing the hope of a better life under the promise of opportunity. Philosopher Reinhold Neibuhr called the distance between the dream and reality ―the irony of American history‖ (Niebuhr, 1952).That irony, as we hope this book will show, cannot be reduced to – though neither does it exclude – hypocrisy.
那么，为什么这些平等和自由的梦想在当代美国没有被意识到？是不是在美国代表什么和美国是什么之间的差距是不是存在一种基本性的伪善。对于美国的许多评论家来说，美国是一个民族建立在贪婪之上，它让富有的白人新教男性破坏质朴的环境，杀害当地居民，奴役非洲人，攻击挡在路上的人，控制妇女和少数族裔，滥用人民工人阶级，同时将欧洲文化分解成通过好莱坞和麦当来传播的庸俗唯物主义。尽管固有的真理在这些具有批评和广泛的知识的行动当中，两种性别的非白人和非新教移民继续到达，在机会的允诺中追逐更好生活的希望。哲学家雷纳德·尼布尔称梦想与现实之间的距离为―具有讽刺意味的美国历史‖（尼布尔，1952年）。正如这本书所呈现的这样，那种讽刺不能减少也不能排斥为虚伪。Another warning note is appropriate.On relocating to the United States after having lived 20 years in England, popular writer Bill Bryson wrote of being ―dazzled … [by] the famous ease and convenience of daily life, the giddying abundance of absolutely everything, the wondrous infallible vastness‖ (Bryson, 1998: 17). When looking for America, one can find anything one seeks.The country is enormous and the people are many.It is easy to locate inequality, poverty, racism, police brutality, hate, and death.It is just as easy to find philanthropy, community, honesty, equality, openness, and life.
另一个警示的陈述是合适的。在英国居住20年后又重新安置在美国的流行作家比尔·布莱森写道：―眼花缭乱... [通过]著名的安逸和日常生活的方便，一切丰富的事物绝对让人眼花缭乱，万无一失的丰富的奇妙浩瀚‖（布赖森，1998：17）。当寻找美国时，人们可以找到自己所寻求的一切。它的领土是广阔的，人民是众多的。这很容易找到不平等，贫困，种族主义，警察暴力，仇恨，和死亡。也容易找到慈善事业，社区，诚实，平等，开放，和生命。The problem in looking for America is that we a lready ―know all about it.‖ Most people have grown up with America and stories of America.It would be hard to find a single issue of a newspaper published anywhere in the world that fails to mention the United States or an American celebrity.Airways are flooded with American music, streets are walked by American tourists, everyone wears American jeans and logos, the worldwide web is overwhelmingly American, and television and movie theaters spew images of American life everywhere.Most Europeans have relatives who are Americans or who are married to Americans.Everyone has imagined America, in flattering and damning ways.The reality can be much more difficult and interesting to grasp.
在寻找美国的问题上，我们已经“知道有关它的一切”。大多数人在美国和美国的故事当中已经长大了。在世界的任何地方都很难找到一份出版的报纸是只涉及一个单一的问题且
没有提到美国或美国名人的。广播频道被美国音乐所淹没，街道走过来得美国游客，每个人都穿着美国牛仔裤和徽标，互联网绝大多数来自美国，电视和电影院反映出美国生活的图像无处不在。大多数欧洲人都有是美国人或和美国人结婚的亲戚。每个人都在用恭维和咒骂的方式来描绘美国。现实的情况则可能会更加困难和有趣地掌握。
Understanding the USA in the twenty-first century requires a historical background that is not suited to a mere timeline or a few brief paragraphs.Chapter 1 provides an overview of the nation’s history and introduces the main themes of the American experience.Chapter 2 examines the contours (轮廓) of a vast country by looking at it through the lens of its main regions, environmental concerns, and immigrant groups. Chapters 3 and 4 detail governing political institutions and explain the importance of constitutional provisions and the division of powers.Chapters 5 through 7 explore American society and culture, delving into family, class, race, and gender, while discussing culture, religion, crime, education, and welfare.Chapter 8 examines the US domestic and international economy and the changing character of the American workforce.Chapter 9 focuses on America’s place in an increasingly globalized world and on current issues and events set in context by a brief review of the historical evolution of US foreign policy.Chapter 10 looks briefly at the current trends and future prospects.A picture of continuity and change, singularity and diversity, individualism and community, and conflict and consensus is a common denominator to all chapters in trying to explain the life ways in contemporary America.
在二十一世纪了解美国的历史背景下需要不只是一个单纯的时间表或一些间断的段落。概述了国家的历史，并介绍了美国经验的主要议题。通过观察探讨一个幅员辽阔的国家的轮廓（轮廓），透过它的主要地区，环境问题和移民群体的镜头。和第4章详细说明了执政的政治体制，解释了宪法规定和分权的重要性。第5至第7章探讨美国社会和文化，深入家庭，阶级，种族和性别，讨论文化，宗教，犯罪，教育和福利。第8章讨论美国国内和国际的经济和不断变化的美国劳动力的特性。第9章侧重于美国的地位，主要是在一个日益全球化的世界当中和通过简要回顾美国外交政策的历史演变的环境之下的当前的问题和事件的集合。第10章主要着眼于当前的趋势和未来前景。一幅具备连续性和变化，奇异性和多样性，个人主义和社区，以及冲突和共识的图片，是一种常见的分配方法，以试图在所有章节解释当代美国的生活方式。
1 History
American history is long, reaching back to at least 10,000 years ago when the first group of humans struggled into the interior of a continent to become Native Americans. United States history is short – just 230 years old – and it is not difficult to find people alive today who remember World War I, who,in turn, had known slaves and slave-owners who could tell them firsthand about the 1840s, and who had known
people who had traded with Indians or who had shaken hands with Thomas Jefferson. Five people linked together cover the entire lifespan of the United States, a nation born in modern times with a fast and furious history.Writer William Faulkner succinctly (简洁地) described this notion in Intruder in the Dust: ―yesterday today and tomorrow are Is: Indivisible: One‖ (Faulkner, 1948: 194). It is difficult to find another nation—if even one exists—whose citizens celebrate their Founders the way Americans do. Annually, books on the American Revolution pour off the presses and onto bestseller lists. Politicians are always asking rhetorically, then explaining, what George Washington or Thomas Jefferson would have done today. It does not seem to matter that those two leaders died some time ago. Historian Bernard Bailyn’s assessment and accusation that ―Americans live remarkably close to their past‖ is a good starting point for understanding the contours of America’s belief in history as present tense (quoted in Rothschild, 2004).
可以说美国是一个历史悠久的国家，它的历史可以追溯到至少10,000年前第一批人奋力挣扎到达美国大陆成为其原住民的时期。但美国同时也是一个历史很短的国家,只有230年的历史,我们不难从如今仍然记得第一次世界大战还健在的人那里获得关于19世纪40年代的第一手资料,他们会告诉我们关于奴隶和奴隶主的事,并且知道谁曾与印第安人做过交易，谁曾与托马斯·杰斐逊握手言和。一个迅速发展的现代化的国家通过五个人物的联系诞生了。作家威廉·福克纳在《坟墓的闯入者》一书中简洁地描述了这样一个概念：“昨天，今天和明天是不可分割的一个整体”（福克纳，1948：194）。在世界上很难找到一个和美国历史相近的国家，如果有这样的国家存在，他的公民同样也会按照美国人的方式纪念其创始人。每年都有很多关于美国革命的书籍井喷式出版，并且登上畅销书排行榜。虽然两位领导人前不久去世，但似乎并不影响政治家们以演义的方式来阐述乔治·华盛顿以及托马斯·杰斐逊今天会做什么。历史学家伯纳德·贝林对当今的美国评价并指出：“现在美国人的生活方式和历史上的美国人生活方式非常接近”。这是在目前的状态下了解美国的信仰这一概念的一个良好开端。（罗斯柴尔德，2004）
Humans are not native to the Americas. The most widely-accepted theory supposes that sometime between 40,000 and 14,000 years ago, a group of hunters from Siberia passed into Alaska; 10,000 years ago, a group of 30–60 people followed the herds of big game animals down through both American continents. By 5,000 years ago, some 200,000 people lived in North America.
美洲并不是人类的发源地。有一种被广泛接受的理论认为，可能是早在40,000至14,000年以前，一群捕猎者就从西伯利亚到了阿拉斯加; 在一万年前，有一个30-60人的族群赶着羊群到达了美洲大陆。在5000年以前，北美就有20万人在这里生活。
One thousand years before Europeans stumbled upon America, agriculture was established in the present day US southwest and Pueblo Indians built their houses into high cliffs to protect
themselves from their enemies, the Apaches. The Makah in Washington state had a highly-developed culture based on salmon fishing. By1492, the year of Christopher Columbus’s ―discovery‖ of America, approximately 3–4 million – some claim 100 million – people lived in what would become the United States and as many as 50 million more lived in Canada, Mexico, and southward. They lived in systems ranging from totalitarian to anarchistic, from highly-developed caste structures to complete egalitarianism, from nomadic to static lifestyles, and under varying matriarchal or patriarchal conventions.
在欧洲人发现美洲大陆的一千多年以前，在现今美国西南部有一个称为普韦布洛的地区，那里的印第安人就开始注重发展农业，并知道把房屋建造在悬崖上以保护自己，免于被“阿帕切”族的敌人入侵。在华盛顿州有一个名为玛卡的地方，其农业高度发达，捕捞鲑鱼的行业成为了一大特色。在1492年，哥伦布“发现”了美洲大陆，一些专家认为当时的美洲约有300万—400万的人口，也有一些专家认为只有约100万的人口。现在的美洲却有5000万人居住在加拿大，墨西哥，和南方地区。在当时美洲形有很多不同的部落，有的是极权主义、也有无政府主义，也有以某个同种族姓氏形成的高度发达的平均主义，也有依然还是母系氏族或族长制的群体，他们有的以游牧为主，有的在一个地方长期定居生活。
On the eve of discovery, Europe had been transformed by the rise of nation states, which were influenced by the twelfth-century Crusades’ stimulation of commercial activities and an interchange of technology. Trade revolutionized commerce, changed the system from barter to coinage, and built banking houses, joint-stock companies, and cities. The Renaissance emphasized discovery and science and the Protestant Reformation stressed individual freedom, tore at the power of the Roman Catholic Church, and ignited competition and wars among Christians.
在美洲大陆被“发现”的前夕，十二世纪欧洲的一些国家在十字军东征期间大力开展商业活动以及技术革新，在这样的刺激下，使其迅速的崛起。贸易使商业有了革命性的改变，使其从以物易物变成了货币交换。兴建银行，形成了股份制企业，新建了一些城市。由于文艺复兴强调的是发现和科学，宗教改革强调的是个人自由。罗马天主教的权力被瓦解，点燃了基督徒之间的战争。
European nations competed to control trade. Each needed a strong military and a rich treasury, which could be achieved through a favorable balance of trade, war and conquest, and colonies whose settlers fed raw materials to the manufacturing centers in the mother country. As nations sponsored enterprises to capture the New World, Indians were brought into a web of commercial relations that encircled the globe, becoming producers and consumers in a developing world market system.
欧洲各国通过竞争来掌控贸易。通过良好的贸易不仅可以充实国库，而且可以使军事力量更为强大，并通过对外战争，掠夺战利品，使殖民地成为祖国的原材料供给中心。在国家的大力倡导下，各企业纷纷到美洲这一“新的世界”去捕捉印度人，把印第安人带入到了一
个全球的商业关系之中，并让他们成为了这样一个正在发展的世界市场体系中的生产者和消费者。
To provide items for trade, Indians voluntarily took more from the ecological system to supply the furs Europeans wanted in exchange for copper pots, ornamental beads, whiskey, and woolen shirts. While trade transformed cultures, disease wiped them out as the accumulated knowledge of the tribes was lost when the elders died and the death of the medicine men broke the spiritual edifice of Indian life. Contact with whites killed 90 percent of all North American Indians as typhoid, influenza, smallpox, and tuberculosis took their toll. As the devastation accelerated, many Indians hoped for salvation by accepting the Christ thrust at them by missionaries. This trinity of trade, disease, and Christianity placed Indians on the edge of oblivion.
为了和欧洲人进行贸易，印第安人自愿的破坏了生态系统，通过捕猎，用动物身上的皮草来交换欧洲人带来的铜壶，装饰性的珠子，威士忌和羊毛衫。在与欧洲人的贸易过程中，印第安人积累的文化也受到了外来文化的冲击并发生了改变并逐渐消失。当他们从只知道老人正常死亡到知道服用药物导致死亡的时候，便打破了他们的精神大厦。欧洲来的白人殖民者不仅杀害了北美90％的印第安人，并让伤寒，流感，天花，肺结核等传染病在这里流行。由于破坏加速，许多印第安人希望得到基督教传教士传播的教义来拯救他们。欧洲殖民者带来了贸易、疾病、和基督教，这样三位一体的局面让印第安人走到了遗忘的边缘。
The Rise of a Nation
Colonial America,1508-1763
殖民时期的美国，1508-1763
America was born in violence and change as Europeans fought Indians and each other for control of the land. By 1508, the Spanish held Puerto Rico and, in 5, explored Florida seeking a fabled fountain of youth. As early as 1540, a Spanish expedition into Arizona and New Mexico hoped to find ―El Dorado‖ and its seven cities of gold. These quests failed, but Spain got richer in land claims, including California (542). The French concentrated in Canada, establishing Quebec (54), Montreal (42), and, by virtue of floating down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico, claimed one-third of the interior of the continent from the Great Lakes to New Orleans (1718). A Swedish colony, New Sweden (1638–55), settled parts of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, before losing them to the Dutch, who had established New Amsterdam (New York) in 1624. Forty years later, the Netherlands lost its colonies to Britain. In 1671, Denmark joined the land grab, establishing colonies in what became the US Virgin Islands.
当欧洲人和印第安人双方为争夺国土控制权交战时，美国在这种暴力和改变中诞生了。到1508年，西班牙人控制着波罗黎各（西印第安群岛懂不的岛屿），1513年，（西班牙人）
勘察了佛罗里达州，找寻传说中的青春泉（传说饮此泉水可恢复健康和青春）。早在1540年，一个西班牙探险队进入亚利桑那州和新墨西哥州，想要寻找传说中的宝山（理想中的黄金国）和它的七座黄金城。虽然这些探求失败了，但是西班牙取得了更多的土地所有权，包括（1542年取得的）加利福利亚州。法国注意力集中在加拿大，（在1534年）建立了魁北克，（1642年建立了）蒙特利尔，由于密西西比河向下流到墨西哥湾，（法国）在1718年索取了从五大湖到新奥尔良，三分之一的大陆内陆地区。一个瑞典殖民地，新瑞典（1638-55），包括部分宾夕法尼亚州，新泽西和特拉华州，在将他们输给荷兰之前，（新瑞典在1624年）建立了新阿姆斯特丹（纽约）。40年后，荷兰把他们的殖民地输给了英国。在1671年，丹麦加入了土地争夺，建立了殖民地，该殖民地后来变成美国的维尔京群岛。
World markets determined the course of development in America in terms of shipping ports, agricultural production, industry, and workforce. The English established a line of colonies from Maine to Georgia. Jamestown, Virginia (1607), was payrolled by a joint-stock company and soldiered by professional mercenaries. Soon, the settlers were growing tobacco for the European market. In 1619, a Dutch ship sold 20 Africans into indentured servitude in Virginia and the British, French, Spanish and Dutch empires grew rich from the profits of the international slave trade. As cash crops expanded and developed in the colonies, the demands for workers increased and plantation owners embraced slavery. By the time of the American Revolution in 1776, one of every five Americans was a slave.
世界市场决定了美国船运港口、农业生产、工业和劳动力的发展进程。英国人建立了从缅因州到佐治亚州的殖民线。詹姆斯敦（圣赫勒拿岛首府）和弗吉尼亚州（1607）的生计由一个合资公司负责，由专业雇佣兵进行军事管理。不久以后，定居者们为欧洲市场种植烟草。在1619年，一个荷兰船队在弗吉尼亚州卖了20个非洲人，让他们变成契约苦役，英、法、西班牙、荷兰帝国从国际奴隶贸易中获利而变得富裕。随着经济作物在殖民地的增加和发展，增加了对工人的需要，种植园园欣然接受了奴隶制度。到1776年美国革命为止，每五个美国人就有一个是奴隶。
In 1620, religious dissenters, who wanted to separate forever from the Church of England, landed in a place they called Plymouth Colony. Indians quickly developed trading ties with these Pilgrim-s and introduced them to corn, beans, turkeys, squash, and potatoes. Legend has it that the Indians and the newcomers celebrated a huge feast in 1621 – the story behind the purest American holiday, Thanksgiving.
在1620年，想要永远脱离英国国教的宗教的反对者，到达了一个新地方，他们称之为普利茅斯殖民地。印第安人很快和这些清教徒前辈发展了贸易联系，向他们引入了谷物、豆科植物、火鸡、南瓜属蔬菜和土豆。有个传说，印第安人和移民在1621年庆祝了一个大盛宴，这个故事成为最纯洁的美国节日——感恩节的来历。
Other dissenters – in a group of 1,000 people aboard 17 ships – who wanted to reform and purify
the Church of England arrived in Massachusetts in 1630. These Puritans were engaged in an ―errand into the wilderness‖ to establish a utopian religious community, a model for England and the world. Puritan leader John Winthrop defined the colony ―as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us‖ (Winthrop, 1989: 41). Puritans demanded order, even if they trampled on concepts of freedom or equality. They were sointent on living righteously in an evil world that they became intolerant. Their perfectionism caused some groups to leave, contributing to the establishment of Rhode Island (1660), Connecticut (1660), and New Hampshire (1679). In 1692, the excesses of the infamous Salem, Massachusetts, witch trials –marked as they were by community hysteria, the fear of women, rural–urban conflicts, and, simply, cultural change –highlighted the failure of the Puritan errand.
其他宗教反对者，在17个船上的1000个人，在1630年到达马萨诸塞州后，想要改革、净化英国国教。这些清教徒们参与了“进入荒野的使命”以建立一个乌托邦式的宗教团体，为英国和世界作出示范。清教徒领袖John Winthrop定义殖民为“山巅之城。所有人都仰望我们”。清教徒们要求整齐，即使他们无视自由或平等的概念。他们如此执意地在一个邪恶世界活得正直，以至于他们变得心胸狭窄。他们的完美主义造成一些团体离开，也有助于建立罗德岛州、康乃狄克州和新罕布什尔州。在1692年，臭名昭著的马萨诸塞州塞林小镇的暴行，女巫审判——以他们团体歇斯底里，对妇女的恐惧，乡村-城市之战为标志，简单地说，文化变化——突出了清教徒任务失败。
American ideology owes much to Puritan patterns. Witch hunts fit neatly into the conspiracy theories of runaway government or internal communist threats and Americans still believe the US is God’s nation. Insisting that hard work is its own reward, the Puritan work ethic is essential to American individualism. A university education remains the best path to the American Dream, something the Puritans supported by founding Harvard University in 1636.
美国的意识形态很大程度归功于清教模式。猎巫正好适合失控政府的阴谋论或者内部共产主义的威胁，美国人仍相信美国是上帝的国度。坚信努力工作是其自身的酬谢，清教徒的职业道德对美国个人主义很重要。大学教育保持着通向美国梦的最佳途径，这是清教徒1636年所支持创办哈佛大学的原因。
Between 1660 and 1763, the colonies developed differently and English mercantilism, which maintained that strength and power comes from self- sufficiency, benefited them all. Pennsylvania (4) counted nearly half of its colonists from Germany. Maryland (1634) was a Catholic stronghold. North Carolina (1665), South Carolina (1670), and Georgia (1733) had large numbers of Scottish immigrants.
在1660年到1763年之间，殖民地发展不同，英国的重商主义保持了来着自给自足的优势和力量，让他们获益良多。宾夕法尼亚州近一半的殖民者来自德国。马里兰州是天主教据点，北卡罗莱纳州、南卡罗来纳州和佐治亚州有大量的苏格兰移民。
The population rose rapidly as a result of a steady immigration, slave importation, and natural increase. There was a baby boom as families formed earlier due to the availability of land and need for labor. In England, the average marrying age for women was 2 years old; in America, it was 19. With colonial women giving birth to an average of seven children, the population reached 100,000 in 1660; by 1775, 2.5 million, one-third of them native-born. Rising numbers led to rising expectations. Additionally, slavery enriched the colonists as the northern colonies gained from the carrying trade and the southern colonies from the products produced. In 1775 alone, Virginia exported 105 million pounds of tobacco to European consumers.
人口快速增长作为稳定移民、奴隶输入和出生增长的结果。由于土地有效性和劳动力需要，在家庭组建之前，出现了一次生育高峰。在英国，女人平均结婚年龄是23岁；在美国，是19岁。由于殖民地的妇女平均生7个孩子，在1660年人口达到了10万；到1775年，达到了250万，其中的3分之1是土生土长的。上升人数导致上升期望。另外，奴隶制使殖民者变得富裕，北方殖民团从转口贸易中获益，南方殖民团从产品生产中获益。仅1775年，弗吉尼亚州出口了1亿5百万磅西红柿给欧洲消费者。
Historian Edmund Morgan called slavery the central paradox of American history and he convincingly linked the rise of liberty and equality in America and the soothing of class conflict to slavery. The more that Euro-Americans enslaved Africans, the more liberty expanded for whites (E. Morgan, 995). Colonists transplanted European social hierarchies to the colonies, but as skin color began to mark caste, lower-class whites demanded an expansion of voting rights and landholding privileges. Regardless of their economic standing, most whites came to view themselves as a ―middle class‖ because there were always browner or redder peoples below them.
历史学家Edmund Morgan称奴隶制是美国历史的主要悖论，他有说服力地将在美国自由和平等的崛起与对奴隶制的阶级斗争缓解相连。欧美裔越多奴役非洲人，白人获得越多自由。殖民者移植欧洲的社会等级制度给殖民地，但是因为肤色开始标记社会阶层，下层白人要求增加选举权和土地所有特权。不管他们的经济地位，多数白人视他们自己为“中产阶级”，因为总是有肤色更棕或者更红的人在他们之下。
From 1734 to 1755, an evangelical revival swept through the colonies on the heels of Jonathan Edwards’s sermons about ―Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,‖ and Methodist cleric George Whitefield’s colony-by-colony salvation tour. The Great Awakening was the first all-American cultural event and it appealed to the Protestant sense of individual responsibility and anti-authoritarianism. This revival led many colonials to question the authority England was exerting over the colonies.
从1734年到1755年，在Jonathan Edward“愤怒的上帝手中之罪人”的布道不久，福传道者的苏醒，横扫殖民地，循道宗教徒牧师George Whitefield一个接一个的殖民地救赎之旅。大觉醒运动是第一次全美文化事件，它呼吁了新教徒个人责任感和反独裁主义。这次复
兴让很多殖民地居民对英国施于殖民地的权力提出质疑。
The American Revolution and the Constitution
美国独立战争和宪法
While the colonies grew, Britain engaged in a struggle for supremacy with Spain and France. In the Great War for Empire, 1754–63, Britain gained Canada, all French possessions east of the Mississippi River, and Florida. With her rivals effectively neutralized, Britain tightened control over the colonies. Parliament increased taxes as a way to pay the enormous debt of ￡ 40 million accrued from the war and from stationing 0,000 soldiers along the frontier to protect the colonists from Indian attacks.
当殖民地增加，英国展开了和西班牙、法国争夺霸权的争斗。在帝国间第一次世界大战，1753-63，英国获得了加拿大和法国所占有的密西西比河东部和佛罗里达州。随着她的对手有效消解，英国加紧了对殖民地的控制。议会增加了税收，作为支付因战争和部署一万士兵于前线以保护殖民者免受印第安人袭击所产生的1亿4千万庞大债务的方法。
The taxes took many forms and the colonists responded bitterly to each and every one of them. Staging riots and breaking laws, colonists claimed the ―rights of Englishmen‖ to ―no taxation without representation.‖ Colonials advanced a conspiracy theory put forward by English Whigs during the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and Thomas Jefferson argued that taxes and other recent events proved, ―a deliberate, systematical plot of reducing us to slavery‖ (quoted in G. Wood, 1969: 331).
税收有多种形式，殖民者向每一个人残酷回应。上演暴乱、违法，殖民者声称“英国人的权力”到“没有税收就没有代表”。殖民者推进了由英国辉格党在1688年光荣革命提出的阴谋论，Thomas Jefferson争辩道，税收和其他最近事件证明，“是一个减少我们变成奴隶机会的蓄意系统计划”。
Jefferson was just 33 years old when, as a delegate from Virginia to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, he wrote The Declaration of Independence in 1776 (Box 1.1). The idea of revolution was not new, but the acts of a people, in an orderly m-anner, explaining and justifying their rights to throw off oppression and establish a new government was unprecedented. Jefferson was the first philosopher to place sovereignty, not just rights, in the people.
作为来自弗吉尼亚州去费城参加第二次大陆会议的代表，Jefferson仅33岁，他在1776年撰写了《独立宣言》。革命的想法并不新颖，但是一个民族的行为，整齐划一，为他们的权利解释、辩护以摆脱压迫，建立一个新政府，这是史无前例的。Jefferson是第一个哲学家放主权于人民之中，而不仅是权力。
The people had the power to create the government and the people had the power to tear it down. The war for independence lasted until 1783 when the colonial forces under General George
Washington, with crucial aid from France, prevailed. America became the first European colony to separate from its mother country.
人民有权去建立政府，也有权去推翻它。当殖民军队不敌George Washington将军以及来自法国的关键援助，独立战争持续至1783年以美国获胜而告终。美国成为第一个脱离母国的欧洲殖民地。
From 1781–88, the 13 states were held together by a weak and ineffective government established under the Articles of Confederation. The government lacked a chief executive and a judiciary, and could neither collect taxes nor enforce laws. It could only ask the states to comply with its requests. After all, each of these states had been independent and was older than the new nation – a fact still acknowledged in the flag of the United States by the 13 red and white stripes, each representing one of the original states.
从1781年-1788年，13个州由建立在《联邦条例》下无影响力且无效率的政府团结起来。该政府缺少一个行政长官和一个司法部门，既不能征税也不能执法。它只能让各州去遵守它的要求。毕竟，它们每一个州都已经独立了，且时间比新国家建立还早——这是一个仍承认的事实，美国国旗由13条红白相间的条纹组成，一条代表一个原始州。
In 1787, a convention of delegates wrote a document that British Prime Minister William Gladstone l ater praised as ―the most wonderful work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of man‖ (quoted in Kammen, 1987: 162). The Constitution of the United States of America set up a federal system-which shared power with the states and, ultimately, with the people. It checked and balanced the actions of any particular branch of government, or individual, through overlapping jurisdictions of responsibility(see Appendix).
在1787年，代表大会书写了一份文件，英国首相William Gladstone后来称赞为“在规定时间内，由人类智慧和目的一蹴而就的最精彩的作品。”美国宪法建立了一个联邦系统，和各州权力共享，最终，是和人民权力共享。它通过和司法责任交搭，检查和平衡了政府任何特定分支以及个人的行为。（见附录）
Because Americans feared central power, it took two years of intensive lobbying to convince the people and the states to ratify the Constitution. In 1789, the new government met in the nation’s capital, New York City, and acclaimed George Washington president. Europeans looked on in wonderment but were quickly distracted when Frenchmen stormed the Bastille. Acknowledging America’s role in fomenting these events, the Marquis de Lafayette sent Washington the key to that prison.
因为美国人害怕中央权力，花了两年时间集中游说去说服人民和各州批准美国宪法。1789年，新政府在国家首都纽约市开会，拥戴George Washington为总统。欧洲人叹为观止，但当法国人突袭巴士底狱时，他们很快分心了。在引发这些事件中，拉法耶特侯爵承认美国的角色，给Washington解放人民设立了一个榜样。
In 1793, England declared war on France. Washington immediately invoked American neutrality, an uneasy action that bubbled through the presidencies of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. Americans were busy at home. Political parties had formed, dividing the supporters of stronger national power in the Federalist Party from the supporters of state power, Democratic-Republicans. By 1800, population had increased to 5 million, three new states had been added to the union, the value of exports was $71 million compared to $20 million in 1790, 20 colleges had been established, there were 200 newspapers, and the technology of the cotton gin had increased production of ―white gold‖ from 1.5 million to 36.5 million pounds in a decade –and with it, the demand for slaves. The country was split between a free labor system in the North and a slave system in the South. Symbolizing the intersection of two differing social systems, Congress relocated the nation’s capital in 1800 to the District of Columbia—an area set free of the boundaries of any state—and named the city Washington. The war between England and France continued to disrupt the economy and the passions of the people. In 1812, after the British seized American ships and impressed American sailors into the British navy, President Madison declared war on England. The war was basically a drawn contest with the peace treaty ratified in 1815.
1793年，英国向法国宣战。Washington立刻唤起美国人的中立，在John Adam, Thomas Jefferson和James Madison任期间,充满不安的行动。美国人忙于国内事务。政党组建，将联邦党中更强国家力量的支持者从民主共和党的州力量支持者中分离出来。到1800年，人口已增长至530万，3个新州加入到联邦，出口总值相较于1790年的2000万，已达到7100万美元，建立了20所大学，有200家报社，轧棉机技术增加了“白金”产量，十年间由150万增长至3650万，因此，需要奴隶。国家被拆分为北方的自由劳动制和南方的奴隶制。象征两种不同社会制度的交叉，1800年，国会重新将国家首都定在哥伦比亚特区，这是一个各州无界限的区域，将城市命名为Washington。英法战争继续摧毁经济和瓦解人民热情。1812年，英国夺取美国船只后，强迫美国海员到英国海军服役，Madison总统向英国宣战。这场战争对于1815年签署的和平条约，基本是一场疲惫竞争。
（课本第12页的图标）
Box 1.1 Excerpt from The Declaration of Independence
摘自《独立宣言》
When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
在有关人类事务的发展过程中，当一个民族必须解除其和另一个民族之间的政治联系并
在世界各国之间依照自然法则和上帝的意旨，接受独立和平等的地位时，出于对人类舆论的尊重，必须把他们不得不独立的原因予以宣布。
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security …
我们认为下面这些真理是不言而喻的: 人人生而平等，造物者赋予他们若干不可剥夺的权利，其中包括生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。为了保障这些权利，人类才在他们之间建立政府，而政府之正当权力，是经被治理者的同意而产生的。当任何形式的政府对这些目标具破坏作用时，人民便有权力改变或废除它，以建立一个新的政府;其赖以奠基的原则，其组织权力的方式，务使人民认为唯有这样才最可能获得他们的安全和幸福。为了慎重起见，成立多年的政府，是不应当由於轻微和短暂的原因而予以变更的。过去的一切经验也都说明，任何苦难，只要是尚能忍受，人类都宁愿容忍，而无意为了本身的权益便废除他们久已习惯了的政府。但是，当追逐同一目标的一连串滥用职权和强取豪夺发生，证明政府企图把人民置於专制统治之下时，那麽人民就有权利，也有义务推翻这个政府，并为他们未来的安全建立新的保障——这就是这些殖民地过去逆来顺受的情况，也是它们现在不得不改变以前政府制度的原因。当今大不列颠国王的历史，是接连不断的伤天害理和强取豪夺的历史，这些暴行的唯一目标，就是想在这些州建立专制的暴政。为了证明所言属实，现把下列事实向公正的世界宣布
We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be free and independent states; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances,
establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.
Thomas Jefferson, 1776因此，我们，在大陆会议下集会的美利坚合众国代表，以各殖民地善良人民的名义，非经他们授权，向全世界最崇高的正义呼吁，说明我们的严正意向，同时郑重宣布; 这些联合一致的殖民地从此是自由和独立的国家，并且按其权利也必须是自由和独立的国家，它们取消一切对英国王室效忠的义务，它们和大不列颠国家之间的一切政治关系从此全部断绝，而且必须断绝; 作为自由独立的国家，它们完全有权宣战、缔和、结盟、通商和采取独立国家有权采取的一切行动。为了支持这篇宣言，我们坚决信赖上帝的庇佑，以我们的生命、我们的财产和我们神圣的名誉，彼此宣誓。
Westward Expansion and Reform
The nineteenth century was marked by the violence, power, and labor of territorial expansion (Map 1.1). In 1803, President Jefferson doubled the size of the United States by purchasing the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon. The US purchased Florida from Spain in 1819.By 1821, eight new states had entered the union as equals to the older states. The northern states had abolished slavery, but Southerners held tightly to their property and way of life.Slavery increasingly disturbed Northerners, who saw it as a stain on the nation’s otherwise ―heroic‖ narrative. Thomas Jefferson, a slaveholder, had once offered an apology that the institution was a necessary evil.Jefferson likened slavery to holding ―the wolf by the ears.‖ You don’t like it, but you don’t dare let it go (quoted in McPherson, 1982: 39).The principal American philosopher for freedom and equality clung to his slaves throughout his life.
19世纪的美国以暴力、权力以及扩张领土的活动为特征。1803年，杰斐逊总统从拿破仑手中购买了路易斯安那州，这使得美国当时的领土扩大了两倍。1819年，美国又从西班牙手中购买了福罗里达州。到了1821年，就有八个新的州加入了美国联邦，已经与美国原有州的数量相等了。当北部各州已经废除奴隶制时，南方仍固守他们的财产不放，坚持原来的生活方式。渐渐的，北部的人将奴隶制看作民族英雄史上的污点，它的存在已经成为了一种阻碍。托马斯杰斐逊作为一个奴隶制曾道歉说奴隶制度是一种必要的邪恶。他将其比作是。引用麦克福森的话说，尽管你不喜欢它，但你又不能废除它。这个一生都为了公平和自由而战的哲学家，却拼命控制住自己的奴隶。
Whites coveted western lands and as wagon trains rolled out of Eastern cities, Indians were killed and confined to reservations.By 1838, all the Eastern tribes had been forced west of the Mississippi River and, in the most famous atrocity, 15,000 Cherokees were forced to relocate from Georgia to Indian territory in Oklahoma. 4,000 died along this ―trail of tears.‖Complicating the
land struggles, the area from Texas to California was owned by Mexico, which had won its independence from Spain in 1821. In 1836, American settlers living in Texas revolted against Mexican rule, declared a Lone Star Republic, and asked to join the union. Nine years later, President James K. Polk, a fervent expansionist, proclaimed that the country should fill its natural boundaries and reach its ―Manifest Destiny‖ (Illustration 1.1) of stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans.
白人贪图西方的领土，当马车队从东部的城市滚过时，印第安人被暗杀并被禁闭在殖民区。到1838年，所有的东部部落都被逼迫到密西西比河以西。其中，最著名的暴行是逼迫15000个切罗基族人从佐治亚州搬迁到印度境内的俄克拉荷马州，有4000人在这次痛苦的迁移中死去。更为复杂的是土地斗争。曾经，德克萨斯州与加利福尼亚之间的领土归墨西哥所有，终于能在1821年从西班牙独立出来。1836年，居住在德克萨斯州的美国殖民者反抗墨西哥的统治，宣布成立孤星共和国，并要求加入共和国。九年以后，一个狂热的领土扩张者—詹姆斯.K.波尔卡宣布该国应填写其自然边界，并达到将其领土从大西洋延伸到太平洋的“天命”。
The US absorbed Texas and, from 1846 to 1848, made war on Mexico, won, and took all Mexican land north of the Rio Grande River.
美国吞并了德克萨斯州，并从1846年到1848年间，不断对墨西哥发动侵略，侵占了墨西哥在里奥格兰德河以北的所有领土。
Polk bullied England into ceding the entire Northwest (part of Oregon territory), establishing the division with Canada.With the 1853 purchase of a strip of Mexican land, the US reached its present size, excluding Alaska, Hawaii, and various small offshore possessions. And yet, many American were not satisfied and believed that Manifest Destiny demanded more.
波尔卡威逼英格兰将其整个西北部（俄勒冈州的一部分）领土割让给美国，造成了其与加拿大的分裂。1853年，通过对墨西哥一条狭长领土的购买，美国领土达到了现有的规模，其中不包括今天的阿拉斯加州、夏威夷州及几个较小的近海领土部分。然而，许多美国人对此并不满意，认为“天命”要求更多。
In addition to the issue of slavery in the territories, rapid growth brought on other discussions about the moral and social fabric of the nation.Reformers advocated individual and institutional uplift. Workingmen’s associations pulled laborers together.Most middleclass women sought power by supporting a notion of separate spheres which argued that women should stay in the home and let men deal with the world. Other women argued for equality in all matters.Margaret Fuller’s Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1844) helped inspire the first Women’s Rights Convention (1848) at Seneca Falls, New York, where the delegates declar ed ―All men and women are created equal.‖A new religion, Mormonism, competed for converts with Shakers, Quakers, Adventists, and others.A temperance movement linked poverty with ―Demon Rum‖ and called for bans on
alcohol.
除了奴隶制问题外，美国的快速发展也带来了人们对道德和社会结构的讨论。改革者主张个人和社会要共同进步。工人协会将劳动者组织到了一起。大多数中产阶级妇女为追求权力而支持一个具有独立概念的领域，这个概念认为妇女应该呆在家里，让男人主宰世界。而其他妇女则要求一切问题平等。在19世纪，玛格丽特富勒的妇女帮助第一次女权公约在赛尼加瀑布.纽约的代表宣言:“人人生而平等。”一个新的宗教—摩门教，竞争皈依者。一场禁酒运动将贫困与“恶魔朗姆酒”联系在一起，呼吁禁止酒精。
The Industrial Revolution reshaped the workplace and the market economy in the North to the demands of industrial capitalism, an agrarian empire was rising in the West, and a cotton kingdom ruled the South.The North and West were becoming less Anglo-American and more Euro-American as immigrants poured in.Inventors conquered time and space, knitting the country together with steamboats, railroads, and telegraph lines.Cities grew rapidly, especially New York City, whose population exceeded 200,000 in 1830, 1.1 million in 1860, and 4.8 million in 1900.
工业革命改变了工作场所和市场经济在北方工业资本主义的需要，一个农业帝国在西方崛起，棉花王国统治了南部。美国西部和北部由于移民的大量涌入，使得英裔美国人的数量减少，而欧裔美国人的数量有所增加。.发明者征服了时间与空间，并发明了汽艇、铁路、电报线路，将整个国家紧密相联人口数量也快速增长，特别是在纽约市，其人口已在1830年就超过了20万，到1860年就有了1.1亿，而1900年达到了4.8个亿。
In politics, the nation had been in the Founders’ hands u ntil 1828 when the Federalists were replaced by a group that soon called itself Whigs, and the Democratic-Republicans became the Democratic Party. Whigs resembled Federalists in favoring stronger national power over all aspects of the economy. The Democrats had a wider base but were weakened by their support of slavery.In 1854, the Whigs were replaced by the Republican Party, which organized on a platform of antislavery.The Democratic and Republican parties—although greatly changed—have anchored the nation’s two-party system ever since.
政治方面，国家主权一直掌握在创始人手中，直到1828年，联邦党人被后来自称为辉格党的人所取代，民主共和党就成为了民主党派。辉格党人在增强国力上与联邦党人采取类似的方式，全方面发展经济以增强国力。民主党虽然有广泛的基础，但由于他支持奴隶制而削弱了自身的力量。1854年，共和党取代了辉格党，成立了一个平台来反对奴隶制。直至今日，民主党和共和党虽然已经极大的改变过，但仍然是美国不可动摇的两大政党。
The American Civil War
In 1860, the election of the Republican antislavery advocate Abraham Lincoln so enraged and frightened the South that before he could take office in March 1861, there were seven – soon 11 –fewer states in the union.The Confederate States of America formed a nation composed of South
《英语翻译基础》期末复习 13年12月 题型： 一、选择题（每小题2分，共20分） Section A; 选择译文中最符合原文意思的选项（考查翻译实践能力） Section B: 关于翻译理论知识的题目 二、改译句子。（每小题2分，共10分） 三、翻译句子。（每小题3分，共15分） 四、篇章翻译（每小题40分，共40分） 五、案例分析题（每小题15分，共15分） 注意：本门课程为：“闭卷（只允许考生带一本正规英汉词典参加考试，不得携带除此之外的任何查字工具。） I、Multiple Choice Questions (20 points, 2 points each) A : Directions : This part consists of five sentences, each followed by four different versions marked A, B, C and D. Choose the one that is the closest equivalent of the original in terms of meaning and expressiveness. 1. I prefer driving to being driven. B A. 我喜欢开车，不喜欢别人开车。 B. 我喜欢开车，不喜欢坐车。 C. 我开车比被开车更喜欢。 D. 我喜欢开车，也喜欢被开车。 2. She had deprived herself of the advice of all but yesmen. C A．她丧失了除了唯唯诺诺的人之外的所有人的劝告。 B．她剥夺了自己的所有人的劝告，唯唯诺诺的人除外。 C．她喜欢唯唯诺诺的人，根本听不进所有其他人的劝告。 D．她剥夺了所有人的劝告，除了唯唯诺诺的人。 3．我第一次听她在晚上唱歌，她的歌声就深深地打动了我。B A．Because it was the first time I heard her sing at a party, her song moved me deeply. B. When I first heard her sing at a party, I was deeply moved. C. I first heard her singing a party, I was deeply moved. D. Because it was the first time I heard her sing at a party, her voice moved me deeply. 4.When it came to reading, they were as good as blind. B
现当代文学复习资料 1.闻一多《死水》的三美赏析： 全诗隔行压韵，最后都以双音节词收尾，读来抑扬顿挫，琅琅上口，节奏感和韵律感很强。全诗共五节，每节四行，每一行都是九个字。汉字被称为方块字，每个字都是一个四四方方的建筑体。这样每一行就形成了一个长方体；而四和长方体又构成了一个大的长方体；而全诗是五个大长方体，这就是构成了一个更大长方体。从整体外形上看，结构工整、章法整饰，节与节之间匀称，行与行之间均齐。这样的外形，与中国传统的律诗非常相象。再说绘画美。诗中“绿酒”、“白沫”、“翡翠”、“罗绮”等词汇，错彩镂金，色彩斑斓，让人产生一种眩目的视觉效果。而且作者还不满足于此，他充分运用了诗歌的语言特性，不但写了翡翠等静止的意象，而且写了青蛙的叫声这样的动的意象，动静结合使意象相互反衬，产生张力，画面更加活泼起来。这样的“三美”手法的运用使《死水》形成了总体的整齐凝重的风格，作者的那种传统儒家知识分子的人格特征更是跃然纸上。 2.“中国现代文学”学科的建构历史 1922年，胡适的《五十年来中国之文学》的最后一节，是“略述文学革命的历史和新文学的大概”，可视为最早的以“史”的角度研究现代文学的尝试。 20年代末期始，少数高校以开设了新文学研究的课程和讲座。陈子展、周作人、朱自清、李何林等都讲授过现代文学的课程，并出版过文学史著作，如周作人的《中国新文学之流源》、李何林的《近二十年来中国文艺思潮论》等。因此，现代文学的早期研究有很强的“当代性”。现代文学作为一个完整的学科，是1951年王瑶《中国新文学史稿》（上册）的出版和他在北京大学所开的课。王瑶可以说是中国现代文学学科的奠基者。 但随即遭到激烈的批评 1955年，作家出版社出版了丁易的《中国现代文学史略》。这本文学史建构了一种激进的写作框架。在文学运动部分，用革命运动统摄文艺运动和现象；在作家作品部分，简单地使用了阶级划分的方法。 同年10月，作家出版社出版了东北大学张毕来的《新文学史纲》第一卷。作家都被纳入“革命作家”、“进步作家”、“小资产阶级作家”、“右翼作家”等范畴进行评价。 1956年，作家出版社又出版了刘绶松的《中国新文学史初稿》上下卷，作者阐发了研究现代文学的三大目的：第一，叙述“五四”以来先驱者使用文艺武器与统治阶级进行不屈不挠的斗争的实况；第二，把各个历史时期的战斗史实和经验加以正确的叙述和总结；第三，全面深入地考察和研究各个历史时期的重要作家和作品。 文学史的“历史建构”在这样一种政治文化背景下有了“主流”和“非主流”的区别。“非主流”的作家在不断的过滤和批判的过程中被逐渐淘汰。 3.中国现代文学的含义 1、1917年1月《新青年》杂志刊出的胡适的《文学改良刍议》为标志,发生的文学革命，在中国文学史上树起一个鲜明的界碑，标志着古典文学的结束，现代文学的起始。 2、现代文学不仅是时间概念上所划定的1917——1949年这一通常所说的“现代”阶段的文学，更是“现代”性质意义上所指的区别于传统文学的新的文学。即是用现代文学语言与文学形式，表达现代中国人的思想、感情、心理的文学。从性质来看，“现代”是相对于“传统”中国文学而言的。“现代”作为时间的标志，表明了中国现代文学与中国传统文学的联系性，说明了中国现代文学是中国文学发展到20世纪出现的一种形态的文学；“现代”作为性质的标志，则
黄山学院初等教育学院2008－2009学年度第二学期06级英语班《英语翻译》期末考试卷 班级序号姓名成绩 一、选择题。（请将答案写在序号前面）20% 1. Success in many fields depends on getting the latest information. A. 许多领域的成功都取决于能否得到最新消息。 B. 田里的收成在很多方面依靠获得最新的消息。 C. 从很多方面讲，成功主要依靠在最后的时刻还能得到信息。 D. 在众多领域里，成功是获得最晚信息的保障。 2. At least three persons died in the fire and 23 others were injured. A. 至少3人因这次火灾和另外23次火灾造成死亡。 B. 起码有3个人在大火中丧命，23个以外的人受伤。 C. 火灾造成至少3人死亡，23人受伤。 D. 至少有3人死于火海，23人被火海包围。 3. Not only has he a first-class brain, but he is also a tremendously hard worker. A. 在一班，他不仅是头领，而且，也是一个非常严肃的工作者。 B. 他有一流的头脑，是个非常难对付的家伙。 C. 他不仅头脑好用，而且，还喜欢做极端困难的工作。 D. 他不仅头脑非常聪明，而且，工作上也非常勤奋。 4. It is reported that some areas of Australia have had no rain for more than four years. A. 有报道说，澳大利亚地区已经4年多没下雨了。 B. 据报道，澳大利亚的部分地区有4年多没下雨了。 C. 澳大利亚的个别地方被报道说没下雨的时间已经超过了4年。 D. 报纸报道，某些澳大利亚地区已经有4年多没下雨的时间。 5. The village was named after the high mountain standing in front of it. A. 这个村庄是以矗立在它面前的那座高山命名的。 B. 这个村庄的名字是来自于它面前的那座高山。 C. 这个村庄的名字是在前面的那座高山之后起的。 D. 这个村庄的名字是以站立在它面前的那座高山起的。 6. It was officially announced that the birth rate dropped greatly in the past three years. A. 据官方宣布，出生率在过去的三年中有了大幅下降。 B. 正式宣布，过去三年的出生率大幅下降。 C. 正式宣布，出生率大幅下降在过去三年。 D. 据正式声明，过去三年的出生率大幅下降。 7. The introduction of the new technique reduced the cost of the product three times. A. 对新技术的介绍，使产品的成本减少到三分之一。 B. 新技术的引进使产品的成本减少了三倍。 C. 对新技术的介绍使产品的成本减少到原来的三分之二。 D. 新技术的引进使产品成本减少了三分之二。 8. If you are buying a car, you may pay for it out of savings. A. 假使你正在买一辆汽车，你也许会透支购买。 B. 如果你要买一辆汽车，你可以用自己的储蓄存款支付。 C. 假定你打算买一辆汽车，你得花掉你得全部存款。 D. 加入你买一辆汽车，你需要用你的积蓄交此款。 9. Full-service banks can offer services unavailable at smaller financial institutions. A. 全面服务的银行能提供在小财政机构所不能获得的服务。 B. 提供全方位服务的银行能提供较小的金融机构所不能提供的服务。 C. 充满了服务的银行可能提供给较小的财政机构某些无法获得的服务 D. 全面服务的银行可能提供服务，这种服务是较小的金融机构所不能提供的。 10. The following qualifications are required from the candidates for the above position. A. 我们要求应聘高职位的求职者需具备以下资历。 B. 应聘以上职位，需具备下列资格。 C. 候选人为了高职位要求自己具备以下资历。 D. 以下资历是对应聘此职位的候选人的要求。 二、用正反表达法翻译下列句子。20% 1. The teacher found some of the pupils absent. 2. I wonder if he is coming. 3. Your request is beyond my power. 4. You will fail unless you work harder. 5. That lazy boy went to class before he had prepared his lesson. 6. Be sure to lock the door when you leave. 7. Students, with no exception, are to hand in their papers this afternoon. 8. The doubt still unsolved after his repeated explanation. 9. Such flight couldn’t long escape notice. 10. All the articles are untouchable in the museum. 三、用重复法翻译下列句子。20% 1. We should learn how to analyze and solve problems. 2. It's our duty to rebuild and defend our home-land. 3. People forget your face first, then your name. 4. Each had his own business to handle. 5. Big families had their own difficulties.
葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”：读英译《丰乳肥臀》 史国强 胡安江教授在《中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究》一文中提到葛浩文（Howard Goldblatt）的翻译策略，指出：“实际上，葛氏的归化译法几乎见于他的每一部作品。”胡教授以葛浩文一九八六年译的《杀夫》（The Butcher’s Wife）、二〇〇二年的《尘埃落定》（Red Poppies：A Novel of Tibet）和《香港三部曲》（City of the Queen：A Novel of Co-lonial Hong Kong）为例，得出结论：“就英语世界而言，这样的书名在很大程度上迎合了西方对于中国的所谓‘东方主义想象’。事实上，这三部书在西方世界不俗的销售业绩，再次证明了葛氏遵守译入语文化规范的归化式译法起了重要的作用。”①胡文指出了葛浩文在翻译当代汉语小说方面的一个特点，但因为作者在文中着重研究的是中国文学“走出去”的问题，对葛浩文的翻译策略不过是稍带提及，所以拙文试图就这个话题再说几句，或可为葛浩文的行文风格勾画出一个轮廓。 阅读葛浩文的译文后能发现，“归化式译法”不是他的重要特点，更不是他的唯一特点。 至于“不俗的销售业绩”，因为胡文没有说明印数，所以这里不好推测，但据葛浩文自己说，他翻译的中国小说读者极其有限，几乎无钱可赚。② 翻译者在译文上总要留下即所谓的“个人印记”（idiosyncrasy）。无论译者如何朝原文靠拢，都无法做到韦努蒂所说的纯粹的“隐身”和“透明”。③高明的译者隐得深一些，不过如此。资深译家如葛浩文，也不例外。但对葛浩文这样经验丰富的翻译家来说，绝不是归化或异化能限定的。 要指出的是，葛在使用归化策略时是极其慎重的，尤其是书名翻译，他的异化策略反而用得更多。如，萧红的《生死场》和《呼兰河传》译成The Field of Life and Death（一九七九）和Tales of Hulan River（一九七九）。再如，黄春明的《溺死一只老猫》（The Drowning ① ② ③ 见胡安江《中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研 究》，《中国翻译》2010年第6期。 葛浩文亲口对季进说：“目前美国出版的当代中国文学作 品主要是小说，每年大概也就出版三五本的样子。肯定不 会很畅销，像莫言的《生死疲劳》能够卖一两千本就算是 好的了。莫言的小说，除了《红高粱》，一直都卖不好，连 苏童的东西也不太好卖。余华的《兄弟》可能好一些，海 外也得到好评，但是我不知道会有多少人买。”见季进《我 译故我在———葛浩文访谈录》，《当代作家评论》2009年第 6期。 Venuti Lawrence，The Translator’s Invisibility：A History of Translation，上海，上海教育出版社，2006。
任何年满18岁的人都有资格投票（vote）.(be eligible to ) Anyone over the age of 18 is eligible to vote. 每学期开学前，这些奖学金的申请表格就会由学校发给每一个学生。(apply for,scholarship) A form to apply for scholarships is sent by the university to each student before the start of each semester . 遵照医生建议，我决定戒烟。（on the advice of） On the advice of my doctor, I decided to give up smoking . 公司位于县城的正中央.(Be located in) The park is located right in the center of town . 这所大学提供了我们所需的所有材料和设备。(Facilities) The university provides all the materials and facilities we desire. 警察们正忙着填写关于这场事故的各种表格。（fill out） The policemen are busy filling out forms about the accident. 我想在还车之前把邮箱（fuel tank）加满（fill up） I want to fill up the fuel tank before returning the car. 如果你要投诉，最好遵循正确的程序。（follow the procedure） If you want to make a complaint,you would better follow the correct procedure. 要不是约翰帮忙，我们绝不会这么快就完成实验。（without） We could not have finished the experiment so soon without John’s help. 暴风雨之后，岸边的人们焦急地搜索湖面以期待发现小船的踪迹。 After the storm of boat the people on the store anxiously scanned the lake for any sign. 我们需要通过减少道路上的车辆以降低燃料消耗。（consumption） We need to cut down on our fuel consumption by having fewer cars on the road. 电费上涨增加了我们的负担。（add to） The rise in power costs has added to our burden. 你应该自己判断行事，别总是跟在你哥哥后面。（follow the lead） You should fudge by yourself,and not always follow your brother’s. 那种发型今年很流行，但是我想明年就会过时。（in fashion） That hair style is in fashion this year,but I an afraid it will be out of fashion next year. 在追求真理的过程中，我们注定（fate to）要遭受失败的痛苦。（in one’s quest for） In our quest for truth, we are fated to suffer from many failures. 我们得把感情放在一边，从专业的（professinal）角度来对待这件事。（from a```stand point）We have to put aside our emotions and take it from a professional stand point. 这部戏非常精彩，我很快就沉浸于激动人心的剧情之中。（lose oneself in of ） The plan was so wonderful that I soon lost myself in the excitement in of it. 她没有什么爱好——除非你把看电视也算是一种爱好。 She hasn’t got any hobbies---unless you call watching TV a hobby. 他说他是直接从市长本人那里得到这个信息的。（first-hand） He said he had got the information first-hand from the major himself. 既然你不能回答这个问题，我们最好问问别人。（since） Since you can not answer the question, perhaps we would better ask someone else. 那件工作很难做，不过我想试试看。（have a shot） It is a difficult iob but I’d like to have a shot. 这是一本关于商务实践而非理论的书。（as opposed to）
样卷 广东外语外贸大学国际商务英语学院 《英汉笔译》2011-2012学年上学期期末考试试卷（A） 考核方式：开卷 考核对象：国际商务英语学院法律英语系2009级考试时间：120分钟姓名______________ 班级________ 学号____________________ 分数___________ PART I. LEGAL TERMS (20%, one point for each) 1.outstanding liabilities 2.without prejudice to PART II. Translation Improvement (30%) Directions: There may be one or more errors or inappropriate treatment in each of the following TRANSLATED VERSIONS. Please underline it (or them) and then correct it (or them) in the corresponding space provided on the ANSWER SHEET. If you believe the whole translation is wrong or inappropriate, you are advised to underline the whole translation. Marks will be given if you have identified and properly marked the error(s). (2 points for each save as specified otherwise) 21.His retort was delivered with a strong note of vinegar. 原译：他的反驳是带着强烈的醋意发出的。 改译： 22.The new father wore a proud smile. 原译：那位新父亲面带得意笑容。 改译： PART III. SENTENCES (30%) Directions: Translate the following sentences. Employ the translation skill suggested in the brackets where appropriate. (3 points for each save as specified otherwise) https://www.doczj.com/doc/ff4839854.html,mission depends on the quantity of goods ordered. (Amplification) 32.We learn that you have been dealers of Chinese products for many years. (Conversion) PART IV. PASSAGE (20%) Translate the underlined part of the following passage. 1
翻译学必读 1语文和诠释学派 二十世纪之前的翻译理论被纽马克（1981）称为翻译研究的‘前语言学时期’，人们围绕‘word-for-word’和‘sense-for-sense’展开激烈的讨论，核心是‘忠实’，‘神似’和‘真理’。典型的代表有John Dryden, Tytler等，而Barnard, Steiner等人则是在他们的基础上进一步发展。 2语言学派 Jacobson(1959)提出意义对等的问题，随后的二十多当年，学界围绕这个问题进行了研究。奈达（1969）采取了转换语法模式，运用“科学（奈达语）”的方法来分析他翻译《圣经》过程中的意义处理问题。奈达提出的形式对等说、动态对等说和等效原则都是将注意力集中在受众一方。纽马克信奉的是语义翻译和交际翻译，即重视翻译中的语义和交际方面。 3话语分析Discourse Analysis（critical discourse analysis批评话语分析functional discourse analysis功能语篇分析Discourse analysis theory话语分析理论 Discourse Analysis for Interpreters翻译专业演说分析 Pragmatics & Discourse Analysis语用学positive discourse analysis积极话语分析 rhetorical or discourse analysis语篇分析Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis语用学Mediated discourse analysis中介话语分析 二十世纪七十年代到九十年代，作为应用语言学领域的一个分支，话语分析经历了产生和发展壮大的过程，其理论背景来自M.K.Halliday（韩礼德）的系统功能语法。今天，话语分析的方法已经逐步运用到翻译研究中。House(1997)提出的翻译质量模型就是基于韩礼德的理论，他吸收了其中的语域分析方法；Baker(1992) 则为培养译员提供了话语分析和语用分析的范本；Hatim 和Mason(1997)将语域研究拓展到语用和符号学角度 4目的学派 目的学派于二十世纪七、八十年代在德国兴起，是从静态的语言学、语言类型学中剥离出来的。其中的代表人物有，Reiss，Vermmer，Nord 等。Reiss（1971，1988，2000）强调的是文本层面的对等，主张文本的类型和翻译策略结合起来；Holz-Manttari（1984）则认为在翻译过程是一个交际、互动的过程，涉及各种各样的角色。Vermmer（2000）继承并发展了Reiss的观点。 5文化学派the Culture School Even-Zohar 在二十世纪七十年代提出将文学翻译视为文化的，文学的和历史的过程或系统。翻译研究的“文化转向”指的是更加注重从文化研究的角度进行翻译研究。其中，Lefevere （1992）逐渐从系统理论转向文化学研究，将翻译看作‘重写’的过程，审视围绕着翻译文本的意识形态冲突等课题。Simon(1996) 和一些女权主义者则重点研究文化学研究中的女性意识。后殖民主义文化学方向的代表人物是Bassnett和Trivedi (1999)，他们认为，无论在殖民化的过程中还是在被殖民的社会，翻译都十分活跃。文化学派的研究有着各自的研究任务和各自的侧重点，丰富了翻译研究的内容。 6解构学派 本雅明本人不属于解构学派，但他的著作《译者的任务》通常被看作解构学派对翻译研究的缘起和根据。本雅明率先指出，翻译不可能与原作相等，因为翻译过程已经改变了原作，况且，没有蜕变，也就不会产生‘后起的生命’。本雅明认为，译者的任务不是在目标语中复制原文，而是颠覆原语的体系，把潜藏于原文的精神内容表达出来。德里达则更进一步，在他的著作《巴别通天塔》中，翻译被看作一个不断解构和建构的过程。学界认为德里达将翻
II.20个单词词组翻译，平时讲课强调的词汇和表达。20分 (仅仅是部分，待补充) 等级制度a hierarchy of universal wants and needs 灵感需求aesthetic stimulation 多人关注的运动spectator sports 北京元谋人Peking Man 华北平原the Great North China Plain 战国时期the Warring States Period 天安门城楼Tian’anmen rostrum 紫禁城the grand royal compound of the Forbidden City/the old imperial palace 传统与现代的结合old meets new 人民大会堂the Great Hall of the People 武夷山风景区the Wuyishan Scenic Area 丹霞地貌Danxia landform 文人墨客men of letters 摩崖蚀刻cliff inscriptions 竹筏a bamboo raft 悬棺hanging coffins 云雾缭绕(be) shrouded with clouds and mists 天王殿the Heavenly King Hall 大雄宝殿the Grand Hall 卧佛殿the Hall of the Reclining Buddha 玉佛楼the Jade Buddha Chamber 方丈室the Abbot’s Room 佛光a back halo 观音Goddess of Mercy 弟子disciple 中国共产党the Communist Party of China 国务院the State Council 五星红旗the five-star red flag 义勇军进行曲the March of the V olunteers 社会主义市场经济the socialist market economy 好莱坞大片Hollywood blockbusters 悲惨世界Les Miserable 歌剧魅影Phantom of the Opera 最新技术state-of-the-art 弥漫节日的气氛be permeated with a jubilant atmosphere 身着节日的盛装in their holiday best 灯火辉煌a blaze of light 秋收冬藏autumn harvest and winter storage 春耕夏锄spring plowing and summer weeding 燕窝汤birds nest soup 鱼翅shark’s fin soup
Unit1 A new study shows that dogs can detect if someone has cancer just by sniffing the person’s breath. Ordinary household dogs with only a few weeks of basic training learn to accurately distinguish between breath samples of lung- and breast-cancer patients and healthy subjects.One expert, who led the research, said, “Our study provides compelling evidence that cancers hidden beneath the skin can be detected simply by (dogs’) examining the odors of a person’s breath.” Early detection of cancers greatly improves a patient’s survival chances, and researchers hope that man’s best friend, the dog, can become an important tool in early screening. Unit 2 A research team recently replicated a bacterium’s genetic structure entirely from l aboratory chemicals, moving one step closer to creating the world’s first artificial organism. The researchers said, “It’s the second step of a three-step process to create a synthetic organism. But the final step could prove far more difficult.” Nonetheless, the research is pushing forward at a rapid pace. Last June, the team revealed details of an experiment in which researchers inserted the DNA of one species of bacterium into the cells of another. That process almost magically booted up the inserted genome. The research team hopes to use a similar trick to boot up the artificially created genome, so as to create a man-made living organism. Unit 3 In recent years, the psychologists from many countries banded together to do a research which indicated that continued income growth could make people apply themselves to an ongoing consumption race rather than promote overall happiness. Everyone has to spend more and more money in order to maintain a constant level of happiness. This is because our vanity and jealousy are functioning . The way to sort out them out is to cultivate the noble sentiment of being considerate and serving the society. People shouldn’t pin all their hopes on money. Instead , friends, family and work are also playing a very improtant role . Therefore, hapiness is not an inborn trait, but a talent which everyone can learn. Unit 4 I used to feel excited at teaching my students the elegant economic theories that could supposedly cure societal problems of all types. But what is the good of all my complex theories when people were dying of starvation on the sidewalks and porches across from my lecture hall? My lessons were like the American movies where the good guys always win. But when I emerged from the comfort of the classroom, I was faced with the reality of the city streets. Here good guys were mercilessly beaten and trampled. Daily life ws getting worse, and the poor were growing even poorer. Unit 5 No one thought that shy little Einstein would grow up to a prominent scientist. He was slow in learning to speak, and he often paused to consider what he would say during a conversation.In school, Albert Einstein was singled out by his teachers as a troublesome child because he liked to ask difficult strange questions. He did not like to memorize facts and rules, but was interested in what lay below the surface of things. When he was four or five years old, for instance, his father gave him a compass. Little Einstein was curious about the mysterious force that could keep a compass needle always pointing north, which prompted him to read widely in science. His real studies were mostly done at home by reading books on mathematics, physics, and philosophy. Unit 6 Most Americans have great vigor and enthusiasm. They prefer to discipline themselves rather than be disciplined by others. They pride themselves on their independence, their right to make their own minds. They tend to take the initiatives, even when there is a risk in doing so. They have courage and do not give in easily. They are considered sentimental. When they see a flag on ceremonial occasions, or attend parades celebrating Ame rica’s glorious past, tears may come to their eyes. They tend to be emotional at the reunions with family and friends, too. Sometimes, they can laugh at themselves and their country, while they will always remain intensely patriotic.
当代西方翻译理论 当代西方翻译研究的三大突破，两大转向 三大突破 1）20世纪50年代以来的西方翻译研究开始从一般层面上的对两种语言转换的技术问题 的研究，也即从“怎么译”的问题，深入到了对翻译行为本身的深层探究。提出了语音、语法、语义等一系列的等值问题。当代西方翻译研究中的等值论等研究，虽然有它的局限，但它对翻译所作的微观分析，无疑使人们对翻译的过程和目标，看得更加清楚了，更加透彻了。 2）当代西方的翻译研究不再局限于翻译文本本身的研究，而把目光投射到了译作的发起者、翻译文本的操作者和接受者身上。它借鉴了接受美学、读者反应等理论，跳出了对译文与原文之间一般字面上的忠实与否之类问题的考察，而注意到了译作在新的文化语境里的传播与接受，注意到了翻译作为一种跨文化的传递行为的最终目的和效果，还注意到了译者在这整个的翻译过程中所起的作用。 3）当代翻译研究的最大突破还表现在把翻译放到一个宏大的文化语境中去审视。研究者开始
关注翻译研究中语言学科以外的其他学科的因素。他们一方面认识到翻译研究作为一门独立学科的性质，另一方面又看到了翻译研究这门学科的多学科形式，注意到它不仅与语言学，而且还与文艺学、哲学甚至社会学、心理学等学科都有密不可分的关系。 但是翻译研究最终关注的当然还是文本在跨文化交际和传递中所涉及的一系列文化问题，诸如文化误读、信息增添、信息失落等。 两大转向 1）语言学派的转向 2)从文化层面来审视翻译的转向 当代西方翻译理论 语言学派理论 从20世纪50年代起，西方出现了一批运用现代语言学的结构理论、转换生成理论、功能理论、话语理论、信息论等理论的学者，他们把翻译问题纳入到语言学的研究领域，从比较语言学、应用语言学、社会语言学、语义学、符号学、交际学等角度，提出了相对严谨的翻译理论和方法，开拓出了翻译研究的新领域，给传统的翻译研究注入了新的内容。他们是当代西方翻译史上名副其实的翻译理论家，其中最主要的代表人物有：雅 可布逊(Roman Jakobsor)尤金?奈达(Eugen A. Nida )卡特福特(J.C. Catford )彼得?纽马克(Peter Newmark) 从严格意义上而言，是这批学者对翻译问题的学术探讨，揭开了当代西方翻译史上的理 论层面。
围城作者：钱钟书主要目录：一、钱钟书及其文学风格二、《围城》（一）、海外对《围城》的高度评价（二）人生与人性的双重嘲讽（三）丰富的文化知识（四）幽默讽刺与心理深度钱钟书在现代文学史上，很有戏剧性。在建国以后的文学史上，没有钱钟书的名字，在80 年代初期的时候，他是作为出土文物被挖掘出来。在广泛的社会阅读过程中，钱钟书的文学价值才浮现出来。成为20 世纪中国文学中最重要的小说家之一。很多人把他看作是现代文学的第一流作家。一、钱钟书及其文学风格钱钟书（1910――）江苏无锡人。字默存，号槐聚。父亲是汉学家钱基博，从小受家庭的熏陶，才华出众。在小学、中学，数学极差。国文特别突出。字写得也不规矩，难得把字规规矩矩地写在格子里。酷爱古典小说和林纾翻译的外国小说。酷爱外国的侦探小说，他出众的外语，就和读外国侦探小说有关。1929 年被清华大学破格录取。成绩非常特殊。数学15 分，英语成绩特别优秀。一入学在学校就很有名气。个性狂傲，任意臧否人物，在二年级的时候，在随意言谈之间，就挑战朱自清、冯友兰的学识。甚至断言他父亲学识的“不足”。吴宓还推荐他到外语系当临时的教师。钱钟书在学识唯一敬佩的就是吴宓。还在《新月》上发表过书评。1935 年毕业到上海光华大学任英语教师。同年到英国的牛津大学留学。1937 年获得副博士学位。牛津聘任他为讲师，他没有接受。1937――1938 在法国生活过一段时间。1938 年回国。先后在西南联大、震旦女子文理学院等地任教。1941 年出版散文集《写在人生边上》。1946 年出版短篇小说集《人??兽??鬼》，1946――1947 年，在《文艺复兴》杂志上连载长篇小说《围城》。《围城》奠定了钱钟书在现代文学上的地位。建国以后，任清华大学教授，1952 年到中国社会科学院文学所任研究员。钱钟书的学术成就很高，他的两部学生著作《谈艺录》（1948 ）《管锥篇》，显示了他渊博学识。有人说，钱钟书是现代中国第一博学鸿儒。钱钟书不仅对精通古典学术，而且对欧洲的文学知识、文化知识也非常精通，甚至令西方学者相形见绌。所以，现在有“钱学”的说法。钱钟书性格很特别，从小有一种“痴气”，一生都有痴气，混混沌沌，疯疯傻傻，没有正经的那种性格。抓青蛙，放到鞋里，拿着鞋上学。青蛙跳出来，老师罚他，他也不太在意。分不出左右来，上中学时候，穿皮鞋，不分左右脚，随意穿。当班长，因为左脚和右脚分不开，只当了两个星期。在清华大学的时候，上课不做笔记，一边看书，一边听课，有时还画漫画，同桌总是看女生，他画一幅漫画《许眼变化图》。但是，考试总是全班第一。在清华大学时候，总是看书，不分什么粗的俗的，喜欢的就看。给杨降画花脸，在英国留学时候，杨降中午练毛笔字睡着了，他拿毛笔给杨降画花脸。女儿睡觉的时候，在肚皮上画花脸。刚解放的时候，养猫，他的猫和林徽音的猫打仗，他拿竹竿帮着他的猫。钱钟书是非常富有个性的作家，其文学风格与现代文学主流作家存在巨大的差异。他和张爱玲的共同之处