文献出处：Kontu? E. MANAGEMENT OF ACCOUNTS RECEIV ABLE IN A COMPANY[J]. Ekonomska misao i praksa, 2013 (1): 21-38.
原文
MANAGEMENT OF ACCOUNTS RECEIV ABLE
IN A COMPANY
UDK / UDC: 657.422:658.155
JEL klasifikacija / JEL classification: G32, D29, M41
Prethodno pri op?enje / Preliminary communication
Primljeno / Received: 8. listopada 2012. / October 8, 2012
Prihva?eno za tisak / Accepted for publishing: 10. lipnja 2013. / June 10, 2013
1. INTRODUCTION
Accounts receivable is the money owed to a company as a result of having sold its products to customers on credit. The primary determinants of the company's investment in accounts receivable are the industry, the level of total sales along with the company's credit and the collection policies.
Accounts receivable management includes establishing a credit and collections policy.
Credit policy consists of four variables: credit period, discounts given for early payment, credit standards and collection policy. The three primary issues in accounts receivable management are to whom credit should be extended, the terms of the credit
and the procedure that should be used to collect the money.
The major decision regarding accounts receivable is the determination of the amount and terms of credit to extend to customers. The total amount of accounts receivable outstanding at any given time is determined by two factors: the volume of credit sales and the average length of time between sales and collections. The credit terms offered have a direct bearing on the associated costs and revenue to be generated from receivables. If credit terms are tight, there will be less of an investment in accounts receivable and fewer bad debt losses, but there will also be lower sales and reduced profits.
We hypothesize that by applying scientifically-based accounts receivable management and by establishing a credit policy that results in the highest net earnings, companies can earn a satisfactory profit as well as a return on investment.
The purpose of this study is to determine ways of finding an optimal accounts receivable level along with making optimum use of different credit policies in order to achieve a maximum return at an acceptable level of risk. In striving to fill in the gaps relating to net savings from changes in credit policy, the study makes its own contribution to research and thereby to managers by giving them general recommendation. With the aim of completing these gaps, the study will investigate accounts receivables, their management and explore costs and benefits from changes in credit policy as well as net profitability.
When a company is considering changes in its credit policy in order to improve its income, incremental profitability must be compared with the cost of discount and
the opportunity cost associated with higher investment in accounts receivable.
The outcome represents a new mathematical model for calculating net savings from changes in credit policy and with this model a company can consider different credit policies as well as changes in credit policy in order to improve its income and profitability.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Accounts receivable management
Accounts receivable represents a sizable percentage of most firms' assets. Investments in accounts receivable, particularly for manufacturing companies, represent a significant part of short-term financial management. Firms typically sell goods and services on both cash and a credit basis. Firms would rather sell for cash than on credit, but competitive pressures force most firms to offer credit. The extension of trade credit leads to the establishment of accounts receivable. Receivables represent credit sales that have not been collected. As the customers pay these accounts, the firm receives the cash associated with the original sale. If the customer does not pay an account, a bad debt loss is incurred1.
When a credit sale is made, the following events occur: inventories are reduced by the cost of goods sold, accounts receivable are increased by the sales price, and the difference is profit, which is added to retained earnings. If the sale is for cash, then the cash from the sale has actually been received by the firm, but if the sale is on credit, the firm will not receive the cash from the sale unless and until the account is
collected. Carrying receivable has both direct and indirect costs, but it also has an important benefit-increased sales.
According to Chambers and Lacey there are three primary issues in the management of accounts receivable: to whom to extend credit, what the terms of the credit should be, and what procedure should be used to collect the money. Extending credit should be based upon a comparison of costs and benefits. The analysis must build in uncertainty because we are uncertain of future payment, and we will handle this by computing the expected costs and expected benefits through payment probabilities. The potential cost of extending credit is that the customer will not pay. Although there is a temptation to compute this cost as the full price of the product, it is almost always more appropriate to use the actual cost of the product. The potential benefit of extending credit is not just the hope for profit on the one transaction; rather, it is the potential value of the customer for a long-term relationship.
The decision of how much credit to offer must be made when the customer initially requests credit and when the customer requests additional credit. The fundamental principle that guides financial decisions can be used: marginal benefit versus marginal cost. The marginal cost is the additional potential lost costs of the product. The costs of past uncollected sales are sunk costs and should not be included as a marginal costs. The marginal benefits are the potential sales and interest revenues – including the potential to recover past sales that remain uncollected.
Once the decision to grant credit has been made, the firm must establish the terms of the credit. Credit terms are often separated into two parts: the credit period
and the credit discount.
Collection of accounts receivable is an important process for a corporation and requires a well-designed and well-implemented policy. One technique is the factoring of accounts receivables. In a typical factoring arrangement, one firm will sell their accounts receivable outright to another firm for an agreed-upon price. There ia usually no recourse in such transactions, such that the buyer (also known as the factor) takes the loss if the purchaser of the goods does not ultimately pay for them.
Another technique to expedite the receipt of accounts receivable is to utilize lock boxes. Lock boxes are payment collection locations spread geographically so as to reduce the amount of time required for checks mailed to the firm to be deposited and cleared. The lock boxes are typically post office box addresses from which deposits go directly to a bank on the day of receipt. The reduction of mailing time and check clearing time for the banks can produce significant savings when large sums of money are involved.
Payments of accounts receivable should be closely monitored to detect potential problems such as would be indicated by slow payments. Following up on slow-paying customers is an important function of the credit department. Procedures should be carefully developed and consistently implemented.
The major decision regarding accounts receivable is the determination of the amount and terms of credit to extend to customers. The total amount of accounts receivable is determined by two factors: the volume of credit sales and the average length of time between sales and collections. The credit terms offered have a direct
bearing on the associated costs and revenue to be generated from receivables.
In evaluating a potential customer’s ability to pay, consideration should be given to the firm’s integri ty, financial soundness, collateral to be pledged, and current economic conditions. A customer’s credit soundness may be evaluated through quantitative techniques such as regression analysis. Bad debt losses can be estimated reliably when a company sells to many customers and when its credit policies have not changed for a long period of time. In managing accounts receivable, the following procedures are recommended:
? establish a credit policy
? establish a policy concerning billing
? establish a policy concerning collection.
The establishment of a credit policy can include the following activities:
? A detailed review of a potential customer’s soundness should be made prior to extending credit. Procedures such as a careful review of the customer’s fin ancial statements and credit rating, as well as a review of financial service reports are common.
? As customer financial health changes, credit limit should be revised.
? Marketing factors must be noted since an excessively restricted credit policy will lead to lost sales.
? The policy is financially appropriate when the return on the additional sales plus the lowering in inventory costs is greater than the incremental cost associated with the additional investment in accounts receivable.
The following procedures are recommended in establishing a policy concerning billing:
? Customer statements should be sent within 1 day subsequent to the close of the period.
? Large sales should be billed immediately.
? Customers should be invoiced for goods when t he order is processed rather than when it is shipped.
? Billing for services should be done on an interim basis or immediately prior to the actual services. The billing process will be more uniform if cycle billing is employed.
? The use of seasonal dating’s should be considered.
In establishing a policy concerning collection the following procedures should be used:
? Accounts receivable should be aged in order to identify delinquent and high-risk customers. The aging should be compared to industry norms.
? Collection efforts should be undertaken at the very first sign of customer financial unsoundness6.
2.2. Managing the credit policy
The success or failure of a business depends primarily on the demand for its products.
The major determinants of demand are sales prices, product quality, advertising,
and the company’s credit policy. The financial manager is responsible for administering the company’s credit policy. Receivables management begins with the credit policy. Credit policy consists of four major components: credit standards, credit terms, the credit limit and collection procedures.
Credit standards refer to the required financial strength of acceptable credit customers.
Based on financial analysis and non financial data, the credit analyst determines whether each credit applicant exceeds the credit standard and thus qualifies for credit. Lower credit standards boost sales, but also increase bad debts. The minimum standards a customer must meet to be extended credit are: character, capital, capacity, conditions and collateral.
The credit period, stipulating how long from the invoice the customer has to pay, and the cash discount together comprise the seller’s credit terms. A company’s credit terms are usually very similar to that of other companies in its industry7.
Discounts given for early payment include the discount percentage and how rapidly payment must be made to qualify for the discount.
If credit is extended, the dollar amount that cumulative credit purchases can reach for a given cus tomer constitutes that customer’s credit limit. The customer periodically pays for credit purchases, freeing up that amount of the credit limit for further orders. The two primary determinants of the amount of a customer’s credit limit are requirements for the supplier’s products and the ability of the customer to pay its debts. The latter factor is based primarily on the customer’s recent payment
record with the seller and others and a review and analysis of the customer’s most recent financial statements8
Detailed statements regarding when and how the company will carry out collection of past-due accounts make up the company’s collection procedures. These policies specify how long the company will wait past the due date to initiate collection efforts, the methods of contact with delinquent customers, and whether and at what point accounts will be referred to an outside collection agency9.
Collection policy is measured by its toughness or laxity in attempting to collect on slow-paying accounts. A tough policy may speed up collections, by it might also anger customers, causing them to take their business elsewhere10
A firm may liberalize its credit policy by extanding full credit to presently limited credit customers or to non-credit customers. Full credit should be given only if net profitability occurs. A financial manager has to compare the earnings on sales obtained to the added cost of the receivables. The additional earnings represent the contribution margin on the incremental sales because fixed costs are constant. The additional costs on the additional receivables result from the greater number of bad debts and the opportunity cost of tying up funds in receivables for a longer time period.
If a firm considers offering credit to customers with a higher-than-normal risk rating, the profitability on additional sales generated must be compared with the amount of additional bad debts expected, higher investing and collection costs, and the opportunity cost of tying up funds in receivables for a longer period of time. When
idle capacity exists, the additional profitability represents the incremental contribution margin (sales less variable costs) since fixed costs remain the same.
译文
公司应收账款的管理
埃莉奥诺拉
克罗地亚
预算和财务部门经理
1.引言
应收账款是指由于企业将其产品销售给客户而应向购买单位收取的款项。公司应收账款投资的主要决定因素是整个行业、总销售额水平以及公司的信用和收账政策。
应收账款管理包括建立一个信用和收账政策。
信用政策包括四个变量：信用期，提前付款给折扣，信贷标准和收账政策。应收账款管理的三个主要问题是谁应该扩展信贷，信贷的方式和程序应该用于收集资金。
应收账款的重大决策即决定客户贷款的数量和条件。应收账款总额未在任何给定的时间偿还主要取决于两个因素：信用销售的数量，销售与收账间的平均时间间隔。提供的信用证条款对相关成本和应收账款产生的收入有着直接影响。如果信用证条款严格，就会有更少的应收账款投资在和坏账损失，但也会降低销售减少利润。
我们假设，通过应用以科学为基础的应收账款管理和通过建立信贷政策，来使净收益最高，企业可以获得令人满意的利润以及投资回报。
本研究的目的是确定一种找到最优的应收账款水平与利用不同信贷政策的方法，在一个可接受风险范围内获得最大收益。在信贷政策不断变化的环境中，努力填补净储蓄的空白，这项研究对此作出了重大贡献，也给企业经理人提供了一般性的建议。有了填补此鸿沟的目标，本研究将调查公司的应收账款、高层管理现状，并探索信贷政策变化以及净利润率条件下的成本和收益。
当一家公司正在考虑改变其信贷政策以提高收益，应当比较增量盈利率与成本折扣，应收账款中较高的投资与机会成本相关联。
结果代表了一个新的数学模型，计算信贷政策变化中的净储蓄，公司通过这种模型可以考虑不同的信贷政策，并在信贷政策的变化中提高其收入和盈利能力。
2．文献综述
2.1应收账款管理
应收账款在大多数公司资产中占有相当大的比例。在应收账款的投资，尤其是对于制造企业，是其短期财务管理的重要组成部分。公司通常以现金和信用贷款的方式出售商品和服务。公司宁愿出售换取现金而不是接受信贷，但竞争压力迫使大多数公司提供信贷。贸易信贷的扩展导致的应收账款的出现。应收账款说明信用销售款未收账。客户付账之后，公司才算收回之前的销售款。如果客户不支付，公司就会产生坏账损失。
一旦建立起信贷销售，就会出现以下情况：库存降低增加商品销售成本，销售价格提高应收账款增加，不同的是利润，被添加到留存收益。如果出售换取现
金，公司才实际获得到了销售额，但如果采取信贷销售的方式，该公司将不会立即获得销售额直到公司收账完成。应收账款会产生直接和间接成本，但它也有一种重要的且有益于销售达成的方式。
根据钱伯斯和莱西的观点，应收帐款管理中有三个主要问题：向谁提供贷款，信贷的条款应该是什么，应当通过怎样的程序来收款。信贷展期应当在比较成本与收益的基础上进行。因为我们不确定未来的支付能否达成，其分析就可能在不确定的条件下进行，因此，我们将通过支付概率来计算预期成本和预期收益，从而解决此问题。客户将不会支付扩大信贷的潜在成本。尽管计算足价产品的成本是一种非常好的方式，但通常更适合使用产品的实际成本。信贷展期的潜在好处不仅仅交易中的利润；相反，它的潜在价值在于一个长期的客户关系。
客户最初请求贷款以及当客户请求追加贷款时，你就必须决定能为他提供多少信贷了。可以使用基本原则指导财务决策：边际收益与边际成本。边际成本是指产品额外的潜在损失成本。过去未收款的销售成本是沉没成本，不应包括边际成本。边际收益是指潜在的销售和利息收入——包括追回过去仍未收款销售的潜力。
一旦决定给予信贷，公司必须建立信贷条款。信贷条款通常分为两个部分：信贷周期和信用折扣。
应收账款的收账程序对公司来说十分重要，需要设计精良和实施得当的政策。其中一个方法是应收账款代理。标准的代理协议中，一家公司将他们的应收账款以商定的价格直接出售给另一个公司。此类交易中通常没有追索权，这样，如果买方的货物最终没有支付他们，买方（也称为因素）将承担损失。
另一个方法是利用锁箱加快应收账款的收据。（完整译文请到百度文库）锁
Master's thesis, University of London Information technology and accounting management with the use is the relevant value of information analysis and use, and various factors of production based on the value creation of corporate accounting and management contributions to the study of accounting will be the main content. No use of information technology, there is any enterprise information and accounting information to promote the implementation of value chain management will lose technical support, there is no theory of innovation value chain management, accounting, and information technology development, there is no power. In this paper, the meaning of information to start, leads to the meaning of accounting information, accounting information describes the development process, the second part of the analysis of the status quo of accounting information, analysis of its use in the problems, the third part of the proposed accounting information on the implementation of the strategic analysis. Keywords: accounting, information technology strategy I. Introduction (A) Background The development of accounting information in China has gone through more than 20 years, accounting information theory and practical application of talent, the accounting information system software has gradually matured, and, and the production, supply and marketing, human resources management, cost control and other aspects of the formation of an integrated management information system software. But the company found accounting information in the status of the development of enterprises is extremely uneven, a lot of strength and standardized management of large enterprises have been using the integrated accounting information system "ERP" is the management software, and the introduction of new ideas with the value of the supply chain management chain management system, and also the majority of the total business is still in the initial stage of the use of computerized accounting, or even manually. Enterprise management is still in the coexistence of traditional and modern, our corporate accounting information so early, the senior co-existence of the phenomenon will not surprise. Accounting information must be improved to facilitate the management of change. The essence of the value chain to value chain to implement the core business processes node changes, if companies choose the value chain as the core business process change, business management will enable a major step forward, it promotes corporate accounting development of information technology. (B) Significance
附录A：外文文献（译文） 跨国公司财务 有重大国外经营业务的公司经常被称作跨国公司或多国企业。跨国公司必须考虑许多并不会对纯粹的国内企业产生直接影响的财务因素，其中包括外币汇率、各国不同的利率、国外经营所用的复杂会计方法、外国税率和外国政府的干涉等。 公司财务的基本原理仍然适用于跨国企业。与国内企业一样，它们进行的投资项目也必须为股东提供比成本更多的收益，也必须进行财务安排，用尽可能低的成本进行融资。净现值法则同时适用于国内经营和国外经营，但是，国外经营应用净现值法则时通常更加复杂。也许跨国财务中最复杂的是外汇问题。当跨国公司进行资本预算决策或融资决策时，外汇市场能为其提供信息和机会。外汇、利率和通货膨胀三者的相互关系构成了汇率基本理论。即：购买力平价理论、利率平价理论和预测理论。 跨国公司融资决策通常要在以下三种基本方法中加以选择，我们将讨论每种方法的优缺点。 (1) 把现金由国内输出用于国外经营业务； (2) 向投资所在国借贷； (3) 向第三国借贷。 1专业术语 学习财务的学生通常会听到一个单词总在耳边嗡嗡作响：全球化( g l o b a l i z a t i o n )。学习资金市场的全球化必须首先掌握一些新的术语，以下便是在跨国财务中，还有本章中最常用到的一些术语： (1) 美国存托证（American Depository Receipt,ADR）。它是在美国发行的一种代表外国股权的证券，它使得外国股票可在美国上市交易。外国公司运用以美元发行的ADR，来扩大潜在美国投资者群体。ADR以两种形式代表大约690家外国公司：一是在某个交易所挂牌交易的ADR，称为公司保荐形式；另一种是非保荐形式，这些ADR通常由投资银行持有并为其做市。这两种形式的ADR均可由个人投资和买卖，但报纸每天只报告保荐形式
运用方差分析监管应收账款外文翻译 外文翻译 Monitoring Accounts Receivable Using Variance Analysis Material Source:Financial Management Author:George W. Gallinger and A. James Ifflander I. Introduction In the past ten years, several articles have appeared in the literature discussing the monitoring of accounts receivable. With few exceptions, however, the monitoring techniques proposed in these articles have not been incorporated into the standard textbook discussions. Therefore, it is not surprising that the traditional, and often misleading, techniques of days sales outstanding DSO and aging schedules still appear to be the primary vehicles used by analysts to evaluate a firm's accounts receivable balance. As discussed by Stone, many analysts recognize that receivables can be influenced by sales effects, and they attribute this to seasonal or cyclical factors. They attempt to eliminate, or at least minimize, these effects by comparing calculated DSO ratios and aging schedules against those of historical periods or those of competitors. However, this approach may not be very satisfactory. History seldom repeats itself
Under the financial crisis to rebuilding accounting occupation ethics question research literature review 徐珊珊 The financial crisis has become an indisputable fact, accounting occupation morals got be pounded badly, be placed in jeopardy of accounting integrity. The accounting personnel in the country, social interests and the interests of individual units, conflicts of interest, not the interests of the temptation of forgery, alteration in accounting information or collusion, lost the basic concept of legal system, in order to meet their own selfish desires and make the non moral behavior, these are serious impact on accounting occupation and the accounting information reliability. Therefore we must strengthen the accounting occupation morals construction, establish and perfect the accounting, auditing and relevant law laws and regulations, strengthen the audit organization and the supervision of public opinion, to strengthen the accountant occupation morals education and continuing education. The financial crisis, it is to point to a country or several countries and regions all or most of the financial indicators, sharp, and ultra-short-cycle deterioration. The accounting occupation morals is the accounting occupation activities that should be followed, reflect accountant occupation characteristics of occupation code of conduct and norms. The financial crisis as catalyst, which have been faced with the serious challenge of accounting occupation morals bottom line faced collapse, especially small and medium-sized enterprises in China faces sharp decline in the volume of trade and capital shortage of the double pressure, serious influence to the environment for the survival and development of small and medium-sized enterprises. The outbreak of the financial crisis that causes, causes the enterprise market risks increase, contradiction of supply and demand increasingly outstanding, market atrophy caused by poor liquidity, appeared the phenomenon of serious run
财务风险管理 尽管近年来金融风险大大增加，但风险和风险管理不是当代的主要问题。全球市场越来越多的问题是，风险可能来自几千英里以外的与这些事件无关的国外市场。意味着需要的信息可以在瞬间得到，而其后的市场反应，很快就发生了。经济气候和市场可能会快速影响外汇汇率变化、利率及大宗商品价格，交易对手会迅速成为一个问题。因此，重要的一点是要确保金融风险是可以被识别并且管理得当的。准备是风险管理工作的一个关键组成部分。 什么是风险？ 风险给机会提供了基础。风险和暴露的条款让它们在含义上有了细微的差别。风险是指有损失的可能性，而暴露是可能的损失，尽管他们通常可以互换。风险起因是由于暴露。金融市场的暴露影响大多数机构，包括直接或间接的影响。当一个组织的金融市场暴露，有损失的可能性，但也是一个获利或利润的机会。金融市场的暴露可以提供战略性或竞争性的利益。 风险损失的可能性事件来自如市场价格的变化。事件发生的可能性很小，但这可能导致损失率很高，特别麻烦，因为他们往往比预想的要严重得多。换句话说，可能就是变异的风险回报。由于它并不总是可能的，或者能满意地把风险消除，在决定如何管理它中了解它是很重要的一步。识别暴露和风险形式的基础需要相应的财务风险管理策略。 财务风险是如何产生的呢？ 无数金融性质的交易包括销售和采购，投资和贷款，以及其他各种业务活动，产生了财务风险。它可以出现在合法的交易中，新项目中，兼并和收购中，债务融资中，能源部分的成本中，或通过管理的活动，利益相关者，竞争者，外国政府，或天气出现。当金融的价格变化很大，它可以增加成本，降低财政收入，或影响其他有不利影响的盈利能力的组织。金融波动可能使人们难以规划和预算商品和服务的价格，并分配资金。 有三种金融风险的主要来源： 1、金融风险起因于组织所暴露出来的市场价格的变化，如利率、汇率、和大宗商品价格。 2、引起金融风险的行为有与其他组织的交易如供应商、客户，和对方在金融衍生产品中的交易。 3、由于内部行动或失败的组织，特别是人、过程和系统所造成的金融风险。 什么是财务风险管理？ 财务风险管理是用来处理金融市场中不确定的事情的。它涉及到一个组织所面临的评估和组织的发展战略、内部管理的优先事项和当政策一致时的财务风险。企业积极应对金融风险可以使企业成为一个具有竞争优势的组织。它还确保管理，业务人员，利益相关者，董事会董事在对风险的关键问题达成协议。金融风险管理组织就必须作出那些不被接受的有关风险的决定。那些被动不采取行动的战略是在默认情况下接受所有的风险，组织使用各种策略和产品来管理金融风险。重要的是要了解这些产品和战略方面，通过工作来减少该组织内的风险承受能力和目标范围内的风险。 风险管理的策略往往涉及衍生工具。在金融机构和有组织的交易所，衍生物广泛地进行
Accounts Receivable Author: M. Elizabeth Haywood, Donald. Introduction Accounts receivable consists of monies due from customers as a result of an organization's normal business operations. The management of accounts receivable is an extremely important function since the collection of outstanding receivables represents the single most important source of cash for all organizations selling goods on open account. Because of the impact that accounts-receivable collections have on cash flow, it is important that responsibility for the day-to-day management of credit and collections activities be delegated to a single individual within the organization. Accounts Receivable as a Current Asset On the balance sheet, accounts receivable is reported as a current asset and is considered part of an organization's working capital. As a current asset, accounts receivable is expected to be turned into cash within the annual operating cycle of a business, which for most businesses is generally considered to be one year and corresponds to the twelve-month fiscal year used for financial reporting purposes. This, however, does not imply that it should take one year to collect individual receivable balances. In the case of a university press, accounts receivable represents a major component of current assets, working capital, and cash flow. The other major components of a university press's working capital are cash, short-term investments, and inventory. As a component of working capital, accounts receivable must be carefully managed in order to be turned into cash as quickly as possible and to avoid becoming uncollectible. Although accounts receivable is reported as a current asset, it must be carefully valuated and reported because until the receivable is collected, it cannot readily assist with the paying of current obligations. Accounts Receivable and Collections Reports Because of the significance of accounts receivable it is important for management to receive periodic reports that both measure the effectiveness of collection activities and inform or alert management of problem accounts. Ideally, reports should be generated on a monthly basis, but depending on the size of the receivable balance and collections staff, the issuance of such reports may range from weekly to quarterly. This flow of information is necessary so that management and collections staff can determine whether current credit and collections policies and procedures are working, or whether any of the policies and procedures need to be changed to more effectively collect outstanding receivables. Additionally, the collections staff needs information so that collection activities can be prioritized, problem accounts isolated, and outstanding balances collected. Analysis of Accounts Receivable and Collections
会计信息质量在投资中的决策作用对私人信息和监测的影响 安妮比蒂，美国俄亥俄州立大学 瓦特史考特廖，多伦多大学 约瑟夫韦伯，美国麻省理工学院 1简介 管理者与外部资本的供应商信息是不对称的在这种情况下企业是如何影响金融资本 的投资的呢？越来越多的证据表明，会计质量越好，越可以减少信息的不对称和对融资成本的约束。与此相一致的可能性是，减少了具有更高敏感性的会计质量的公司的投资对内部产生的现金流量。威尔第和希拉里发现，对企业投资和与投资相关的会计质量容易不足，是容易引发过度投资的原因。 当投资效率低下时，会计的质量重要性可以减轻外部资本的影响，供应商有可能获得私人信息或可直接监测管理人员。通过访问个人信息与控制管理行为，外部资本的供应商可以直接影响企业的投资，降低了会计质量的重要性。符合这个想法的还有比德尔和希拉里的比较会计对不同国家的投资质量效益的影响。他们发现，会计品质的影响在于美国投资效益，而不是在日本。他们认为，一个可能的解释是不同的是债务和股权的美国版本的资本结构混合了SUS的日本企业。 我们研究如何通过会计质量灵敏度的重要性来延长不同资金来源对企业的投资现金 流量的不同影响。直接测试如何影响不同的融资来源会计，通过最近获得了债务融资的公司来投资敏感性现金流的质量的效果，债务融资的比较说明了对那些不能够通过他们的能力获得融资的没有影响。为了缓解这一问题，我们限制我们的样本公司有所有最近获得的债务融资和利用访问的差异信息和监测通过公共私人债务获得连续贷款的建议。我们承认，投资内部现金流敏感性可能较低获得债务融资的可能性。然而，这种可能性偏见拒绝了我们的假设。 具体来说，我们确定的数据样本证券公司有1163个采样公司（议会），通过发行资本公共债务或银团债务。我们限制我们的样本公司最近获得的债务融资持有该公司不断融资与借款。然而，在样本最近获得的债务融资的公司，也有可能是信号，在资本提供进入私人信息差异和约束他们放在管理中的行为。相关理论意味着减少公共债务持有人获取私人信息，因而减少借款有效的监测。在这些参数的基础上，我们预测，会计质量应该有一
广东工业大学华立学院 本科毕业设计（论文） 外文参考文献译文及原文 系部会计学系 专业会计学 年级 08级 班级名称 2008级会计（7）班 学号 14010807030 学生姓名吴智聪 2012年 2 月 9 日
目录 1. 外文译文 (1) 2. 外文原文 (5)
中小型企业财务管理中存在的问题及其对策中小型企业在中国经济发展中发挥着重要的作用。统计数据表明，在工商行政管理局登记在册的企业中，中小型企业占了99%，产值和利润分别占总额的60%和40%。此外，中小型企业所提供了75％的城镇就业机会。可见其为中国的稳定和经济繁荣作出了重要贡献。 虽然中小型企业在国民经济中占有重要地位，对中国经济发展与社会稳定具有很重大的意义。但是，中小型企业发展的主要障碍是缺乏有效的财务管理。本文分析了当前中小型企业财务管理中存在的问题，并就改善中小型企业财务管理提出了相应对策。 1.1 中小型企业的财务管理现状 自从21世纪以来，中国的中小型企业的蓬勃发展，在经济增长和社会发展中发挥着非常重要的作用。据财政部统计数据，直到2005年底，中小型企业总数已超过1000万，占中国企业总数的99%。中小型企业提供了75％的城镇就业机会，工业企业的总产值、销售收入、实现的利得税和出口额分别占总数的60%、57%、40%和60%，上缴的税收已经接近了国家税收总额的一半。中小型企业承载着超过75%的技术革新和超过65％的专利发明，他们以其灵活的经营机制和积极创新活动，为经济发展提供了增长的最根本动力。近年来，中国中小企业的消亡率将近70%，大约有30%的中小型企业存在赤字。中小型企业应该如何建立现代企业制度，加强财务管理，并科学地进行资本运作以谋求自身的健康发展，是我们密切关注的一个问题。 1.2 中小型企业财务管理中存在的问题 ⑴财务管理理念滞后，而且方法保守 中小型企业由于管理者自身知识水平的限制，使得企业的管理能力和管理质量较低。他们的管理思想已经不适合现代企业，并且大多数企业领导人缺乏财务管理的理论和方法，忽视了企业资本运作的作用。管理者既不重视财务事，也不参与企业政策的制定和相关管理活动。因此，财务管理无法发挥其应有职能，从而导致企业缺乏现代财务管理的理念，也无从去培训合格的财务人员。 ⑵财务管理工作基础薄弱，缺乏财务监督
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 财务报表分析 A.财务比率 我们需要使用财务比率来分析财务报表，比较财务报表的分析方法不能真正有效的得出想要的结果，除非采取的是研究在报表中项目与项目之间关系的形式。例如，只是知道史密斯公司在一个特定的日期中拥有10000美元的现金余额，对我们是没有多大价值的。但是，假如我们知道，这种余额在这种平衡中有4%的流动负债，而一年前的现金余额有25%的流动负债。由于银行家对公司通常要求现金余额保持在银行信用度的20%，不管使用或不使用，如果公司的财务状况出现问题，我们可以立即发现。 我们可以对比比较财务报表中的项目，作出如下结论： 1. 项目之间的资产负债表比较： a）在资产负债表中的一个日期之间的比较，例如项目，现金与流动负债相比； b）同一项目在资产负债表中一个日期与另一个日期之间的比较，例如，现在的现金与一年前比较； c）比较两个项目之间在资产负债表中一个日期和一个相似比率在资产负债表中的另一个日期的比率，例如，现在现金流动负债的比率与另一个项目一年前的相似比率和已经标记的现金状况趋势的比较。 2．项目报表中收入和支出的比较： a）一定时期中的报表项目的比较； b）同一项目在报表中现阶段与上个阶段的比较； c）报表中项目之间的比率与去年相似比率的比较； 3．资产负债表中的项目与报表中收入和支出项目的比较： a）在这些报表项目之间的一个给定的时间内，例如，今年净利润可能以百分比计算今年净值； b）两个报表中项目之间的比率在这几年时间的比较，例如，净利润的比率占今年净值的百分比与去年或者前年的相似比率的比较 如果我们采用上述比较或比率，然后依次比较它们，我们的比较分析结果将获得重要意义：
会计外文文献翻译
原文题目：《评述教育会计专业》作者：迈克尔卡夫金原文出处：School of Accounting and Finance, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia 会计教育会计教育。一般来说，从业者似乎已不愿想改变 - 要离开自己的舒适区 - 慢，并已承认在与伦理，环境恶化，全球化相关的地区更广泛的社会问题所提出的问题，增加业务的复杂性和其他一些因素我写我的一些挫折（卡夫金，1981 年）和左新西兰追求我在澳大利亚的学习和职业生涯。我后来成为澳大利亚的主要会计机构教育委员会主席。在这种角色我曾与新西兰身体的教育委员会的领导组织，并得到非常积极的态度，他们与澳大利亚的机构都对促进更“圆”大学会计教育方案（其中大部分出自从业者，学者的鼓励！）。最近在新西兰旅行，我一直很失望，观察什么似乎是一个这样做的目的完全逆转; 重点放在，由新西兰的专业团体，纯粹的技术能力，他们迫使大学遵守这一点 - 复仇的bean 柜台？什么也令人失望对我来说是由学术带头人的决心明显缺乏，使专业团体的“决定”什么通行证作为会计教育法规，如会计死记硬背。我观察到有什
么事我当作一个高级学者讨好自己的专业机构，而不是促进学科发展，将在二十一世纪更广泛的社会需要的知识要点。因此，我的评论是针对试图界定什么是专业会计师 - 毫无疑问，很多人可能不同意。我的目的是展示合作的重要性，而不是怀疑和无知的需要和应具有什么样的会计专业的各个部分努力。我并不想冒犯各位同事，而是试图提供一个什么样的我的看法是会计面临的问题和强调纪律，前进的方向，通过所有这些谁认为，在解决方案协助资讯科技合作是批判极大的社会问题。从业人员有一个会计的执业类别广泛的业余爱好，所以任何评论，我所做的非常广泛的推广。传统上，从业者已被注册会计师，会计师或公共部门私营会计师，但随着业务的日益复杂和商业机构在最近的时代，这些分类的界线变得越来越模糊。即使是会计师有与大，往往跨国公司，会计师事务所有关人士，并在小企业非常不同的具体利益与每个人 - 财务顾问，财务报表编制，税务顾问或核数师。然而，有票面21,2 172 学术的角度来看，一般来说，从业者似乎是什么学术可疑。显然不是所有从业者觉得这种方式，有的已经布满学术界
Accounts Receivable Author: M. Elizabeth Haywood, Donald. Introduction Accounts receivable consists of monies due from customers as a result of an organization's normal business operations. The management of accounts receivable is an extremely important function since the collection of outstanding receivables represents the single most important source of cash for all organizations selling goods on open account. Because of the impact that accounts-receivable collections have on cash flow, it is important that responsibility for the day-to-day management of credit and collections activities be delegated to a single individual within the organization. Accounts Receivable as a Current Asset On the balance sheet, accounts receivable is reported as a current asset and is considered part of an organization's working capital. As a current asset, accounts receivable is expected to be turned into cash within the annual operating cycle of a business, which for most businesses is generally considered to be one year and corresponds to the twelve-month fiscal year used for financial reporting purposes. This, however, does not imply that it should take one year to collect individual receivable balances. In the case of a university press, accounts receivable represents a major component of current assets, working capital, and cash flow. The other major components of a university press's working capital are cash, short-term investments, and inventory. As a component of working capital, accounts receivable must be carefully managed in order to be turned into cash as quickly as possible and to avoid becoming uncollectible. Although accounts receivable is reported as a current asset, it must be carefully valuated and reported because until the receivable is collected, it cannot readily assist with the paying of current obligations. Accounts Receivable and Collections Reports Because of the significance of accounts receivable it is important for management to receive periodic reports that both measure the effectiveness of collection activities and inform or alert management of problem accounts. Ideally, reports should be generated on a monthly basis, but depending on the size of the receivable balance and collections staff, the issuance of such reports may range from weekly to quarterly. This flow of information is necessary so that management and collections staff can determine whether current credit and collections policies and procedures are working, or whether any of the policies and procedures need to be changed to more effectively collect outstanding receivables. Additionally, the collections staff needs information so that collection activities can be prioritized, problem accounts isolated, and outstanding balances collected. Analysis of Accounts Receivable and Collections
会计内部控制中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
内部控制透视：理论与概念 摘要：内部控制是会计程序或控制系统，旨在促进效率或保证一个执行政策或保护资产或避免欺诈和错误。内部是一个组织管理的重要组成部分。它包括计划、方法和程序使用，以满足任务，目标和目的，并在这样做，支持基于业绩的管理。内部控制是管理阶层的平等与控制可以帮助管理者实现资源的预期的有效管理的结果通过。内部控制应减少或违规错误的风险关联未被发现的，但设计和建立有效的内部控制不是一个简单的任务，不可能是一个实现通过快速修复短套。在此讨论了内部文件的概念的不同方面的内部控制和管制。 关键词：内部控制，管理控制，控制环境，控制活动，监督 1、介绍 环境需要新的业务控制变量不为任何潜在的股东和管理人士的响应因子为1，另外应执行/她组织了一个很大的控制权。控制是管理活动的东西或以上施加控制。思想的产生和近十年的发展需要有系统的商业资源和控制这种财富一个新的关注。主题之一热一回合管制的商业资源是分析每个控制成本效益。 作为内部控制和欺诈的第一道防线，维护资产以及预防和侦查错误。内部控制，我们可以说是一种控制整个系统的财务和其他方面的管理制定了为企业的顺利运行;它包括内部的脸颊，内部审计和其他形式的控制。 COSO的内部控制描述如下。内部控制是一个客观的方法用来帮助确保实现。在会计和组织理论，内部控制是指或目标目标的过程实施由组织的结构，工作和权力流动，人员和具体的管理信息系统，旨在帮助组织实现。这是一种手段，其中一个组织的资源被定向，监控和测量。它发挥着无形的（重要的作用，预防和侦查欺诈和保护组织的资源，包括生理（如，机械和财产）和乙二醇，声誉或知识产权，如商标）。在组织水平，内部控制目标与可靠性的目标或战略的财务报告，及时反馈业务上的成就，并遵守法律，法规。在具体的交易水平，内部控制是指第三方采取行动以实现一个具体目标（例如，如何确保本组织的款项，在申请服务提供有效的。）内部控制程序reduce程变异，导
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文对照外文翻译 附件：外文翻译译文 战略财务会计在中小企业 摘要：随着社会经济的发展和科学技术的进步,中国的企业在一个充满机会和危险的阶段。介绍了安全会计的含义和意义战略财务会计中存在的问题,阐述了财务策略进行小中型企业一起,最后提出了一些对策和原因。 关键词：中小企业的战略财务会计、问题、对策
一个企业的不确定性的金融环境其财务活动充满风险。除了机会,有许多的危险从时间,以时间,其财务会计。因此,它已经成为了成功的关键一个企业的财务会计是否能跟踪的趋势变化什么是有用的吸收。应当拒绝接受什么是有害的。战略会计思想是非常重要的在企业的财务会计,因为我们必须努力去分析和把握一般环境和发展一个企业的发展趋势,从而提高适应能力、可变性和适用性的金融中心会计不确定环境。目前,中小企业在100年通过了工商登记、以企业总数的90%。因此,其战略财务会计是特别重要的,这也是本论文的主题。 1 简介 战略性的财务会计是财务会计理论,根据该融资应该的在最适当的方式进行,采集到的资本必须利用和会计的最有效的方式虽然企业和决策和利润分配应该最合理。根据其内涵,总结三个主要内容的战略财务会计,包括融资策略,投资战略和利润分配决策策略。详情如下: 融资策略 高度发达的现代企业具有的销售急剧增长。当面对这样一种局势,企业倾向于有很大的要求从股票和应收账款是资本的提升。更大的为销售增长的张力,但更大的资本要求。因此,在融资策略都具有十分重要的意义战略会计财务。融资策略的功能在于明确的指导方针融资、铺设融资目标下,建立整体规模、融资渠道和方法,安排战略资本结构优化方案,从各方面对此作了相应的对策,以达到融资目标,最后预测和收集的大量资金的企业的需要。 投资策略 为核心的战略财务会计,这种策略决定一个企业只能分配它的首都资源合理而有效的方法。投资策略包括确认投资固定资产的方向、公司规模和资本规模、投资选择相关的外部扩张或内部扩张,改革旧的产品或开发新的、独立或联合操作,自有资金投资决定或贷款之间的百分比固定资产、流动资产、投资策略和风险和那些在通货膨胀。 利润分配决策策略 这个策略,包括会计资本收益和设立股份奖金分配制度,主要的交易一个企业比例,搁在长期底图在扩大规模、提高员工福利和自身的生活水平。利润分配决策战略旨在满足需求,对于资产资本的发展和改进企业的核心竞争力根据相关的投资