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自己整理的部分英语语法

自己整理的部分英语语法
自己整理的部分英语语法

第1章从句

在一个句子中,如果它的某一成分由一个句子来充当,那么这个句子就是一个含有从句的复合句。其中充当某一成分的那个句子就叫做从句。按照从句充当句子成分的不同,从句可分为主语从句,宾语从句,同位语从句,表语从句,定语从句,状语从句等。从句一般都由一个特定的引导词引导。

1.1名词性从句

名词性从句(Noune Clause)是指在句子中作用相当于名词的句子,它本身就相当于是一个长的名词,表示一件事、一个过程、一种观点等。由于一个句子中,名词可以充当主语、宾语、同位语、表语,所以名词性从句相应的有主语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句、表语从句。引导名词性从句的连接词可分为以下三类:

连接词:that,whether,if (不充当从句的任何成分,但在整个句子中可能会充当某一成分)

连接代词:what, whatever, who, whoever, whom,

whose, which.

连接副词:when, where, how, why(时间、地点、方式、原因)

也就是说,只要合适,以上引导词都可以引导主语从句、表语从句、同位语从句、宾语从句。更简单的对引导词进行分类,引导词可分为一般引导词that,特殊引导词wh-。

1.1.1主语从句

主语从句是指在句子中充当主语的从句。从句顺序为陈述性语序,即:

引导词+主语+谓语+宾语

(1)That-引导的主语从句

当that引导主语从句的时候,that在从句中是不充当任何成分的,只是起到引导词的作用,从句必须是一个完整的句子,有自己的主语谓语宾语。整个句子的结构是:

That (从句)+谓语+宾语

上面的括号中的“从句”是一个完整的句子,表述的是一件事,一个过程,一种观点等等。

下面一具体的例子来说明。

A.That he is rebellious is known to us all.我们所有人都知道他很叛逆。

B.That the meeting will be suspended/put off has not been reported yet.会议将会延

期(这件事)还没有通知呢。

C.That you are the best one in our class is beyond doubt.毫无疑问,你是本班最棒

的。

D.That we should keep running no matter what happens inspires lots of us.无论遇到

什么,我们都应该继续前进,这种精神鼓舞了我们很多人。

(2) Wh-从句

A.When you will graduate is the most concerned issue.你什么时候毕业是大家最关

心的话题。

B.How the meeting will be held greatly influences your image.会议如何举行(这件

事)将会极大的影响你的形象。

C.Where the man came from was a mystery.那个人从哪里来是个迷。

D.why he chose me is unknown.不知道他为什么选我。

E.who will be the winner is still unknown.现在还不知道谁将胜出。

F.whoever wins the game will be awarded the prize.任何赢得比赛的人都将被授予

此项奖项。

G.which is the best is still unknown. 还不知道哪个是最好的。

H.what you do is against what you say.你所做的和你所说的相悖。你言行不一。

I.what the man gave you is actually what I lost.事实上,那人给你的东西正是我丢

失的。

J.whether they will get married is still unknown.还不知道他们是否会结婚。

※Wh-从句的语法功能除了和that-从句一样外,还可充当介词宾语、宾语补足语和间接宾语等。如下所示:

主语:How the book will sell depends on its author.书销售如何取决于作者本人。直接宾语:In one's own home one can do what one likes.在自己家里可以随心所欲。

间接宾语:The club will give whoever wins a prize.

俱乐部将给得胜者设奖。

表语:My question is who will take over president of the Foundation.我的问题是谁将接任该基金会主席职位。

宾语补足语:She will name him whatever she wants to. 她高兴给他起什么名字就取什么名字。

同位语:I have no idea when he will return.

我不知道他什么时候回来。

形容词宾语:I'm not sure why she refused their invitation.我尚不能肯定她为什么拒绝他们的邀请。

介词宾语:That depends on where we shall go.

那取决于我们去哪儿。

※Wh-从句作主语也常用先行词it做形式主语,而将wh-从句置于句末,和that 的情况是一样的。例如:

It is not yet decided who will do that job=who will do that job is not yet decided.

还没决定谁做这项工作。

It remains unknown when they are going to get married=when they are going to get married remains unknown.他们何时结婚依然不明。

※注意:所有主语从句均看作是第三人称单数,主句的谓语动词用第三人称单数形式。

1.1.2宾语从句

在句子中充当宾语成分的从句成为宾语从句。

一般的宾语从句

在这里,我们将一般的实义动词之后接的宾语从句定为一般的宾语从句。(1)that 引导的宾语从句

That在句中不充当任何成分,仅仅起连词的作用。

A.Do you know that the famous star came to our school this morning?

B.I thought that you were here to kill me.

C.sorry,I don’t think that you can stay here.

D.I can remember that you stole the pencil from me when we were both young. (2)wh-引导的宾语从句

A.I just want to know whether/if you have a pencil.我只想知道你有铅笔吗。

B.As a teacher,I am here to teach you what you want to learn.

C.i was considering when I should leave.我在想我该什么时候出发。

D.sorry,I don’t know how to get there,either.不好意思,我也不知道怎么去那里。

E.please let me know if you have any question。如果你有任何问题,请告诉我。

F.i havn’t decided where I will go.我还没有决定去哪。

G.i wonder what she likes.我在想她喜欢什么呢。

H.i wanna accomplish what you have achieved.我想成就你的成绩。

介词宾语从句

介词宾语从句是指跟在介词后面做宾语的从句。在有些句子中,如有些不及物动词后面如果要跟宾语,或者形容词后面跟宾语,必须在动词和宾语之间加一个合适的介词。如look at sb,be interested in sth ,be sure of sth等.当这类不及物动词后面跟从句时,一样要在从句和不及物动词之间加上介词,从句由此成为介词宾语从句。介词宾语从句和一般的宾语从句除了一些特殊情况外,差别并不大。

这类不及物动词如:Depend on ,call for,worry about等,一般的“词组”后面跟从句时都属于介词宾语从句。

A.Your score depends on what you do.

B.I am interested in what you are doing.

C.I worry about whether he can pass through the crisis of his illness

that 引导的宾语从句很少做介词宾语从句,除了少数一些介词如except,but,besides,in,for等之外。

A.I don’t go to hospital except that I am badly ill.

B.I can say nothing but that I am sorry.

C.you know nothing besides that she is a girl!

在这样的介词宾语从句中一般that是可以省略的。

需要注意的是,有些不及物动词和形容词,后面跟宾语从句时,介词常常被省略,而跟名词做宾语时,介词则不能省略。如:

A.I don’t care about him.

I do not care whether you win or not.

B.I am glad that you are here=I am glad of your being here.

C.I am sure that you will win the game=I am sure of your winning the game.

D.I am afraid of you

I am afraid that you can not sleep here.

诸如此类。

宾语从句中需要注意的几点:

(1)宾语从句的时态

宾语从句的时态受到主句的限制,一般分为两种情况。当主句是一般现在时时,从句可以根据实际情况而定(可以是任意时态);而当主句是一般过去

时时,从句只能是过去时态(一般过去时,过去进行式,过去完成时等)。(2)宾语从句中的否定。

一般是主句否定而从句不否定,或者说“否定前移”。在think,suppose,believe 等的用法上最常见。

我认为他不会来—I do not think he will come.而不是I think he will not come.以此类推。

(3)对于某些and 和but等连词连接的两个that从句时,第一个that可以省略,而第二个则不能省略。

He said ( that)…….and that…….

(4)宾语从句中的whether 和if

宾语从句中,当表示“是否”时,两者可以互换,意思一样。但带有or not 时则不能。

带有疑问的语气时(注意,是说句子中体现的是疑问的语气,而不是说出现doubt,wonder等表示怀疑的单词),应该用whether或者if做连词,而不能用that。

1.I don’t doubt that he can eat 10 apples in a minute.

2.I doubt whether/if he can eat 10 apples in a minute.

3.I was wondering if/whether she would come.

(5)一些带有请求、命令、询问等词如suggest、insist等后面的宾语从句用虚拟语气(参考虚拟语气一章)。

1.1.3表语从句

在形式上,表语是指be动词、系动词(appear,seem,become等)后面跟的成分,可以是名词、形容词、不定式、分词等。表语是用了修饰主语的,表明主语的性质、状态、特征等,即主语是什么,有什么特点等。当表语由一个从句充当的时候,就构成了表语从句。

表语从句比较简单,一般来说,宾语从句都可以直接转化为表语从句,只要把一般宾语从句的谓语动词换为系动词就行。

This is what we are going to do.

The most important point was that he was the leader of the team.

The question was how we go there.

1.1.4同位语从句

什么是同位语?当一个名词(或其他形式)对另外一个名词(或其他形式)进行修饰、限定或者说明的时候,这时候两者互为同位语。同位可简单理解为“同等地位,你就是我,我就是你”,两者是相等的。在形式上,同位语之间很靠近;在内容上,其中一个是另外一个的解释说明。

在汉语中:我的语文老师,A先生,是一位德高望重的文学家。在这个句子中,“A先生”是“语文老师”的同位语,是对“语文老师”进行解释说明,他所说的语文老师就是A先生。

在英语中也是一样的,如:Mr. Wang,a scientist,invented a great device.句子中的a scientist 是Mr. Wang的同位语。

同位语从句,顾名思义就是用一个从句来充当句子的同位语。同位语的引导词只有that。起基本结构为:

名词+that从句

其中,“名词”一般是一些抽象的名词,这样才有可能对其进行解释说明。具体的名词如pen, book等是不能于that从句同位的(但它们完全可以有适合的同位语),因为无法再对期赋予解释。常用的抽象的名词有:

News fact idea hope belief suggestion rumor order thought device question doubt

当以上这些名词与that从句同位时,that从句后面的部分就是对这些名词的解释,也就是这些名词的具体的内容。

下面以具体的句子为例:

A.The news that she won the game made us happy.

“she won the game”就是“The news”的内容。

B.The fact that he was a thief really shock us.

“he was a thief”就是“The fact”的内容。

C.The idea/suggestion that we go swimming is really nice.

“we go swimming”就是“The idea/suggestion”的内容。

D.The rumor that there would be an earthquake turned out to be a joke.

“there would be an earthquake”就是“rumor”的内容

关于引导词,需要注意的几点:

1.whether与if 均为"是否"的意思。但在下列情况下,whether 不能被if 取

代:

(1)whether引导主语从句并在句首

Whether you are right is none of my busniness!你对与否与我无关。

(2)引导表语从句

The question is whether we should go now.问题是我们应不应该现在走。

(3)whether从句作介词宾语

Clearly,she is not interested in whether you are now.显然,她对你现在在哪里并不感兴趣。

(4)从句后有"or not" ,因为whether…or not 是一个固定搭配。

I don’t know whether she has arrived there or not.我不知道她是否到那里了。

※以上四句中把whether换成if的时候是不对的。

2.大部分连接词引导的主语从句都可以置于句末,用it充当形式主语。

It is not important who will go.

It is still unknown which team will win the match.

It made me happy that they won the game.

3.关于that引导的从句。

(1)that引导从句时,在从句中不充当任何成分,可以理解为只是需要配合“从句一定要有引导词(有些引导词因为满足一定的条件被省略了,并不是没有)

的规则”,而且从内容上看,它所引导的从句不缺句子的成分,它本身也没有词义,所以千万别望文生义直接翻译为“那、那个”等。名词性that-从句在句中能充当主语、宾语、表语、同位语和形容词宾语。但是需要注意的一点是,that虽然在从句中不充当任何成分,但是在整个句子中可能会充当某一成分。

如:That you won the game was a hit to all of us!=It was a hit to all of us that you won the game.

在这个句子中,that 在从句中不充当任何成分,只是起到引导词的作用,但是从整个句子来看,that在句子中是充当主语的,而you won the game是that 的同位语(扩展知识)。

其他的一些例子:

主语:That he is still alive is sheer luck.他还活着全凭运气。

宾语:John said that he was leaving for London on Wednesday.约翰说他星期三要去伦敦。

表语:The fact is that he has not been seen recently.事实是近来谁也没有见过他。同位语:The fact that he has not been seen recently disturbs everyone in his office.

近来谁也没有见过他,这一事实令办公室所有的人不安。

形容词宾语:I am glad that you are satisfied with your job.

你对工作满意我感到很高兴。

I'm not sure why she refused their invitation.

(2)That-从句作主语时,通常用it作先行词,而将that-从句置于句末,因为当一个句子做

主语的时候,可能会很长,而宾语有可能会很短甚至只有一个单词,这样整个句子看起来就有一种“头重脚轻”的感觉。为了保持句子的平衡以及美观,使用it做形式主语放到前面。例如:

It is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to failure.很清楚,整个计划注定要失败。

=That the whole project is doomed to failure is quite clear.

It's a pity that you should have to leave.你非走不可真是件憾事。

= That you should have to leave is a pitty.

总结:

用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系:

a. It + be +形容词+ that-从句

It is necessary that…有必要……

It is important that…重要的是……

It is obvious that…很明显……

b. It + be + -ed 分词+ that-从句

It is believed that…人们相信……

It is known to all that…从所周知……

It has been decided that…已决定……

c. It + be +名词+ that-从句

It is common knowledge that………是常识

It is a surprise that…令人惊奇的是……

It is a fact that…事实是……

d. It +不及物动词+ that-分句

It appears that…似乎……

It happens that…碰巧……

It occurred to me that…我突然想起……

4.不可省略的连词:

(1)介词后的连词

如:I am not interested in what you are doing.我对你现在做的事并不感兴趣。(2). 引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。

以上句为例:

That you won the game was a hit to all of us!=It was a hit to all of us that you won the game.

由于that 引导的是主语从句,虽然在从句中不充当任何成分,但在主句中是主语,省略后主句将没有主语。因此在这种情况下不可省略。

5.引导词的作用

有些引导词在句子中不充当任何成分,只起到连接的作用,如宾语从句中的that,而有些引导词在句子中既起连词的作用,又在从句中充当成分,例如wh-引导的主语从句中,wh-既是引导词,又是主语或者宾语。

(1)I don’t know (that) she is your sister.我不知道她是你的妹妹。

(2)Who will be the winner is still unknown.谁将会成为获胜者现在仍不清楚。

在第一个句子中,that 在从句中是不充当任何成分的,因为she is your sister 本身就是一个完整的句子,主语谓语宾语俱全。而在第二个句子中,who首先作为引导词,其次由Who will be the winner中可以看出,will be 整体是从句的谓语,winner 是从句的宾语,因此who便是主语了。以上的分析过程、思路适用于所有的主语从句。

※总结:that 在名词性从句中不充当成分,而wh-引导词是充当成分的。

名词性从句注意事项总结:

(1)连词that的用法

that可以引导全部四种名词性从句,但在从句中不充当任何成分,在宾语从句中that可以省略,在其他三种从句中却是不可省略的。

(2)连接代词和连接副词wh-的用法

Wh-在引导名词性从句时全都不能省略,因为他们不仅充当引导词,还充当

从句的成分。

连接代词who,what,whom,which,whose在从句中不仅做引导词,还充当主语、宾语、表语等成分;连接副词when,how,where,why等在句子中起引导词和状语的作用,表明时间、方式、地点、原因等,它们保留了疑问的语气在里面,省略了句子便不完整。

(3)名词性从句的语序和时态。

所有的从句均是陈述语序,无疑例外,即引导词+主语+谓语+宾语的顺序。

宾语从句时态受主句时态的限制,而其他三种从句不受主句时态的限制。

(4)名词性从句中的虚拟语气

在名词性从句中,特别是同位语从句中,当先行词是带有请求、命令、建议、希望等语气的时候,从句需要使用虚拟语气。即should+V结构。(参考虚拟语气)

1.2定语从句

定语的作用是修饰句子的某一部分,告诉我们被它修饰的部分具有怎样的性质、特点、状态等。“定”字可简单理解为“规定,限定”。定语可以修饰句子的某一成分,也可以修饰主句的某部分或者整个主句。定语可以由形容词、名词、不定式、代词、介词短语、分词等来充当。当用一个从句来充当定语的时候,便构成了定语从句。

定语从句是两个句子的复合。先举例说明:下面是两个独立的句子,按照定语从句的要求将他们变成一个定语从句。

(1)The boy is standing by the car.(2)The boy is a student.

那怎样用一个单独的句子来表达上面两个独立的句子表达的所有信息呢?这时候就要用到定语从句,将一个句子变为主句,另外一个句子变为从句,主句和从句分别表达上面两个独立的句子的信息。如选择(1)为主句,(2)为从句,在从句中使用一个代词代替the boy,避免同样的词出现两次,改为定语从句后变为:

The boy who is a student is standing by a card.

上面这个句子既表达了那个男孩是一个学生,又表达了他站在车旁的信息。由这个句子可见,两个句子转换成定语从句以后,先行词并不会出现两次,而是只出现一次,另一个用一个代词如(who)来代替。从句在先行词之后进行修饰限定,相当于汉语中的定语后置。

定语从句的要点:引导词、语序。定语从句的语序:先行词+引导词+主语+谓语+宾语(陈述性语序)。从句中被修饰的部分为先行词,从句的引导词称为关系词,分为关系代词和关系副词两类,关系词紧跟在先行词后面引导定语从句。关系代词有:that、who、which、whom、whose=of which等;关系副词有:when、where=(in/at/on which)、why等。关系代词是代替被修饰的先行词在从句中出现而避免先行词同时出现两次显得累赘,关系副词表明从句表达的意思是作为先行词在主句中的动作的状态(时间、地点、原因等),这时从句成为主句的状语(副词便是修饰动词和形容词所用,在句子中的成分是状语成分)。

单复数形式也有先行词的单复数形式决定。

1.2.2 关系代词和关系副词及其选用

关系代词在句子中其中两个作用:代词、连词。它即充当从句的成分,有起着连接主句和从句的作用。关系副词在句子中其中副词或者介词短语、连词的作用。它除了表明从句中时间发生的时间、地点、原因等,还起着连接主句和从句的作用。

关系代词和关系副词的区分主要看它们是否在从句中充当成分。用关系代词,还是关系副词完全取决于从句中的谓语动词。及物动词后面无宾语,就必须要求用关系代词;而不及物动词则要求用关系副词。例如:

This is the mountain village where I stayed last year.(stay 是不及物动词)

I'll never forget the days when I worked together with you.(work作不及物动词)I'll never forget the days which/that I spent in the village.(spent 是及物动词)

个人推荐:关系代词和关系副词的选用,可以通过以下步骤完成:

i.拆分主句和从句

ii.判断从句中除了关系词以外的部分是否完整

iii.从句完整,则选关系副词(因为此时句子需要的表明时间、原因、地点、方式的状语,而不需要主语和宾语等);从句不完整,则选关系代词(因为此

时从句不是缺少主语就是缺少宾语,需要一个关系代词来代替主语或者宾

语)。

1.2.3 关系代词引导的定语从句。

在这类从句中,关系代词所代替的先行词是人或者物,事件,并在从句中充当主语、宾语、定语等成分。充当主语时,从句的单复数要与先行词一致。

A.The man that/who you just met is my father.

改为疑问句:Is the man that /who you just met your father?

拆分为两个句子:主句是The man is my father,从句是You met the man。由从

句可见,先行词the man在从句中充当的是宾语,这就意味着从句中tha/who

除了充当引导词的时候,还充当宾语的成分。如何判断关系代词在从句中充

当什么成分?方法是:将从句隔离出来,看看除了关系代词的那部分句子缺

什么成分,所缺成分就是关系代词充当的成分。以上句为例:从句为that you just met,除去that/who,“you just met”缺少宾语,因此that充当的是宾语

的成分。

B.The man that/who is smoking may be a thief.

拆分为主句和从句:

The man may be a thief. The man is smoking.很明显,先行词the man在从句中

充当主语,因此that/who 便在从句中充当主语。

C.The story that/which you told me was from that book.

拆分与还原,主句:The story is from that book,从句:You told me the

story.that/which 在从句中充当宾语。

D.I want to have a talk with the man that/who you came with.

拆分与还原,主句:I want to have a talk with the man.从句:you came with the man。很明显,who/that在从句中充当came with的宾语,又因为先行词是人,因此who/that还可以换成whom。

E.Do you know the girl whose hair is red?

拆分与还原,主句:do you know the girl ?从句:The girl’s hair is red.

很明显,The girl’s hair 充当从句的主语,whose+hair充当主语,则whose在从句中充当的是定语成分。

Whose既可以代人也可以代物。

1.2.4 关系副词引导的定语从句

关系副词的选择要根据从句缺少的成分,关系副词可代替的先行词是时间、地点或理由的名词,在从句中作状语,表明从句的时间、地点、原因等。

When表时间,where表地点,why表原因。

A.I still remember the time when we shared one room.我仍然记得我们共用一室

的时光。

在这个句子中,主句是I still remember the time,从句是we shared one room,从句是一个完整的句子,主谓宾俱全,the time,when表明了整个从句做主句的时间状语。

可以将句子该写为:I still remember the time,and during that time we shared one room.

B.The place where the meeting was held was decorated deliberately.

举行会议的地方经过了细心的装饰。

拆分与还原,主句:The place was decorated deliberately,从句:The meeting was held。从句是一个完整的句子。可以将句子改写为:The place was decorated deliberately,and the meeting was held at the place.

※需要注意的一点是:

when、where做副词的时候,分别是“在某时”,“在某地”的意思,单词本身已经包含了“在”的意思,因此表示在某时间点或空间点的时候时就不用加上如in、at、on、during 等介词了。

正确:The place where the meeting was held

错误:The place in where the meeting was held

正确:The time when I was sick

错误:The time during when I was sick

C.The reason why he was there is still unknown.

拆分与还原,主句:The reason is still unknown,从句:he was there

Why 表明的是原因。表原因时,一般reason会和why 联系在一起用。其他情况就不一定了,如:

The reason that/which you told me yesterday was unacceptable。你昨天所说的理由让人无法接受。在这个句子中由于reason后表示的不是原因,而是简单说明reason的来源,因此就不用why,一定要特别注意这点。

又如:

The reason that you were sick is unreliable.你说你病了的这个理由不可信。(这是一个同位语从句)

1.2.5 that的特殊用法

that可以用于表示时间、地点、方式、理由的名词后取代when, where, why 和"介词+ which"引导的定语从句,在口语中that常被省略,例如:His father died the year (that / when / in which) he was born.他父亲在他出生那年逝世了。

He is unlikely to find the place (that / where / in which) he lived forty years ago. 他不大可能找到他四十年前居住过的地方。

还有the moment,the minute等也一样。The moment she came,the minute you leave….

1.2.6 “介词+which”结构的使用

关系副词与“介词+which”的转换,whose与“of which”的转换。

关系副词where、when、why以及关系代词whose经常可以于“介词+which”

对具体的例子进行分解分析,很快就可以理解了。下面还是以具体的例子来分析。

A.He said that he was going to a place where he could make a lot of money.

拆分,主句:He said that he was going to a place

从句:where he could make a lot of money

将从句还原为独立的句子,变为he could make a lot of money at the place.于是定语从句可以还原为以下两个独立的句子:

He said that he was going to a place。he could make a lot of money at the place。

由于the place 可以用一个关系代词来代替,由于是物,选which为代词,构成at which结构。整理为一个定语从句就是:

He said that he was going to a place at which he could make a lot of money.

= He said that he was going to a place,and he could make a lot of money at the place.

B.I still remember the summer when we spent a long time together on learning

simming.

拆分,主句:I still remember the summer

从句:when we spent a long time together on learning simming.

将从句还原为独立是句子:During the summer we spent a long time on learning simming.

the summer可以用which来代替,于是从句变为during which we spent a long time on swimming。整理成一个完整的定语从句就是:

I still remember the summer during which we spent a long time on learning

swimming.

C.I don’t know the reason why he did that to his mother.

分析步骤和以上是一样的。从句为:why he did that to his mother。从句还原为he did that to his mother for the reason.将the reason 用which代替,变为for which 结构(for 有“因为”的意思)。整理后定语从句变为:

I don’t know the reason for which he did that to his mother.

D.The house whose windows are broken has been built for 20 years

= The house of which the windows are broken has been built for 20 years

= The house the windows of which are broken has been built for 20 years

需要注意的是,在这样的修改中,先行词所有的东西前面要加上the才行,如上句中的windows是the house的,所以在改写的时候windows前面要加上the,这样句子才通顺。

“of +which”和先行词的位置关系:谁在前都可以,这是of+which结构特有的,其他“介词+which”结构就不行,必须在先行词之后。

其他“介词+which/who/whom”结构的使用

在一些定语从句中,先行词在从句中是一些介词的宾语(如不及物动词后跟宾语),这时候便会出现“介词+which/who/whom”的结构。

A.The man whom you just talked with used to be a teacher.刚才跟你说话的人以前

是个老师。

从句还原以后是:you just talked with the man,the man 是talk with的宾语,这时候可以把with提到whom的前面形成with whom结构:

The man with whom you just talked used to be a teacher.

B.The pen with which you wrote the letter was mine.

然而需要注意的是,有一些联系比较紧密、本来就是一个整体的搭配,就不能把其中的介词提前。如:take care of、look after、be sure of 、worry about、look for等这样的固定搭配,相应的介词就不能提前。

The man whom you were looking for died last week.(正确)

The man for whom you were looking died last week.(错误,因为look for是一个固定搭配)

1.2.7限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句

按照从句对先行词是否有影响,定语从句分为限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句。限制性定语从句中,从句是句子不可缺少的一部分,缺了从句句子表达的意思往往不完整(不是指结构不完整),它给出了先行词很重要的信息,而非限制性定语从句则不同,从句只是对先行词的一种补充说明,缺了从句对句子意思的表达并没有什么影响。在形式上,限制性定语从句的先行词和从句之间没有逗号隔开,而非限制性定语从句的先行词和从句之间有逗号隔开。除此之外,两者还有一个较大的区别:非限制性定语从句能够将整个主句作为先行词,也就是修饰整个句子。

(1)The house which has been built for 20 years belongs to Mr. Wang. VS The house,

which has been built for 20 years, belongs to Mr. Wang.

上面两个句子的区别在于,前者要同时表达两个意思:一是房子属于Mr.

Wang,二是房子已经建造了20年;后者主要想表达房子属于Mr. Wang,顺带提了一下房子的年龄而已,从从句相当于是插入语一样,去掉它对整个句子

想要表达的主要意思并没有什么影响。两者的意思有时会有很大的差别,从以下的两个句子中就可以看出来:

A.The woman has a son who is a soldier.那妇人有个当士兵的儿子。

B.The woman has a son ,who is a soldier.那妇人有一个儿子,这个儿子是个士兵。

两个句子的区别:A句要同时表达两个意思,意思妇人有个儿子,二是这个儿子是名士兵。B句要表达的主要意思是妇人有一个儿子,并顺便说了下这个儿子是名士兵。也就是说,在A句中,妇人还可能有其他当教师当农民的儿子,她可能不只一个儿子;而B句中可以明确知道妇人只有一个儿子。

(2)She got the offer of the famous university,which made her parents happy. 这句话

中,从句修饰的并不是university一词,而是整个句子。使她父母高兴的不是university本身,而是“She got the offer of the famous university”这件事。因此说非限制性定语从句可以修饰整个主句。

(3)He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me. 他似乎没

抓住我的意思,这使我心烦。

注意事项:

?非限制性定语从句中的关系词不能是that、why和how三个,这一点要特

别注意,且定语从句中的引导词是没有what的!!!

She got the offer of the famous university,which made her parents happy(正确)She got the offer of the famous university,that made her parents happy(错误)此句如果一定要用that,那只能改成两个前后衔接的句子:She got the offer of the famous university,and that made her parents happy.(正确)

?在有些定语从句中,从句并不是紧接在先行词的后面,而是被一些固定搭配

等隔开了,这样的定语从句称为分格式定语从句。

She reached the house after great efforts,where she stay for a long time.

在上句中,显然后面的从句修饰的并不是efforts,而是house。

1.2.8关系代词的省略

首先要明确两个大前提:一、省略的情况只是针对限制性定语从句,二、只能省略关系代词而不能省略关系副词,因为关系副词表明了特定的状态(或者原因或者时间或者地点等),如果省略则我们不能知道主句中事件发生的背景等信息。那么什么情况下关系代词能够省略呢?

关系代词的省略主语有以下三种情况。

(1)关系代词在从句中充当动词的宾语。(这种情况最常见)

A.The man (that/who/whom) you met was a teacher.who/that/whom在从句中充当

met的宾语,所以可以省略。

B.The book (that/which)you borrowed should be returned in 3days. That/which

在从句中充当borrow的宾语,也可以省略。

The man who just won the prize is so happy now.这句中由于who在从句中充当的是主语,因此是不能省略的。如果省略,则变成:The man just won the prize is so happy now.出现两个谓语,但是只有一个主语。

(2)关系代词在从句中充当表语(其实也是宾语的一种)

China is not the one that it used to be anymore=China is not the one it used to be anymore.

(3)在there be 句型以及the way后面的时候。

A.There is an old man who wants to talk to you = There is an old man wants to talk

to you。虽然who在从句中充当主语,但还是可以省略,这个与一般的定语从句是不同的。

B.I don’t like the way that you talk to people= I don’t like the way in which you talk

to people= I don’t like the way you talk to people。为什么是in which呢?因为从句的原句应该是:you talk to people in …way,“以…的方式”表达是“in

a …way”。(考试比较喜欢考the way的用法).

关系代词不能省略的情况:

(1)非限制性定语从句

(2)在介词因前提而出现“介词+关系词”的时候

The man whom you talked to was a teacher= The man to whom you talked was a teacher

=The man you talked to was a teacher

The man to (whom省略)you talked was a teacher(错误)

1.2.9关系代词that/which、who/whom、that/who的对比

从以上很多例句中可以看到,在很多情况下that/which 是可以通用的,who和whom也可以通用,但是在一些特殊情况下,两者却不能通用。

?that和which

在大多数情况下通用,但是以下情况只能用that

(1)在there be 句型中,只用that,不用which

there is a man that wants to see you

(2)在不定代词,如:anything, nothing, the one, all, much, few, any, little等作先行词时,只用that,不用which。

Is there anything that you want to say?= Is there anything that you want to say?(宾语省略)

All that I want to say has been recorded.= All I want to say has been recorded.(同上)

= What I want to say has been recorded.(扩展内容,What引导名词性从句) (3)先行词有the only, the very修饰时,只用that

He is the only one that won the prize.

(4)先行词为序数词、数词、形容词最高级时,只用that

He was the first who cross the line

(5)先行词既有人,又有物时

The people as well as the house that used to be there are now gone.

只能用which而不能用that的情况:

(1)非限制性定语从句中

(2)在“介词+关系词”的结构中

?who和whom

whom是who的宾格,一般能用whom的地方都可以用who替换,也就是说who既能代主格也能代宾格。但是在“介词+关系词”的结构中,只能用whom。

如With whom、to whom 等。

That is the man with whom I often go out.= That is the man who I often go out with。

?that和who

当先行词是人时,两者一般是可以互换的。但是在以下情况只用who:

有明显代指人的不定代词如those、anyone、one、ones、anybody等的时候(anything等就用that)

Anyone who fails the examination will be punished.

总之,一般先行词是人的时候,优先选择who

1.2.10 as 引导的定语从句

As 引导的是非限制性定语从句,但是比较特别的是,as引导的定语从句可以在主句之前,也可以在主句之后。而which引导的定语从句必须在主句之后。另外,as引导非限制性定语从句的时候,从句修饰的是整个主句,而不是主句的一部分,这与which是不一样的。as 代表前面的整个主句并在从句中作主语时,从句中的谓语必须是系动词;若为行为动词,则从句中的关系代词只能用which.。在非限制性定语从句中,as一般翻译为“正如…”。

As we know, smoking is harmful to one's health= Smoking is harmful to one's health,as we know= Smoking is harmful to one's health,which we know。

It rained hard yesterday, which prevented me from going to the park. 此句不能用as,因为主句在从句中是主语,而prevent是行为动词,不是系动词。

与as 有关的句型主要有两个:the… same as和such…as。在这两个句型中,same和such是前置定语,修饰先行词,而as后面的定语从句也是修饰先行词。

?the same… as 与…一样;与…类似;(扩展:比较the same that)

This book is not the same one as you read yesterday.(做宾语)

He is not the same man as he used to be.(做表语)

This is the same thing as was used by him.(做主语)

?such…as…

we could not find such materials as are used in their factory.

I have never attained such high scores as he got.

1.2.11 定语从句和同位语从句的区别

有些关系代词引导的定语从句和同位语从句很类似,容易混淆。区别的办法有以下几种。

?根据引导词在从句中是否充当成分来判断。如引导词在从句中充当某一成分,

则是定语从句;否则为同位语从句。

The news that you won the game spread quickly in the town.(同位语从句)

The news that you told me was not true.(定语从句)

?根据意思来判断

在从句的前面加上is后,如果先行词和从句重新组成的句子能够成立,那么就是同位语从句,反之则为定语从句。

The news that you won the game spread quickly in the town,以此句为例。先行词为The news,从句为that you won the game,在两者之间加上is,重新组成一个句子:The news is that you won the game.这个句子是成立的,所以是同位语从句。

The news that you told me was not true,加上is,重新组成一个句子:

The news is that you told me,由于tell是及物动词,后面要带宾语,句子told 后无宾语,因此不成立,原句是一个定语从句。

?根据that之前的名词进行判断

同位语从句的先行词一般是一些抽象的名词如fact、news、information等,而定语从句的则没有限制。然而这个方法并不是最根本的方法,根本的方法还是前面的两种。

1.3 状语从句

状语是句子中修饰谓语动词或者形容词的成分,它给出状态、特点、属性等信息。状语的用途可以分为表示时间、地点、原因、目的、方式、结果、条件、让步、伴随、比较等,相应的就有时间状语从句、地点状语从句等。

?时间状语从句

时间状语从句的引导词:when、while、as、as soon as 等表示时间的关系词

A.I will be here when you come.

B.she fell asleep while she was doing her homework.

C.As time went by, the boy eventually grew up.

D.You should tell me as soon as you get the information.

?地点状语从句

引导词:where,wherever(no matter where)

A.Where there is a river,there is a city.

B.I will find you wherever you go.

C.Wherever you go,whatever you do,I will be right here waiting for you.(歌词)

?原因状语从句

引导词:because,since,as,for等

because的语气最强,用于解释原因,一般回答why提出的问题。since,as 也表示原因,但是是指那些显而易见的、或者已经为人们所熟知的原因。而for所指的原因并不是与结果相对的那种原因,而是通过一定条件的判断得出的理由。for的前面一般有逗号,不用于句首。而其他三个用于句首句中均可, 由because引导的从句如果放在句末,且前面有逗号,则可以用for 来代替

A.Why not go to school?-Because I was sick.

B.Since /As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey.

当然,也可以说we have to delay our journey because the weather is so bad.

C.He is absent today, because / for he is ill.

D.He must be ill, for he is absent today.

?目的状语从句

引导词:so that, in order that, lest, for fear that, in case等表示目的的词。

A.You must speak louder so that /in order that you can be heard by all.

B.He wrote the name down for fear that(lest) he should forget it.

C.You’d better take more clothes in case the weather is cold.

需要注意的是,像lest(以免)、for fear that(以免,以防万一)等表示假设的引导词引导的状语从句要用虚拟语气。

?结果状语从句

引导词:主要是so…that,such…that两个引导。要正确运用这两个句型,关键是先区分so和such。

so 是副词,因此在so…that句型中,其后跟的应该是形容词。

such的词性是形容词和名词,在such…that中做形容词用,因此期后面跟的

应该是名词。举例如下:

so foolish such a fool

so beautiful a girl = such a beautiful girl

so nice a flower = such a nice flower.

A.She works so hard that she doeson’t sleep at all.

B.She is such a hard-working girl that she doesn’t sleep at all.

C.The boy is so young that he can't go to school.

D.He is such a young boy that he can't go to school.

此外引导结果状语从句还有until、till等。

?条件状语从句

引导词:if, unless, as/so long as, on condition that等。

A.If you have any questions,please put your hands up.

B.You can sit here unless you don’t want to.

C.You will see the hotel as long as you keep walking.

D.You can keep that pencil,on condition that you give me your book.

if 引导的状语从句分为真实条件句和非真实条件句两种,在真实条件句中不需要虚拟语气,而在非真实条件句中需要用虚拟语气。

?让步状语从句

引导词:though,although, ever if=even though, whether…or, no matter +wh-或wh-+ ever,

A.Though/Although it is raining,they are still working outside.

B.Even if/though it rains,we will still keep going.

C.whether you believe it or not,I won the game.

D.no matter what you do,I will be on your side.=Whatever you do,I will be on your

side.

一些需要注意的地方:

1.while, when, as的比较

1) while后面只能跟持续性动作(一般以进行时为标志),when和as后跟的是短暂性动作

A.I was doing my homework when the phone rang.

B.Just as / Just when / When I stopped my car, a man came up to me.

C.I listened to music while I was doing my homework.

2) 当表示“随着时间的推移”时只能用as

As time passed,the little boy grew into a stronge man.

3) 当从句的动作发生于主句动作之前,只能用when 引导这个从句,不可用as 或while

When you have finished your work, you may have a rest.

2. until和till

此两个连词意义相同。肯定形式表示的意思是"做某事直至某时",动词必须是延续性的。否定形式表达的意思是"直至某时才做某事"。动词为延续性或非延续性都可以。正确使用这两个连词的关键之一就在于判断句中的动词该用肯定式还是否定式。

肯定句:

I slept until midnight. 我一直睡到半夜时醒了。

Wait till I call you.等着我叫你。

否定句:

She didn't arrive until 6 o'clock.

她直到6点才到。

Don't get off the bus until it has stopped.

公共汽车停稳后再下车。

I didn't manage to do it until you had explained how.直到你教我后,我才会做。

1)Until可用于句首,而till通常不用于句首。

Until you told me, I had heard nothing of what happened.

直到你告诉我以前,出了什么事我一点也不知道。

2)Until when 疑问句中,until要放在句首。

---Until when are you staying?你呆到什么时候?

--- Until next Monday.呆到下周一。

注意:否定句可用另外两种句式表示。

(1)Not until …在句首,主句用倒装。

Not until the early years of the 19th century did man know what heat is.

直到19 世纪初,人类才知道热能是什么。

Not until I began to work did I realize how much time I had wasted.

直到我开始工作,我才认识到了我已蹉跎了几多岁月。

(2)It is not until…that…

3. 表示"一…就…"的结构

hardly/scarcely…when/before, no sooner…than和as soon as都可以表示"一…就…"的意思,例:

I had hardly / scarcely got home when it began to rain.

I had no sooner got home than it began to rain.

As soon as I got home, it began to rain.

注意:如果hardly, scarcely 或no sooner置于句首,句子必须用倒装结构:Hardly / Scarcely had I got home when it began to rain.

No sooner had I got home than it began to rain.

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