腐败：一种社会心理问题
简介：
腐败这个词是很常见的。当今社会研究人员正在纵容用自己的方式处理腐败问题。尤其是心理学家们，他们认为有教养且守法的人在基于社会、家庭的压力以及环境的影响下可能会改变自己的行为。美国心理学家David G. Myers (1994)在他的《探索社会心理学》一书中强调那些正派人士也会由于过多的社会压力而走上贪污腐败之路。基本上,在发展中国家,像是尼泊尔的人总是会通过不同的方法试图积累资金变成有钱人。在日复一日的实践里,家庭成员开始施压,要求这些正直守法的人为了挣钱不择手段。事实上,这种类型的家庭的日常压力可能会破坏政府与非政府人员的心理平衡。人们在生活中处处都在消极地用不同的行为方式模仿其他人的行为,例如举办婚礼仪式、着装礼仪、生日聚会、建造高楼大厦、购买土地、汽车、钻石、黄金等。
腐败是通过过分严厉的家教而产生的有害公众利益的活动。而有效的家庭教育即为孩子个人创造一个最佳的环境,或者说是为了其个性的健康发展。每个人的个性是来源于家庭。家庭提供了一个工作的框架,在这里人类可能会发现根源、发展连续性和归属感。父母作为第一个社交代理人。特别是,健康的家庭环境始终坚持合理的原则、道德和经验教训。像这样多样化、有效的教育经验主要是传递良好的行为、廉洁的思想,并获得完整的人格。与此同时,很有必要强调说社会心理的通道与社会行为现象是纯粹相通的,并且这也是社会产物。所以,在这篇文章中我已经成功处理了有关腐败的各种风纪现象。人主要是受多种因素的影响并且那些因素会破坏他整个的个性。因此,他或她可能会误入歧途。
腐败是发展的主要障碍,它破坏了民主以及摧毁了政府的信用度。有效的民主制度要求全面攻击腐败的社会不安定因素和破坏政治制度的扭曲经济的正当性。国际透明组织已经在创造全球广泛的腐败危险意识尤其是针对发展中国家的数十亿人民方面做出了相当
显著的工作。
腐败在尼泊尔是如此猖獗,尽管为减少该现象也做过不少努力,它依然存在于所有级
别的公共官僚主义当中。这确实是国家发展运动的一大挑战(行政改革委员会的报
告,1975-76)。基本上,正确的拉纳规则开始在尼泊尔出现,公务员已经变得敢于无论如何都要收集和省下钱以便于个人使用拉纳政权,或用于他们的直接的老板,和保守他们自己
的秘密。这个谚语“从蜂巢中夺出了蜂蜜之后还舔自己的手”这一谚语已经非常流行。并
且也激励了他们从自己至高的权位上谋取一些特权,Poudyal公务员(1984年)。这个心理激励是一事实支持大量不必要的商品和服务的用于直接去各自的主人。因为这些原因,高贵的讲道(或Dibya Upadesh)的Prithibi纳拉沙的奠基人,使得现今尼泊尔和权利,违反了这段时期,虽然讲道的话都-receiver被贿赂,贿赂,敌人的规定的国家。现在他们被抛进历史的垃圾堆贻害保护类型的腐败和制度化的弊端的民意调查。因此,社会状况仍然只有在金钱和权力无关它的源头。人们用黑色的钱,并脱颖而出成为精英取得权力的国家。这种情况也给予了积极的机会出现的翅膀的承包商在制度化的模式和分包商的腐败!
研究表明,一个非常开放经济会显著减少腐败都发生。经济学家、保罗·毛罗(1997)介绍了研究篇题为“为什么担心腐败?”在经济议题系列。在那篇文章中他强调,当公务员薪水太低,公务员必须利用他们的职位收集贿赂以保持收支平衡。
泓明迈进了一大步,开创了良好管理和腐败的本财政年度再控制。政府致力准备一份综合治理腐败战略和腐败的实施下个财政年度的控制。对于根除腐败战略必须准备和实施2002年十月中旬(公众声明的财政收入和支出year2002-2003,他的雄伟的政府、财政部、Bagdarbar,加德满都,epal)。
最近,(2002年)Upadhyay在尼泊尔行政人员大学的杂志上介绍了一篇题为“争取在尼泊尔控制腐败”的文章。在那篇文章中说,epal虽然可能具有诱惑,藐视法律来保证他们的政治利益,如果法律实施严厉地而不是很难处于起步阶段,但是从长远的眼光看得到解决,把它自己的政治行动计划。此外,这里是有必要的,这会使一项法律,需要一个人申报的法律渊源他获得的财富。这样的策略将极大地促进治理腐败的斗争。在这一主题,首席专员呈现出以下的身材,反映了各种机构参与和关系pertainingto腐败控制。
图一、合作情谊的政府部门、各部门的总称机构Upadhyay腐败控制(改编,中国建筑工业出版社,展开了打击腐败,控制在尼泊尔,管理和管理评论》,体积14日,2002,No.l大学,Jawalakhel尼泊尔管理人员,Lalitpur尼泊尔)。
Ghimire是H。(2001)最近推出了一篇关于亲不良治理治理好在加德满都的岗位一文章。他表示,政府,它在公众眼里是一个坏形象。最近的一项调查对NGO的人们假定见朽坏繁荣的受到政治方面的保护。高达84%接受调查的悲观的可能性是腐败的控制。他们甚至没有就诉状对腐败行为,因为没有药物将是可得到的。
特别是,可怜的社会与大政府干预和法规和规定可创造大量垄断租金力量赐给政府官员。一些经济学家已经想出一个简单的公式把腐败、C、像一个函数的垄断(M),自由裁量权(D)和问责(求):C = M + D-A。这说明了清楚的腐败存在于一种环境,让一个国家机构有垄断力量、高低分发货物方面的决定,是获得对其行为(Wagle,1998)。
尼泊尔政府具有不同的病理步道如病理坚持、病理保守主义的、病理的生长,病理自我的地位、病理的病理生理、病理所巴克——通过、病理的延迟,病理检查裙带关系和偏袒和病理的腐败。这些官僚途径的存在的主要原因已确认为公共官僚制度的发展受到阻碍。Poudyal,(1986)强调腐败国家环境的一个主要原因是病理存在腐败。在尼泊尔社会腐
败的普遍性是没有任何圈子及得上的水平。这是所谓的制度化、而且已被接受为人类的生活方式。同时在这个国家已经成为不受干扰的来源与自然的收入,他们崇拜金钱。因为这扭曲畸形的环境,发展中的国家正面临着许多问题，官僚主义是在腐蚀整个圈子。
首先,要找一个有效的公务员,它是必要的,用于以保护它在政治上的和个人的影响。在某些国家,这一原则也被忽视了,破坏了大范围的系统,这是一种效率不高表现。缺乏整理公务员已经造成了不可避免的结果使腐败已经失去了控制。它是阻碍进步的最主要方面。它恶化民主和破坏政府政策。有效的民主制度要求全面的攻击社会不安定因素和破坏政治制度的扭曲经济结构的正当性。最近,尼泊尔政府制定了治理改革政策。一些像这样的想象的改革都是治理腐败的措施,促进改革管理和提高生产能力方面的整体效率,能够
显著地提高公务员的能力以及在关键是轻伤的解决性能。在新项目,政府治理腐败旨在加强法律框架的参与反腐败在公民社会中的成效。
腐败中的许多发达国家和发展中国家
即使国家经济发展严重残疾是不适当的,且效率低下,医疗基础设施维护也出现难以
形容的弊端功能(Sriwastava,2001)。Sriwastava进一步补充说,修正过程必须因此从最高的政治和管理水平开始。
发达国家有腐败,但,相对来说,它是边缘并且不会影响到过去600天普通人的生活。在发展中国家,腐败是普及得。使尽所有努力为灾民提供援助的人有数百万,甚至在今天,正遭受极大的和堕落和贫穷。国际先驱论坛报(1999)阐述了发展中国家的相关案例。论坛进一步补充说,在有4.4亿人生活的发展中国家人民住在社区缺乏基本的卫生设备;——第三区缺乏安全的饮用水,四分之一的人缺乏足够的住房,有五分之一的人营养不良,1.3亿
美元不能维持我生活一天。
1999年,国际透明组织进行了调查的有99个国家超过五大洲。在此基础上,对调
查,1999年透明国际”腐败感知指数(CPI)刊登。在此之上mdex桌子是丹麦的区别,丹麦被认为是世界上最诚实的国家。在桌的底部是喀麦隆,被认为是世界上最腐败的国家。
治理的问题表现在许多形式作为一个社会病理学和作为结果,制造了惊慌意思所有尽责的季度关于未来的国家。腐败驾驶强大的贪婪和近视追求个人力量无思想、也不认可任何宗教、语言、种族或宪政制度。它可以调节和控制,含有只有一种社会责任> >,Pandey 200 I)。许多社会研究人员敦促反腐败法律和办公室不会单独可以应付腐败问题。在民主的环境“腐败文化”是广泛的原则不同形式的行动和社会的行为。在心理上,人总是Imltatll1g 别人显示盛况空前的行为。事实上,这样的行为需求的思想和非法的手段,它扰乱心理失衡的个人。因此,男人开车对非法的道路。尤其,控制这种类型的行为的家庭成员都必须遵守道德的谚语“把你的外套量力而为”,也不会坚持长老为必需品和要求。
公务员和腐败的实践
收到的钱仅公务员提出的假设,在平原非法满足的话是贪污和受贿。这是没有必要这样一个付款应付有关肯定是特殊情况的判断或合同或一个积极的辨认忙做。人员专
家,Mahshukhani》(1979年)焦点,一个public仆人预计将一个小心谨慎的人。他或她必须进行在某种程度上,以免创造陷阱或可疑的情况。语境中的腐败,新《大英百科全书》(1997)声称腐败行为,从而~或者同意很有希望,收到的钱或其他thll1g的价值与腐败的目标影响公共官员的责任。当钱已经接受了或约定以换取腐败行为,官方参与完成,这种行为其实不需要对进攻的贿赂完整的。
人事管理专家强调acivil社会必须阻止不了自己习惯不良治理中得到。最主要障碍是走向善治庞大职业官僚主义,降低生产力可怜的责任、透明度和完整性。据说治理可以被看作是行使的经济政治和行政权力的事务管理国家所有的层。它包含机制、过程和机构、钍h那些公民和组织的利益,说出他们行使合法权益,满足他们的义务和调停他们的分歧。“治理”是一种COntlnU1Un,不一定单向:它并不会自动提高。它是一种植物,需要时常的照料。像民主治理仍然特别难于运作。其实善治具有多种功能即透明、负责,香港的公营管理等。尼泊尔管理研究员pmpomt粘的东西没有良好的管理官僚体制仍然是一个神话。
由于胆大妄为的腐败在尼泊尔,社会经济和政治制度,是国家大量恶化。在心理
上,government.传授课程对所有awareness-building必须民众的照片呈现多元化developedand developmg国家~ ~指不同学科他们成功。政府也必须传播它的政策regardmg 腐败和出版这些事件的广大的人民群众,通过不同的媒体。尼泊尔强调国际透明度一个腐败的人不能成为一个民主党人,一名领导者和国会议员。因此,败坏人士应驱逐了和社会抵制。Regmi,(200我)介绍了《“射腐败在他的书里,他的强调流行舞弊或者政府中的腐败行为的办公室。首先,要找一个有效的公务员,它是必要的,以保护它从政治上的和个人的影响。
治理腐败的策略
在尼泊尔背景下,国际透明组织尼泊尔经营各种多维的计划和策略用于修饰或说明腐败控制。通过本课程的行动,反对一切形式的国内国际水平通过宣传,公民的压力,专业的互动和意识的建筑物。一些其他的目标会覆盖喜欢滥用公共根,令人沮丧的个人利益和部门积极作用激励运动反对腐败。
然而政府开始几种方法修正了某些歪曲事实的经济和社会结构。腐败的语境中,每日英语,时空今天已经说如果调查滥用职权(CIAA)确实发挥其指定的作用,受欢迎的期望真
的严惩腐败行为和有罪,一些基本的重新思考要做的事。在CIAA支配的履行他们的职责是不够的,以遏制腐败。腐败,缺乏人格、执政无能以及滥用职权仍有些耀眼的商标的太多的
国家的公共生活。这必须进行了修正。但是,含糊不清,周围的一些法律处理这样的人物以及没有一个有效的机关检查做错什么在邱坛实际上广泛幻灭导致与这个国家的民主国家
本身。此外,所有的无所不在empted售前的腐败引起了人们的愿望移向更高质量的生活。这个国家有了lillie进展也领先。努力发展移动的速度太慢了,10满足国内的最低期望的人。治理腐败的努力保持仅仅是一个方便的口号,人们来认为即使有趣。所有这些明显的有得理顺。这是不可能的,直到所有的体内(特别是高的和强大的公众生活中,都是对法律的土地。
尽管有很多的断言的意图的政治领袖,尼泊尔尚未找到一种有效的防腐败的议事日程。所有这些不足,特别是缺乏有效的制度安排执行责任,连同短命的诱因,以最大限度地提高政府尽快个人所得创造了良好的外部环境贪污腐败的问题。虽然有linle统计证据要完全证明是否增加了腐败在尼泊尔,有足够的例子来说明其发病和频率的问题是如此普遍尼泊尔公共支出的文献》,世界银行,2000年)。
结论
心理学家的人认为好,dil1自由的人,可以变更他或她的行为的基础上,社区和家庭压力和情况,因此他或她可能会追求错了。社会科学家认为这样的人们也得到败坏通过社会压力不必要。原则上,发展中国家,如尼泊尔,人们总是尽量收集现金和想变得更富有的人,通过来历的。在心理上,家庭成员开始好无瑕吸引人获取货币通过任何方式。事实上,这种类型的逐日压力将破坏家庭的心理平衡一般男人或政府与非政府人员。
腐败是不友好的行为,是通过恶劣的家庭教育产生的。有效的家庭教育主要是为其创造一个最佳的环境，以促进个人的性格的养成以及身心健康发展。同时也有必要说社会心理是与社会行为与社会的产物是纯粹想通的。人是受不同的因素影响的,这些因素会破坏他整个的个性发展。
尼泊尔管理,具有不同的病理特征,比如坚持、病理生理、病理保守主义的增长,病理的自我的现状、病理所、病理巴克——通过、病理的延迟,病理检查裙带关系和偏袒和病理的腐败产生。这些疾病存在的主要原因已确认公共官僚制度的发展及其作用受到阻碍。心理政府和非政府组织必须建立既传授有关控制腐败项目的意识。
资料来源：Upadhyay, Niranjan Prasad. 腐败：一个社会心理问题[J]. Occasional Papers in Sociology and Anthropology, 2003年（第8版）
外文原文：
CORRUPTION: A PSYCHOSOCIAL ISSUE
Introduction
The word corruption is very universal. Today social researchers are indulging to deal corruption in their own ways. Especially, psychologists argue that nice and clean man may change his or her behaviour on the basis of social and family pressures and circumstances. American psychologist, David G. Myers (1994) has stressed in his book entitled "Exploring social psychology" that nice people also become corrupted through excessive social pressures. Basically, in developing countries like Nepal, the people are always trying to accumulate money and want to be rich persons by different means. In day -to day practice, family members begin to put pressure on the nice and clean service man to get money by any means. Actually, such types of daily pressures of the family may disturb the mental balance of government and non-governmental personnel. In fact, in every aspect of life the man is negatively imitating others behaviors in different way of actions like marriage ceremony, thread wearing ceremony, birthday, construction of huge buildings, purchasing lands, cars, diamonds, gold etc.
Corruption is an antisocial activity, which is learnt through nastiest parenting. Effective parenting by implication aims at primarily the best type family climate for a congenial socialization of the individual, as well as, a healthy development of his or her personality and self. Every one's personality is the creation of his or her family. Family provides a frame - work within which human being may find roots, continuity and sense of belonging. Parents serve as the first socializing agents. Especially, sound family environment always persists disciplines, moral and obedience lessons. Mainly, such diversified effective lessons impart good manner, corruption free mind, and acquired integrated personality. At the same time, it is essential to say that psychosocial approach is purely interlinked with social behavioral phenomena and which is product of society. So, in this article I have managed to deal various disciplines pertaining to corruption. Basically, man is influenced by various factors and those factors disturb his entire personality. Consequently, he or she may be diverted towards wrong path.
Corruption is a major obstacle to development .It undermines democracy and destroys the credibility of government. Effective democracy requires a comprehensive attack on corruption as a factor of social disintegration and distortion of the economic system that undermines the legitimacy of political institutions. Transparency International has done exceptionally remarkable work in creating worldwide awareness about the dangerous implication of the growing menace of corruption, especially for billions of people living in developing countries.
Corruption in Nepal is so rampant that in spite of many efforts to reduce it, it exists at all levels of public bureaucracy. This is really a great challenge to the campaign of national development (Administrative Reform Commission's Report, 1975-76). Basically, right from the inception of Rana rule in Nepal, public servants had become bold enough to collect and save the
money any how for the personal use of the Ranas, their immediate bosses and themselves. The proverb" one who takes honey out of the beehive, licks his hand" also became popular and it boosted up their courage to gain some personal privilege from their respective positions in civil service (Poudyal, 1984). This psychological encouragement was also supported by the fact that the large amount of such undue goods and services used to go directly to their respective masters. Because of all these reasons, the noble sermon (or the Dibya Upadesh) of Prithibi Narayan Shah, the founder of modern Nepal, was undermined and violated right from that period, though the words of the sermon regarded both the bribe -receiver and bribe - offerer as enemy of the nation. Now they are thrown into the dustbin of history leaving a legacy of protected type of corruption and institutionalization of all SOlis of malpractices. As a result, social status remained only on the money and power irrespective cf its source. People with black money gained power and emerged as elites of the nation. This situation also gave a positive chance for the emergence of wing of contractors and sub-contractors within the institutionalized pattern of corruption in epa!
Studies have shown that a very open economy is significantly associated with lower corruption. An economist,Paolo Mauro (1997) introduces a research article on "Why worry about corruption?" in the Economic issues Series. In that article he stresses that when civil service pay is too low, civil servants may be obliged to use their positions to collect bribes as a way of making ends meet.
HMG has initiated important steps towards good governance and corruption control in this fiscal year. The government is committed to prepare a Comprehensive Anti Corruption Strategy and its implementation for corruption control in the next fiscal year. The strategy regarding the corruption eradication had to be prepared and implemented by mid-October 2002 (Public Statement on Income and Expenditure on the Fiscal year2002-2003, His Majesty's Government, Ministry of Finance, Bagdarbar, Kathmandu, epal).
Recently, (2002 year) Upadhyay introduces an article on "A fight for corruption control in Nepal" in the Journal of the Nepal Administrative Staff College. In that article he remarks that in the case of epal although people may have the temptation to flout the law for their political gain, if the law is implemented rather sternly it may be difficult in the initial period but in the long run that gets settled and the politics gets its own course of action. Furthermore, there is necessary to make a law that requires a person to declare the legal source of the wealth acquired by him. Such strategy will greatly contribute to the fight for controlling corruption. In this subject, Chief Commissioner presents following figure, which shows the involvement and relationship of diversified agencies pertainingto corruption control.
Figure I. Relationsip of Ministries, departments and semi-government agencies in corruption control (Adapted from Upadhyay, S.N., A fight for corruption control in Nepal, Administration
and Management Review, V olume 14,No.l, 2002,Nepal Administrative Staff College, Jawalakhel, Lalitpur Nepal).
Ghimire, H. (2001) has recently introduced an article on Pro- poor governance as good governance in Kathmandu Post. He states that the government is, of course not bad in everythingBut, it is suffering from a bad image among the public. A recent survey of NGO postulates that people see corruption thriving under political protection. As high as 84 percent of the survey respondents were pessimistic about the possibility of corruption control. They do not even file a complaint against corrupt behaviour, as no remedy would be available.
Particularly, poor societies with heavy state intervention and regulations and regulations create numerous monopoly rents with discretionary powers bestowed on government officials. Some economists have come up with a simple equation placing corruption, C, as a function of monopoly (M), discretion (D) and accountability (A): C =M+D-A. This demonstrates clearly how corruption exists in an environment where a state organization has monopoly power over the distribution of goods, discretion to decide who receives them and is not accountable for its actions (Wagle, 1998).
Nepalese administration is characterized by different kinds of pathological trailS such as the pathology of persistence, pathology of conservatism, pathology of growth, pathology of status, pathology of self -service, pathology of buck- passing, pathology of delay, pathology of nepotism and favoritism and pathology of corruption. The existence of these bureau-pathologies have been recognized the major reasons that impede public bureaucracy on its developmental role. Poudyal, (1986) stresses that corrupt environment of the country has been one of the major reasons for the existence of the pathology of corruption. Pervasiveness of corruption in Nepalese society has not left any circle untouched from below to top levels. It is moreover institutionalized and has been accepted as mode of life. At the same time people within the country do not bother about the source and nature of income, they worship money and all are behind it. Because of this corrupt environment, developmental undertakings of the country are facing lot of problems and the bureaucracy is caught within the corrupt circle.
Chiefly, to secure an efficient civil service, it is essential to protect it from political and personal influences. In countries where this principle has been neglected, and the spoils system has taken its place, an inefficient and disorganized civil service has been the inevitable result and corruption has been out of control. It is a leading hindrance to progress. It deteriorates democracy and destroys the creditability of government. Effectual democracy requires an abundance attack on corruption as a factor of social disintegration and distortion of the economic system that undermines the legitimacy of political institutions. Recently the government of Nepal has formulated governance reforms policy. Some of such envisioned reforms are anti corruption
measures, reform management and capacity building, improvement in the overall efficiency of the civil service, enhancing competence and motivation of civil servants and performance improvement in key ministries. In the new program of anti corruption, the government aims at strengthening the legal framework for combating corruption through the involvement of civil society.
Corruption Scenarios of Developed and Developing Countries
Even the economic development of the country is severely handicapped by an inadequate, inefficient and ill maintained infrastructure whose functioning is hampered by indescribable malpractices (Sriwastava, 2001). Sriwastava further adds that correction process must therefore begin at the topmost political and administrative levels.
There is corruption in developed countries as well but, in relative terms, it is marginal and it does not affect the day-to day life of the common people. In developing countries, corruption is pervasive and frustrates all efforts to provide relief to many millions of common people who, even today, are suffering from abysmal and degrading poverty. The International Herald Tribune (1999) states the relevant pictures of developing countries. Tribune further adds that among the 4.4 billion people in developing countries around the world, three- fifth live in communities lacking basic sanitation; one- third go without safe drinking water; one-quarter lack adequate housing, one-fifth are undernourished, and 1.3 billion live on less than $ I a day.
In 1999 Transparency International carried out a Survey of as many as 99 countries spread over five continents. On the basis of this survey, the 1999 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index (CPI) was published. At the top of this mdex table IS Denmark, which has the distinction of being regarded as the most honest country in the world. At the bottom of the table is Cameroon that is assessed being the most corrupt country of the world.
The problem of governance presents itself in many forms both as a social pathology and as outcomes, creating anxiety Il1 all responsIble quarters about the future of the nation. Corruption driving strong of avarice and myopic quest for personal power knows no ideology, nor does it recognize any religion, language, ethnicity or constitutional system. It can be regulated, contained and controlled only by a sense of social responsibility (Pandey, D. R., 200 I). Many social researchers have urged that anti-corruption laws and offices alone will not be able to cope with corruption. In the democratic environment "Corruption culture" is widely exercised in different forms of action and social behaviour. Psychologically, man is always Imltatll1g others pomp and show behaviours. Actually, such behaviours demand illegal way of thoughts and it disturbs mental balance of the individual. Consequently, the man drives toward illegal path. Especially, for
controlling such types of behaviour the family members must follow the moral proverb "Cut your coat accordll1g to your cloth" and never insist to the elders for necessaries and demands.
Public Servant and Corruption Practice
Mere receipt of money by a public servant raises the presumption of illegal gratification, which in plain words is bribery and corruption. It is not necessary that such a payment should be definitely concerned to a particular case or contract or a positive ~r identifiable favour done. Personnel expert, Mahshukhani (1979) focuses that a publ ic servant is expected to be a cautIous man. He or she must conduct in a manner so as not to create traps or suspicious situations. In the context of corruption, The ew Encyclopedia Britannica (1997) states that corruption, th~ act of promising, or agreeing to receive money or Some other thll1g of value with the corrupt aim of influencing a public official duty. When money has been offered or promised in exchange for a corrupt act, the official involved need not actually accomplish that act of the offense of bribery to be complete.
Personnel management expert has emphasize t a acivil society must prevent itself from getting accustomed to poor governance. The major barriers to good governance are the bloated size of the career bureaucracy, lower productivity poor accountability, transparency and integrity. It is said that governance can be seen as the exercise of economic political and administrative authority to manage country S affairs at all levels. It comprises the mechanism, process and institutions, th h which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences. "Governance" is a COntlnU1Un, and not necessarily unidirectional: it does not automatically improve over time.It is a plant that needs constant tending. Like democracy governance remains particularly difficult to operate. Actually Good governance possesses diversified features I.e. transparency, accountability, public sector management etc. Nepalese management researchers pmpomt that goo governance without good bureaucracy will remain a myth.
Due to the rampant corruption in Nepal, the socio-economic and political system of the country IS heavily deteriorated. Psychologically, government. must Impart awareness-building lessons to the general public as presenting the diversified pictures of developedand developmg countries ~~ referring their success in various disciplines. Also government must disseminate its policies regardmg corruption and publish those events to the general people through different media. Transparency International Nepal stresses that a corrupt man cannot be a democrat, a leader and a parliamentarian. Accordingly, corrupted persons should be expelled and socially boycotted. Regmi, (200 I) has introduced book entitled "Firing Corruption" in his book he has
stressed about the prevailing irregularities or corruption in government offices. Primarily, to secure an efficient civil service, it is essential to protect It from political and personal influences.
Tactics of Controlling Corruption
In Nepalese context, Transparency International Nepal is running various multidimensional programs and tactics pertaining to corruption Control. In this course of actions, it combats in all forms at national and international levels through advocacy, civic pressure, professional interaction and awareness building. Some other objectives that regularly covers like discouraging abuse of public posts and authority for personal interests and motivating movements for an active role against corruption.
Yet the government undertook several measures that corrected the distortions in the economy and social structure. In the context of corruption, the daily English, Space Time Today has remarked that if Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA) is indeed to play its designated role to popular expectations by really punishing the corrupt and guilty, some fundamental rethinking will have to be done. The CIAA has at its disposal to carry out its duties is inadequate to curb corruption. Corruption, lack of character, incompetence and abuse of authority have remained some of the glaring trademarks of too many of those in the country's public life. This has to be corrected. But, ambiguities surrounding some of the laws for dealing with such personages as well as the absence of an effective authority to check wrong doing at high places has, in fact resulted in widespread disillusionment with the country's democratic polity itself. Beyond this, the all pervasiveness of corruption has pre- empted the aspirations of the people to move forward to a better quality of life. The country has made too lillie progress in all fronts. Developments efforts have been moving at too slow a pace 10 meet Ihe minimum expectations of the people. Anti corruption efforts have remained merely a Convenient slogan, which people have come to view as not even amusing. All this obviously has to be straightened out. This will not be possible until every body, particularly the high and the mighty in public life, are made accountable to the laws of the land.
Despite frequent assertions of intent by political leaders, Nepal has yet to develop an effective anti- corruption agenda. All of these deficiencies, particularly the absence of effective institutional arrangements to enforce accountability, together with the incentives for short-lived governments to maximize personal gains as quickly as possible have created a fertile environment for corruption. Although there is linle statistical evidence to conclusively prove whether corruption in Nepal has increased or not, there are enough examples to indicate the frequency of its incidence and how widespread the problem is(Nepal Public Expenditure Review, Document of the World
Bank, 2000).
Conclusion
Psychologists advocate that good and dil1 free man may modify his or her behaviour on the basis of community and family pressures and situations and consequently he or she may pursue the wrong path. Social scientists argue that such kind of people also get corrupted through unnecessary social pressures. In principal, the developing countries like Nepal, people always try to collect cash and want to be wealthy person by unusual way. Psychologically, family members initiate the nice and spotless man as compelling to obtain currency by any means. In fact, such types of day-by-day pressures of the family may upset the mental equilibrium of general man or government and non-governmental personnel.
Corruption is an unfriendly doings, which is learnt through worst parenting. Effective parenting by implication aims at primarily the best type family environment for a friendly socialization of the individual, as well as, a healthy growth of his or her personality. At the same time it is necessary to say that psychologically approach is purcly interlinked with social behavioral phenomena and it is the product of society. Primarily, man is influenced by diverse factors and these factors upset his entire Personality.
Nepalese administration, is characterized by different kinds of pathological traits such as the pathology of persistence, pathology of conservatism, pathology of growth, pathology of status, pathology of self -service, pathology of buck- passing, pathology of delay, pathology of nepotism and favoritism and pathology of corruption. The existence of these bureau- pathologies have been recognized the major reasons that hamper public bureaucracy on its developmental role. Psychologically government and non -governmental organizations must impart
awareness-building programs pertaining to corruption control.
中英文对照外文翻译文献 中英文对照外文翻译 The Internet is Applicated in Real Estate The Real Estate Industry and the World Wide Web: Changing Technology, Changing Location.The Internet, in its Web based graphics version, has captured the imagination of both consumers and businesses. Its convenience, speed, low cost and versatility are being exploited on a daily basis in ever-changing ways. Together with its capacity to transform existing businesses, promote new businesses and facilitate exchange of information and data, its other striking attribute has been the speed with which this new technology has spread throughout the global economy. Keywords:The internet;Real Estate;Applicated The number of computer hosts grew by more than ten-fold between 1995 and early 1999. The number of Web sites increased almost 100-fold, to over two million, between 1995 and 1998.Ｂy the year 2000, there will be approximately 400-500 million Internet users in the world, and the total number of Web sites will exceed five million. This new technology has the potential for affecting the real estate industry directly and indirectly. Directly, it may become a tool that allows a real estate business to expand its information and sales network. Indirectly, it may change the location equation where and how firms do business which in turn will affect the role of firms involved in real estate development, investment and transactions. Measuring the Spread of the Web
当前女性官员腐败的四种主要表现形式 有数据显示，近5年来女性官员的犯罪人数逐年上升，去年前11个月的职务犯罪人数比2009年全年上升33%。当女性官员也腐败的时候，她们对党和国家的腐蚀作用，并不比男性官员小。总的来看，女性官员腐败主要表现为以下四个方面： 一是以色谋权。在一些男性官员拥权贪色抱红颜的时候，一些女性官员为获得更大的权力、更高的地位和更多的财富，更善于以色谋权拥知己，主动利用对方的权力攫取利益，或者积极配合男性贪腐犯罪行为。如，曾被称为三湘第一女巨贪的湖南省建工集团原副总经理蒋艳萍屡屡利用色相，从一个仓库保管员升至副厅级的湖南省第六建筑工程公司副总经理仅用了10多年时间。又如，近日被中纪委通报的山西**市委原副书记张秀萍和高平市原市委副书记、市长杨晓波，均被指与他人通奸，这是中纪委首次对女性贪官用此表述，具有极强的震慑作用，也警示党员、领导干部必须慎待手中的权力，不能以色谋权。 二是为情所累。相对于男性而言，为兼顾家庭和工作，女性的付出会更多一些。尤其是身处官场的女性，当手中握有一定权力时，常常会为了家庭和子女的发展铤而走险。如原广东省中山市市长李启红，触犯内幕交易罪、泄露内幕信息罪和受贿罪一案正是源于为家族牟取非法经济利益。与李启红相比，原重庆市检察院副检察长郭宝云案更为典型。郭宝云离异后，把儿子当成感情寄托，为扶持儿子发大财贪污受贿93万多元，违法违纪为子女牟利近3000万元，于2004年被判刑18年。 三是为美而贪。爱美之心人皆有之。为了能让自己青春永驻，一些女性官员在美丽面前变得毫无抵抗力，大肆谋取不当利益来为美丽投资，导致美容腐败现象频发。如，**市原国税局女局长刘光明，不仅为了留住容颜花费大量钱财去美容，而且前后花500万元去香港等地整容，光臀部整形费就达50万元，使得旧貌换新颜，平添了许多以色谋权的资本。又如，原北京市财政局干部杨苹利用担任经济二处处长和农业处处长的职务之便，共受贿70.8万元，杨苹将其中的55.8万元用于美容，约占受贿款的八成。 四是物欲至腐。近年来，因受虚荣心的影响而接受贿赂的案例在女性职务犯罪中也十分常见。诸如名表、名包、高档皮鞋、名牌衣物等奢侈品都是很多女官员的心头爱。如有著名LV女王之称的辽宁**市原副秘书长江润黎，在国土规划部门任职期间，利用职务便利收受大量贿赂。之后专门用一座190平方米的宅子来存放奢侈品，包括48块劳力士名牌手表、253个LV手提包和600多件金银首饰，所有物品合计2200多件，总价值超过420万元。
微软Visual Studio 1微软Visual Studio Visual Studio 是微软公司推出的开发环境，Visual Studio可以用来创建Windows平台下的Windows应用程序和网络应用程序，也可以用来创建网络服务、智能设备应用程序和Office 插件。Visual Studio是一个来自微软的集成开发环境IDE，它可以用来开发由微软视窗，视窗手机，Windows CE、.NET框架、.NET精简框架和微软的Silverlight支持的控制台和图形用户界面的应用程序以及Windows窗体应用程序，网站，Web应用程序和网络服务中的本地代码连同托管代码。 Visual Studio包含一个由智能感知和代码重构支持的代码编辑器。集成的调试工作既作为一个源代码级调试器又可以作为一台机器级调试器。其他内置工具包括一个窗体设计的GUI应用程序，网页设计师，类设计师，数据库架构设计师。它有几乎各个层面的插件增强功能，包括增加对支持源代码控制系统（如Subversion和Visual SourceSafe）并添加新的工具集设计和可视化编辑器，如特定于域的语言或用于其他方面的软件开发生命周期的工具（例如Team Foundation Server的客户端：团队资源管理器）。 Visual Studio支持不同的编程语言的服务方式的语言，它允许代码编辑器和调试器（在不同程度上）支持几乎所有的编程语言，提供了一个语言特定服务的存在。内置的语言中包括C/C + +中（通过Visual C++）,https://www.doczj.com/doc/d515567513.html,（通过Visual https://www.doczj.com/doc/d515567513.html,），C＃中（通过Visual C＃）和F＃（作为Visual Studio 2010），为支持其他语言，如M,Python,和Ruby等，可通过安装单独的语言服务。它也支持的 XML/XSLT,HTML/XHTML ,JavaScript和CSS.为特定用户提供服务的Visual Studio也是存在的：微软Visual Basic，Visual J＃、Visual C＃和Visual C++。 微软提供了“直通车”的Visual Studio 2010组件的Visual Basic和Visual C＃和Visual C + +，和Visual Web Developer版本，不需任何费用。Visual Studio 2010、2008年和2005专业版，以及Visual Studio 2005的特定语言版本（Visual Basic、C++、C＃、J＃），通过微软的下载DreamSpark计划，对学生免费。 2架构 Visual Studio不支持任何编程语言，解决方案或工具本质。相反，它允许插入各种功能。特定的功能是作为一个VS压缩包的代码。安装时，这个功能可以从服务器得到。IDE提供三项服务：SVsSolution，它提供了能够列举的项目和解决方案; SVsUIShell，它提供了窗口和用户界面功能（包括标签，工具栏和工具窗口）和SVsShell，它处理VS压缩包的注册。此外，IDE还可以负责协调和服务之间实现通信。所有的编辑器，设计器，项目类型和其他工具都是VS压缩包存在。Visual Studio 使用COM访问VSPackage。在Visual Studio SDK中还包括了管理软件包框架(MPF)，这是一套管理的允许在写的CLI兼容的语言的任何围绕COM的接口。然而，MPF并不提供所有的Visual Studio COM 功能。
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises By: R. Max Wideman Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system. Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control. 1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of
秘书素养开题报告和论文 现代秘书素养论文的开题报告应该怎么写?下面我给大家介绍关于秘书素养开题报告和论文的相关资料，希望对您有所帮助。 秘书素养开题报告和论文 开题报告填写要求 1、开题报告作为毕业论文答辩委员会对学生答辩资格审查的依据材料之一，开题报告和论文。此报告应在指导教师指导下，由学生在毕业论文工作前期内完成，经指导教师签署意见及分院部审查后生效; 2、开题报告内容必须用墨水笔工整书写或按分院统一设计的电子文档标准格式打印，禁止打印在其它纸上后剪贴，完成后应及时交给指导教师和分院签署意见; 3、学生查阅资料的参考文献应不少于6篇(不包括辞典、手册); 4、有关年月日等日期的填写，应当按照国标GB/T 7408-94《数据元和交换格式、信息交换、日期和时间表示法》规定的要求，一律用阿拉伯数字书写。如"20xx年10月26日"。 5、排版格式：字体-小4号宋体，20磅行距。 毕业论文开题报告 撰写本论文的背景、意义 背景： 秘书是一项常青的职业，古今有之，中外有之。 随着社会的发展，经济的繁荣、对外贸易的往来，各种社会关系的
多样化、复杂性，秘书工作也越来越新颖化和高深化，并能力阶段提升到其综合素质上。在新的形式下，秘书人员要胜任秘书工作，既要具备较高的业务能力又要具备良好的心理素质。 意义 理论意义：在我国，秘书人员的工作繁重，特别是要谨慎处理各种复杂的人际关系，忍受无形的压力，在紧张的工作中所遇到的矛盾和困难挫折较多。如果秘书人员没有较强的心理承受能力，就难以应付工作中出项的各种情况，产生心理上的不适应。 现实意义：有些人做秘书工作，开始对秘书职业不是很理解，或者认识不足，不是那么感兴趣，这时就要调节自己的心态了。若不注意调整心态，就会导致心理失调和心理疾病。因此，秘书人员必须善于修养，不断优化心理品质，尤其是心理健康，重点克服焦虑、压抑、厌烦、急躁、自卑、嫉妒等心理障碍。 本论文的基本内容 秘书人员需要良好的心理素质。良好的心理素质，是指秘书人员善于自我调节和控制心理活动，经常保持心理平衡，以坚强的意志和毅力，克服困难，增强信心，做好秘书工作，逐步培育与秘书工作相适应的良好的心理素质。 毕业论文开题报告 本论文的重点和难点 重点：1、树立正确的人生观 2、确定适度的抱负水平
哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence 民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law ) 诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws
中英文资料对照外文翻译 Design phase of the project cost management Abstract Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives. Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy, Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.
基层秘书现状问题 有必要首先明确其基本的特征。即因基层秘书生活、工作在基层，特别是乡(镇)县区这两级的基层,概析基层秘书的一般特征现象。故其深入实际、深入群众的机会多一些，得到实践锻炼的机会亦多一些。因而，相对于中、上层秘书来说,其实际工作能力、群众工崐作能力应该是一般要强一些的但他相对于中、上层秘书的工作环境、条件和地域来比较，即显得优势似乎少一些，遇到困难和问题似乎多一些。鉴于此，笔者概析的基层秘书的特征现象，即可归纳简述为“八多”五少” 所谓基层秘书，笔者认为。应主指乡(镇)这一级机关的秘书，泛指或兼指县、市这两级机关的秘书。因为，相对于县、市这两级的基层，主要是乡(镇)而相对于中央、省这两级的基层，又在县和市。因此，作为市这一级机关工作人员来探析基层秘书问题，当然主指乡(镇)秘书，兼指是县(区)秘书，亦可兼含市级秘书。另则，通过个人思考来探析基层秘书特征，不带任何褒贬意的框框的纯系站在个人中性的立场上所作的客观分析，故其列举的基层秘书的各种特征现象，亦系个人泛指的一般现象。由于各地境况不一而同，基层秘书特征各有所异，因此文中所举切忌对号入座。 首先，说说基层秘书的“八多” 一是“杂事多”。按理说，秘书工作是一项专业性很强的工作，但长期以来，这项工作在基层，特别是乡镇这一级的基层却未引起普遍
重视，其工作程序、内容等方面亦无统一的规定和要求，故其主观随意性较大。基层秘书每天除要完成大量繁杂的事务性工作之外，还要做许多与本职工作风马牛不相及的事，其工作面横跨十几个甚至几十个方面，成了名副其实的“杂家”。难怪某区政府一个局的办公室秘书这样说：“基层秘书是个筐，什么大事小事都可往里装”。然而，与文秘人员在同一“屋檐下”办公的机关人员，却有悠闲地工作在“一杯茶、一支烟，一张报纸看半天”的环境中的，相比之下，秘书人员当然难免产生“杂家难当”的委屈之感。 二是“会务多”。近几年，在一些地方的基层，仍然存在会议越开越多，规模越开越大，规格越开越高的现象。在这种状况下，不仅基层领导忙开会，办公室忙排会，而且秘书人员更是忙办会。例如，忙了工作会又忙经验会，忙了表彰会又忙总结会，忙了座谈会还要忙研讨会………而且，每会必有秘书的会前准备、会中服务、会后总结。正如有位基层秘书在一年的工作总结中写的那样：“今年最大的特征是开会，最大的成绩也是开会，除了开会还是开会，一年开了152个会。” 三是“写得多”。由于基层机关办公室的编制有限，人手少，一人要顶几人用，分工不可细，文秘人员碰见什么内容的文稿都得写。而且，这样写的特征还很明显，即不要求写得很精、很好，但必须写得很快、很多、不离题。例如，基层领导要秘书写农业方面的稿件你就得写农业方面的稿件，要秘书写科技方面的稿件你就得写科技方面的稿件。你对写的内容不熟悉，就得边学边写，以便及时赶上领导的用稿需要。秘书不仅要学写多方面内容的文稿，还要学写多种体裁的文
开题报告理由模板 篇一：研究生开题报告申请书 开题报告申请书 本人李某某（学号20XX40060001），是体育学院20XX级博士研究生。经过导师同意，现向学院申请开题，题目拟定为《高脂诱导肥胖特征及有关基因介导的保护效应研究》。开题意向时间为20XX 年7月。请学院支持和安排。 导师签字： 申请人： 篇二：开题报告与立项申请的区别 []开题报告与立项申请的区别 (20xx-07-20xx-02)（一）什么叫开题论证 开题论证是在课题被批准之后，开始实际研究工作之前的一个重要步骤。由课题组写出反映课题研究的全面设计和构思的开题论证报告，请专家评审组来评审、指导。专家评审组通过之后，课题组根据专家评审组的意见，将开题论证报告进一步完善，然后才能正式开始课题的实际研究。 （二）开题论证与立项论证有何区别 立项论证的重点是研究的意义、价值，目的在于立项。开题论证的重点是如何完成此项研究，目的在于怎样完成这个课题的研究。 具体到各项内容的侧重点的区别是：
有人把教育课题研究的流程大致分为七个步骤：1选定课题、2申报立项、3开题论证、4实施研究、5总结成果、6结题鉴定、7应用推广。 （三）如何撰写开题报告？ 开题报告是开始进行课题研究的工作框架，也是如何进行研究的基本思路。开题报告主要回答三个“W”：研究什么、为什么研究、如何研究。 （1）课题的表述与界定： （2）研究的目的、意义：从理论与实践两个方面阐述该项课题研究的现实意义。 （3）国内外研究现状、水平和发展趋势：“本课题与同类课题的区别与联系”是本项目重点填写的内容。 （4）课题研究的理论依据： （5）研究的目标、范围和内容（填写重点）：要进一步界定研究的范围与具体内容，从而使研究具有可行性和可操作性。 （6）研究方法（填写重点）：在开题报告中，尽可能详尽地写出具体的操作过程。 （7）研究步骤（填写重点）：一般分为三个阶段：第一阶段（准备阶段），第二阶段（实施阶段），第三阶段（总结阶段）。 （8）研究预期成果（填写重点）： （9）人员分工： （10）研究的经费预算及其他所需条件：
中国教育在线考研频道提供考研全方面信息指导及咨询服务，为您成功考研提供一切帮助。 哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence
毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业：工程管理 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14
科技文献翻译 题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 研究建设项目的工程造价 摘要 在工程建设中，中国是拥有世界最大投资金额和具有最多建设项目的国家。它是一 项在建设项目管理上可以为广泛的工程管理人员进行有效的工程造价管理，并合理 确定和保证施工质量和工期的条件控制施工成本的重要课题。 在失去了中国建筑的投资和技术经济工程，分离的控制现状的基础上，通过建设成 本控制的基本理论为指导，探讨控制方法和施工成本的应用，阐述了存在的问题在 施工成本控制和对决心和施工成本的控制这些问题的影响，提出了建设成本控制应 体现在施工前期，整个施工过程中的成本控制，然后介绍了一些程序和应用价值工 程造价的方法在控制建设项目的所有阶段。 关键词：建设成本，成本控制，项目 1.研究的意义 在中国，现有的工程造价管理体系是20世纪50年代制定的，并在1980s.Traditional 施工成本管理方法改进是根据国家统一的配额，从原苏联引进的一种方法。它的特 点是建设成本的计划经济的管理方法，这决定了它无法适应当前市场经济的要求。 在中国传统建筑成本管理方法主要包括两个方面，即建设成本和施工成本控制方法 的测定方法。工程造价的确定传统的主要做法生搬硬套国家或地方统一的配额数量 来确定一个建设项目的成本。虽然这种方法已经历了20多年的改革，到现在为止，计划经济管理模式的影响仍然有已经存在在许多地区。我们传统的工程造价控制的
开题报告目的和写法 一、研究生毕业论文开题报告 1．开题报告的目的 开题报告是研究生毕业论文工作的重要环节，是为阐述、审核、确定研究生毕业论文选题及内容而举行的报告会，旨在监督和保证研究生毕业论文的质量。 2．开题报告的内容 研究生毕业论文开题报告的内容包括审核和确定论文选题依据和研究方案。选题依据包括：选题的学科性质、理论意义及实践意义；国内研究现状的分析。研究方案包括：研究内容、研究中所要突破的难题、拟采取的研究方法，有何特色与创新之处以及与选题有关的参考文献等内容。 3．开题报告的时间和步骤 脱产研究生在第2学期末，在职研究生在第3学期末进入毕业论文开题报告阶段。可先由教研部提供选题指南，在研究生提交选题意向后，由教研部批准。为确保研究生毕业论文的写作时间，开题报告会应在脱产研究生的第2学期结束前、在职研究生的第3学期结束前举行。 4．评审小组的组成 研究生毕业论文开题报告评审小组由本学科研究生导师和秘书组成。评审小组的组长由教授或副教授担任。 5．开题报告的方式和成绩评定 开题报告评审小组的成员在听取研究生的毕业论文开题报告后，对选题依据和研究方案进行审查，提出修改或补充意见。研究生根据评审小组的意见，在对研究方案进行修正、补充和改进后，按规定程序审批备案和存档，并正式进入论文写作阶段。论文开题报告成绩按合格、不合格两级评定。不合格者不得进入毕业论文写作阶段。研究生毕业论文开题报告后，需变动论文题目和基本内容时，需本人申请，导师批准并重新填写《研究生毕业论文开题报告》表。 6．开题报告材料的备案和管理 研究生毕业论文开题报告进行后，评审小组秘书填写《研究生毕业论文开题报告》表，经评审小组组长签字后交研究生部备案。《研究生毕业论文开题报告》
外文翻译 英文原文 Belt Conveying Systems Development of driving system Among the methods of material conveying employed，belt conveyors play a very important part in the reliable carrying of material over long distances at competitive cost．Conveyor systems have become larger and more complex and drive systems have also been going through a process of evolution and will continue to do so．Nowadays，bigger belts require more power and have brought the need for larger individual drives as well as multiple drives such as 3 drives of 750 kW for one belt(this is the case for the conveyor drives in Chengzhuang Mine)．The ability to control drive acceleration torque is critical to belt conveyors’performance．An efficient drive system should be able to provide smooth，soft starts while maintaining belt tensions within the specified safe limits．For load sharing on multiple drives．torque and speed control are also important considerations in the drive system’s design. Due to the advances in conveyor drive control technology，at present many more reliable．Cost-effective and performance-driven conveyor drive systems covering a wide range of power are available for customers’ choices[1]. 1 Analysis on conveyor drive technologies 1．1 Direct drives Full-voltage starters．With a full-voltage starter design，the conveyor head shaft is direct-coupled to the motor through the gear drive．Direct full-voltage starters are adequate for relatively low-power, simple-profile conveyors．With direct fu11-voltage starters．no control is provided for various conveyor loads and．depending on the ratio between fu11-and no-1oad power requirements，empty starting times can be three or four times faster than full load．The maintenance-free starting system is simple，low-cost and very reliable．However, they cannot control starting torque and maximum stall torque；therefore．they are
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：建筑项目招投标 文献、资料英文题目：Building engineering bidding 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业：工程管理 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14
本科毕业设计外文翻译 Building engineering bidding Yang Cao a,*, Shuhua Wang b, Heng Li a aDepartment of Building and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China bState Key Laboratory of Novel Software Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China Abstract Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed. The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market. This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively. bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is the improtment to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the bidding work.Becasue the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic. [key] : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasures Bidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism. Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender. Tender