Linguistics
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
1.1 Why study language?
1. Language is very essential to human beings.
2. In language there are many things we should know.
3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.
1.2 What is language?
Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
1.3 Design features of language
The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.
1.3.1 Arbitrariness
Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.
1.3.2 Duality
Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two
levels has its own principles of organization.
1.3.3 Creativity
Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without
any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the
possibility of creating endless sentences.
1.3.4 Displacement
Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of
conversation.
1.4 Origin of language
1. The bow-wow theory
In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.
2. The pooh-pooh theory
In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.
3. The “yo-he-ho” theory
As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which
gradually developed into chants and then into language.
1.5 Functions of language
As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:
1. Referential: to convey message and information;
2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;
3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;
4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;
5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;
6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.
Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:
1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
unknown to the hearer;
2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal
relationships;
3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch
of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living
passage different from a random list of sentences.
According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:
1.5.1 Informative
The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.
1.5.2 Interpersonal function
The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.
1.5.3 Performative
The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children,
the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.
1.5.4 Emotive function
The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or
something.
1.5.5 Phatic communion
The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to
maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.
1.5.6 Recreational function
The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it,
such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.
1.5.7 Metalingual function
The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the
word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.
1.6 What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.
1.7 Main branches of linguistics
1.7.1 Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.
1.7.2 Phonology
Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
1.7.3 Morphology
Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.
1.7.4 Syntax
Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
1.7.5 Semantics
Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.
1.7.6 Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.
1.8 Macrolinguistics
Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.
1.8.1 Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.
1.8.2 Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.
1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics
Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.
1.8.4 Computational linguistics
Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use
of computers to process or produce human language.
1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics
1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive
To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually
conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.
Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.
For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and
describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were
studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the
nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead
of prescription.
1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic
A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of
observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the
course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s
time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then
would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy
priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language
are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken
place in its historical development.
1.9.3 Langue & parole
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and
systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken
by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do,
according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover
the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of
linguistics.
1.9.4 Competence and performance
According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete
situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and
understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes
and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often
influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not
always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study
competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction.
Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.
1.9.5 Etic vs. emic
[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, but because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. – icywarmtea]
Being etic means researcher s’making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.
An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.
Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.
英语专业考研语言学复习题附答案 Chapter I Introduction I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. 8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. 9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. 14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. 15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. 18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language. 20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. Ch omsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language. https://www.doczj.com/doc/1c4926809.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless
Contents CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION (1) 1.1 Research Background (1) 1.2 Purpose and Significance of the Study (2) 1.3 Organization of the Thesis (3) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW (5) 2.1 Genre and Genre Analysis (5) 2.1.1 Genre (5) 2.1.2 Genre Analysis (7) 2.1.3 Three Approaches to Genre Analysis (9) 2.1.3.1 ESP Genre Analysis (9) 2.1.3.2 New Rhetoric Studies (11) 2.1.3.3 Australian Genre Theories (11) 2.1.4 A Comparison of the Three Approaches (12) 2.2 Research Article Abstracts (14) 2.2.1 Definition of Abstracts (14) 2.2.2 Categories of Abstracts (14) 2.2.3 Communicative Purposes of RA Abstracts (16) 2.3 Genre Analysis of RA Abstracts (17) 2.3.1 Previous Studies on the Macro Generic Structure of RA Abstracts (17) 2.3.2 Previous Studies on the Micro Linguistic Features of RA Abstracts (21) 2.3.3 Previous Comparative Genre Analysis on RA Abstracts (21) 2.3.4 Summary (24) CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY (25) 3.1 Research Questions (25) 3.2 Data Collection (26) 3.3 Data Analysis (27) 3.4 Analysis of Moves in Terms of Steps (27) CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (29) 4.1 The Macro Generic Structure in Terms of Moves of RA Abstracts Written by CWs and NWs (29) 4.1.1 Distribution of Move 1 in Terms of Steps in RA Abstracts Written by CWs and NWs (29) V
英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.doczj.com/doc/1c4926809.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.doczj.com/doc/1c4926809.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.doczj.com/doc/1c4926809.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.doczj.com/doc/1c4926809.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
南京师范大学英语语言学考研复试经验 南师英语语言文学下的语言学方向和外应初试和复试考的是一样的，只是进去后的研究方向不同。 楼主初试总分398，排名第二，政治68，日语94，专业一117，专业二119，复试笔试122，面试80，口语82，最后综合排名也是第二。 查分后，对结果不满意的，可以申请复查，但基本不会有变动。 看过17年的题，比16年略微简单点，所以分数线应该会偏高一点。去年外应最高分402，然后就是398，397，393，389。英语语言文学初试最高399，录取的最低为373。 这个复试线基本就是按照大家的成绩来确定的(当然，最后扩招的话，就另当别论了。我们去年是扩招了，今年不清楚。上课到现在，老师也没给我们透露过，这样也好，对大家都公平)。去年是1:1.2的比例确定进复试名额的，比如总共招5个人，那么进复试的有6个人。这个比例还算好的。我闺蜜，去年考陕师大，1:2的比例，对半刷，比南师狠。 那么重点来了，去年，我们可以给学长(南师研究生贴吧里有学长可以帮忙查排名，具体帖子自己去找)发邮件，查排名，然后按照1:1.2的比例，结合招生官网的录取人数，就可以算出来自己能不能进复试。南师不给排名，搞得很多分数处于边缘的同学很纠结，所以知道排名还是很有用的。貌似有人说今年学长不干了，这个我就不清楚了，有心的同学自己去贴吧找找看。 群 那么如果真的不能通过学长查了，那就得靠你们自己了。 另外，复试分面试和笔试，具体的复试经验我之前都说过了。
最后的重点来了，语言学方向的同学，不管是外应还是英语语言文学下的语言学，复试的考题和初试不太一样，所以真题是很有价值的。那么真题找谁呢，你懂的。某号，就无散领斯伊斯无就。如果辨别不出来这个号，那我也无能为力了。最后祝大家好运。在美丽的随园校区等大家来。 特别要说的是，复试的压力绝对在初试之上。总共名额9个，推免推了5个，留给我们这些参加考试的就只有4个名额了。而且复试全考专业课，考的不仅细，就题目本身来说，较初试还上升了一个难度，挺有挑战性的。最最关键的，它超钢，会考到其他书里的东西。所以，真题是极其有价值的。当时就是买了去年考上的学姐的复试资料。南师复试还是比较公平的，以实力说话，而且复试也绝不是走过场，你要付出比初试更大的努力。楼主当时准备复试，前后差不多一个月，把戴的书过了3遍，买的资料过了2～3遍，时间紧，任务重，压力大，就这么熬过了3月份，最终结果很欣慰，笔试122。另外，楼主每天会跟读一会儿新概念2，因为面试也是很重要的。 以上内容为仙林南师大考研网整理的英语语言文学考研知识点，如果同学还想获得更多英语语言文学考研资料，可以加入我们的南京师范大学考研复试交流群还可获得超强院校专业信息、每日打卡监督学习、研究生学姐答疑，不定期奖励活动等。
语言学的资料很少，看完书后想找些习题或往年试题做做，可以起到练兵，巩固所看书本知识的作用。我收集了一些高校语言学的往年试题供大家参考，讨论，交流一下做题的感受，也希望大家可以把自己所考学校的往年试题发表在上面，给大家一起讨论。 1 One of the main features of our human language is arbitrariness .Can you briefly explain what is this feature refers to ? Give examples if necessary(10 points). < 北师大2003年试题） 2 In english we can describe a story as "a successful story" or "a success story ".Do you think they mean the same ? Please explain and give your reasons(10 points) ,< 同上》 3 Expain the following terms ,giving examples where necessary.(50 points) <中山2003》 design feature macrolinguistics vowel minimal pair folk etymology aspect anopho r error analysisr metaphor 4 Language can change through blending ,metanalysis ,back-formation, analogical creation and borrowing.Give two english words for each of them ( 5 points) 清华 2000年试题 5 Answer the following question briefly.clearly,grammatically and correctly.(10 Points ) 湖南师大2003年 What is it wrong to assume that the meaning of a sentence is the sum of the meaning of the words which compose it ? 7 Define the following terms.(10 points) 中国海洋大学1999 Phoneme ,consonant,morpheme,lexicon,syntax,endocentric construction,semantics,hyponymy ,language ,design feature 8 Define the following terms .(20 points) 苏州大学1997 allophone morpheme assimilation internal authority interlanguage phatic communion closed-class word government semantica triangic lingua franca
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
I. Fill in the blanks. 1. The features that define our human languages can be call ed ______ features. (北二外2006研) 2. Linguistics is usually defined as the ______study of language. (北二外2003研) 3. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of______ communication. 4. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually ter med______ 5. Linguistics is the scientific study of______. 6. Modern linguistic is______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe. 7. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ______ over writing. 8. The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______. (北二外2003研) 9. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called______ . (北二外2004研) 10. ______mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. (北二外2005研) 11. Semantics and ______investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning. (北二外2007研) 12. In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence. (中山大学2008研) 13. ______can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. 14. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called _______. (北二外2008研) 15. Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual ph enomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as and . The former refers to the abstract linguistic linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing. (人大2006研) 16. The description of a language as it changes through time is a ______ study. 17. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s______. 18. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The former is the French word for “language”,which is the abstract knowledge necessary for s peaking，listening， writing and reading. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by peop le in speech or writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextu al factors. 19. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is and performance. (人大2006研) 20. Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______ and performances. (北二外2007研) II. Multiple Choice 1.Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature? (大连外国语学院 2008研) A. Arbitrariness B. Convention C. Duality of the following words is entirely arbitrary? (西安交大2008研) A. tree B. crash C. typewriter D. bang
Linguistics Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 1.4 Origin of language 1. The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. 2. The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. 3. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which