张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析
第一部分Chapter Ⅰ
英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary)
Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。随着词汇学的发展跟完善。人们给词下了较为完整的定义。“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社）
一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。
英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。
第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ
英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )
(一)词素（Morphemes）
单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。词素跟音素（phoneme）不同，词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面，而音素只需要发出声音即可。如k 和u 只是音素，因为它们没有什么具体含义。而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素，但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。词素并不等同于音节（syllable ），因为音节并没有什么具体含义。如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素（dis + agree + able ）。词素有不同的形式，同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。
词素可以分为自由词素（free morphemes）和黏着词素（bound morphemes）。自由词素可以单独成为单词，而黏着词素则必须要依附于其他的词素，如-ly , -ness。
词素又可以分为词根和词缀。词根是单词中表示含义的成分，可以是自由或者黏着词素。词缀只能是黏着词素，它又可以分为屈折词缀（inflectional affixes）和派生词缀（derivational affixes ）。屈折词缀跟语法有关，派生词缀又可以分为前缀跟后缀，这都是构成新单词的重要元素。从词素的层面来说，词可以分类为简单词，复杂词以及合成词。词素在词的构成中取到非常重要的作用，因为构词的二大过程----合成和附加都涉及到了词素，前者是词素的联合，后者是黏着词素附加到自由词素上。
(二)词的构成（word-formation）
有很多种途径可以构成词汇，大的方面主要有合成法（compounding），派生法(derivation)和转换法(conversion)三种，小的方面主要有八个过程，分别是首字母法(acronym)，混合法(blending)，截短法(clipping)，专有名词(word from proper names)，逆构法(back-formation)，复制法(reduplication)，新古典法(neo-classical famation)以及混杂法(miscellaneous)。
词根、词干和词基是语言学上一个词删去所有的词缀后剩下的那部分。词根是一个词主要意义的承载部分，是不可以再分的；词干是能添加屈折词汇的词素，即一个词被除去屈折词缀所剩下的部分；词基是所有能添加屈折词缀的词素。例如：
Nationalities
词根nation
词基：nation 是national的词基national 是nationlity的词基
词干：nationality
由二个或者二个以上的词基组成的词叫做合成词。在现代的英语词汇中，许多词都是合成词。在英语中没有一个正式的标准可以用来给合成词下个通用定义。一般来说，语言学家用三个标准去规范合成法。一是正字标准法（orthographic criterion ）可以是词与词之间不留空，这种较为常用，如airtight 和airmail ，也可以是用连字符连接起来，如air-conditioning ，也可以中间留空，如air force。然而有些时候是很难用标准去判断用什么形式，因为有些相同组合的单词是可以用以上三种不同的形式存在，如airline ，air-line 和air line 都是表示航线的意思。第二是音学标准（phonological criterion），根据重音的位置从短语中识别合成词。第三是语义标准。纵观许多合成词，我们可以发现很多词的意思跟构成该词的词基有关。如workday就是a day for work 。但是，并不是所有的合成词总是该词每部分词基意义的总和。例如，dog days 是指每一年最热的日子，而不是指“狗日子”。合成词又可以分为名词合成词，形容词合成词和动词合成词。由于合成词具有简短却能很生动的说明问题，故合成词汇广泛的在生活中出现被使用。
派生法也是英语的主要构成法。它通过在词基上增加前缀或者后缀从而构建新词。前缀以否定前缀（negative prefixes）un-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, non-, dis-, mis-, mal-等为主，使延伸出来的派生词变成反义词。可以分为名词派生词Balance→imbalance；形容词派生词Accurate→inaccurate；动词派生词Agree→disagree；除了否定前缀之外，其他常用的前缀还有anti-, auto-, bi-, co-, counter-, de-, ex-, inter-, mono-, post, pre-, pro-, re-, sub-, super-, trans-, tri-, ultra-等。加上前缀后的词，虽然意思改变，但词性保持不变。（en-除外，象able 形容词，enable动词；courage 名词，encourage动词）相反的，加上后缀的词，不但词义有些改变，词性也完全不同。这样一来，动词或形容词加上适当的后缀之后，可以得到名词派生词，如：amaze→amazement；kind→kindness.同样的，名词或动词加上适当的后缀，便可以得到形容词派生词，如：commerce→commercial；depend→dependent. 最后，名词或形容词加上动词性的后缀，可以得到动词派生词，加上副词性后缀（仅限-ly），则得到副词派生词，如：fright（名词）→frighten（动词）；modern（形容词）→ modernize（动词）；beauty（名词）→beautify（动词）；year（名词）→yearly（副词）；quick （形容词）→quickly（副词）。
转化法是由一个词类转化为另一词类，例如water（名）水-- water（动）浇水。有大量动词可以转化为名词，有时意思没有太大变化，这类名词常可和一动词构成短语，表示一个动作，如：have a look ，make a study 等等。有时意思也有一定的变化，如：He was about the same build as his brother. 他的体形和他哥哥差不多。其中build本是动词“建筑”，在这里是作为名词“体形”的意思。也有相当多名词可以用作动词，许多表示物件的名词可以用作动词来表示动作：
Have you booked your ticket? 你的票订好了吗？
Who chaired the meeting? 谁主持会议？
形容词可以转化为及物动词和不及物动词。形容词转化为名词，分为部分转化和完全转化。
第三部分ChapterⅤ到ChapterⅨ
词义及其语义关系(W ord meaning and sense relations)
（一）词义和语义特征
无论是在语音上还是拼写上，一个单词的象征跟它的意思的关系在任何的语言中几乎都是任意的常规的。只有少数的单词的象征跟其含义有直接的联系，这样的词是有理据。从理据的观点来看，大多数的英语单词都是不理据。理据主要分为三方面，语音理据(phonetic motivation)、词法理据(morphological motivation)和语义理据(semantic motivation)。语音理据的单词也叫做拟声词（echoic words or onomatopoeic words）。很多的合成词的含义是根据语义的，但并不是所有的合成词都是如此。例如单词Indian summer的意思就不是它表面的含义，而是“小阳春”的意思。
单词的含义是由各种内在联系和互相依存的部分组成，其中最主要的两种词义类型分别是语法意义（grammatical meaning）和词汇意义（lexical meaning）。其中语法意义由词类（word-class）和屈折范例（inflectional paradigm）组成，决定着一个单词在句子中所处的位置；词汇意义又分为外延意义（denotative meaning or conceptual meaning）、内涵意义（connotation meaning）和社会或文体意义（social or stylistic meaning）以及情感意义（affective meaning）。
单词含义的分析通常被视为是一个把单词的含义分解为它的最小的成分，也就是单词的语义特征或者是含义成分。如：man：﹝+human+adult+male﹞。语义成分分析有利也有弊。主要的优点是使人对单词的含义产生确切的认识，缺点是人们不可能列举出无限多的语义特征。
（二）一词多义和同音异义（polysemy and homonymy）
一词多义是指一个单词具有多种含义，辐射式和串联式这两种重要的单词发展过程导致了一词多义现象的出现。产生一词多义的两种途径有历时（diachronic）和共时（synchronic），某些词的原始含义跟中心含义是同时发生的，如hand。
在英语中，有许多单词具有不同的意思，但是在读音或者拼写上是相同的，甚至有些是读音跟拼写都是一样的。同音异义词可以分为三种，完全同音同形词（perfect homonyms）、同音异义词（homophones）和同形异义词（homographs）。音变的汇合（phonetic convergence）、词义分化（semantic divergence）、外来的影响（foreign influence）以及词的截短（shortening）都是同音异义词的三种主要来源。
一词多义跟同音异义词都具有使文章更具幽默讽刺和戏剧性的文体价值。
（三）同义词、反义词，上下义词和语义场
（synonymy、antonymy、hyponymy and semantic field）
单词之间含义上的联系主要有两种方式，一是同义词，一是反义词。
具有几乎是相同的外延意义的单词是同义词。在意义上完全相同并且可以互换的两个单词叫完全同义词（complete synonymy ），完全同义词是非常少的。相对同义词是在意义范围，感情色彩和正式程度以及搭配上存在差异的同义词。同义词的使用可以避免重复，并且使文章更多样化，意义更精确。
根据语义对比，反义词可分为有等级的对立反义词（contraries）、无等级的互补反义词（complementaries）和对立反义词（conversives）。根据形态结构，反义词分为词根反义词和派生反义词。有些反义词具有标志作用，有些没有，具有标志作用的反义词很少使用。不是所有的词都有反义词，像house，window，book 等等都没有反义词。在不同的情境下，同一个词具有不同的反义词。词汇反义词（lexical antonymy）一般比合成反义词（syntactic negation）更具有强烈的表达效果。另外，一些反义词构成短语的词序是固定的，约定成俗的，如，cause and effect （因果），fire and water （水火）。反义词在文体中的应用一般是排比。
另一种单词间的关系是上下义词(hyponymy)，上下义词又分为上义词（superordinate term）和下义词（upper term）。一般而言，普通词汇表达比较含糊和平凡，而使用上下义词可以使表达更加生动和精确。
一个语义场中的单词不是指同义词，而是因具有共同的语义特征而联系在一起的单词。
（四）意义和语境（meaning and context）
语境对于单词的理解，特别是对一词多义单词的理解有着重要的作用。语境可分为语言类语境（linguistic context）和语言外语境或者情景语境（extra-linguistic context /context of situation）两种。语言类语境又包括词汇语境（lexical context）、语法语境（grammatical context）和共文现象（verbal context）。语言外语境有情景语境和文化语境两种。
决定一个单词的意思，语境起着重要的作用。一语境可以消除词汇歧义和结构歧义，二语境可以传达感情色彩，三语境可以明确词义的指代跟广度。
通过对前面词义、词义的联系、词义跟语境等内容的大概学习，我们总结出了三种建议性的方法以便更好的正确理解词义。一是使用一本最新的内容足够丰富的单一语种的辞典，二是对英语国家人民的文化有很好的理解，三是培养自己通过语境去理解词义的能力。
（五）词义的变化
词义改变的原因主要有历史原因、社会原因、外来文化影响、语言上的原因以及心理学上的原因。其中，词义的变化通常带来语言系统的两种变化趋势—省略（ellipsis）和类推（analogy）。心理学上的变化原因有三种表现形式：委婉（euphemism）、夸张（grandiloquent）和嘲讽（cynicism）。语义有四种变化趋势：具体化（specialization），普遍化（generalization），语义转贬（pejoration）和语义改良（amelioration）。由于语言比喻的用途的使用导致了语义在隐喻和借喻上的发展和变化。
第四部分Chapter Ⅹ到Chapter ⅩⅡ
英语习语，美国英语，英语词典的使用和选择
（English idioms,American English , choice and use of English dictionaries ）(一)英语成语(idioms)
在英语语言中有许多的成语。这些英语成语的重要的特征是他们具有长期的实用性，结构的固定性和语义的整体性。在文体上，英语成语是强制性的，精练的和生动的。大多数的成语用于口头表达。英语成语来源于很多方面，大都源于各行各业的人们的习惯表达和一些伟大的文学作品。由于语言结构上的多样性，成语也有着最大的多样性，因此也很难去分类。按照结构标准去分类，
主要分为三类，短语成语，无主语从句成语和句子成语。其中动词短语是最重要的成语类型。大多数的成语是由一音节单词组成。英语本族语的人使用成语比较自然，非本族语的学生必须通过对成语有一定的学习才能够使用。学习成语的句法功能，转化和搭配限制以及成语的变体和文体特征有助于非本族语的学生更好的使用成语。
（二）美国英语
美国英语源于伊莉莎白时期的英语,其历史和美国的移民史有着非常密切的联系。早在英国殖民时期,美国的英国移民起初还和故乡保持着紧密联系,他们的语言尚随其英国本土语的变化而变化?但随着时间的推移,美洲的英国殖民地也产生了一种不同于英国本土语的英语?美国英语主要有两大特点，一是对古英语特征的保留，一是美国英语具有丰富的创造性。虽然英语和美语两种语言的主体部分（语法、词汇、读音、拼写等）是相同的，美语在其发展过程中受其独特的历史、文化、民族、地域等各种因素的影响，形成了自己的特点，与英语有显著不同。对于英语学习者来说，善于接纳美语和英语的多样性，了解两者的差异，有助于更好的与美国人和英国人沟通交流。
（三）英语辞典及其用法
辞典作为一种学习和使用语言的必不可少的工具，和辞典学有着紧密的联系。随着辞典编纂工作取得巨大的成就，出现了许多不同种类的辞典。因此，对于辞典的使用者，我们应该理智慎重的选择一本实用性强适合自己的字典。
哈尔滨商业大学2009-2010学年第二学期《词汇学》期末考试试卷 装 题 订 线 内 不 答 要 一、单项选择题（本大题共40小题，每小题1分，共40 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement. 1. Argot generally refers to the jargon of _______. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it. A. workers B. criminals C. any person D. policeman 2.________ are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. A. Argot B. Slang C. Jargon D. Dialectal words 3. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in _________use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. A. common B. little C. slight D. great 4. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on ______meanings. A. new B. old C. bad D. good 5. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. A. functional B. notional C. empty D. formal 6. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian , Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language,_______. A. Sanskrit B. Latin C. Roman D. Greek 7. Greek is the modern language derived from _______. A. Latin B. Hellenic C. Indian D . Germanic 8. The five Romance languages , namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called _______. A. Sanskrit B. Latin C. Celtic D. Anglo-Saxon 9. The ________family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. A. Germanic B. Indo-European C. Albanian D. Hellenic 10. By the end of the _______century , virtually all of the people who held political or social power and many of those in powerful Church positions were of Norman French origin. A. 10th B.11th C.12th D. 13th 11. The prefixes in the words of ir resistible, non classical and a political are called _______. A. reversative prefixes B. negative prefixes C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes 12. The prefixes contained in the following words are called ______: pseudo-friend, mal practice, mis trust. A. reversative prefixed B. negative prefixes C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes 13. The prefixed contained in un wrap, de-compose and dis allow are _________. A. reversative prefixed B. negative prefixes C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes 14. The prefixes in words extra-strong, overweight and arch bishop are _____ . A . negative prefixes B. prefixes of degree or size C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes
第三单元知识要点及易错题 1.掌握词汇：pen. Pencil. book .eraser. pencil box .schoolbag . ruler . dictionary. 2.An eraser dictionary---dictionaries family---families 3.对物品所属进行提问回答 ①Is this/that your key ? Yes, it is. ②Are these/those your keys ? Yes , they are. No, they aren’t ③What’s this in English ? It’s a/an ….. ④How do you spell your name ? How does Mary spell her name ? ⑤How do you spell “book B—O—O--K”注意此处各个字母都要大写。 4.词组 ①一套 a set of a set of keys一串钥匙 a set of books 一套书 A set of +物品的复数 ②打扰一下Excuse me ③帮助某人学习某物help sb with sth 帮助我学习英语help me with my English ④教某人学某物teach sb sth teach us English 教我们学英 语 ⑤失物招领Lost and Found 在失物招领盒子里In the Lost and Found case ⑥Call sb at +号码sb要用宾格
⑦e-mail sb at +网址给某人发邮件 ⑧what about= How about What about you ？你呢？What about saying it in English ?用英语说它怎么样? About+动词的ing形式 ⑨向某人要某物ask sb for sth 要求某人做某事ask sb to do sth 要求某人不要做某事ask sb not to do sth My mom asks me to clean my bedroom. 我妈妈让我打扫房间 My teacher asks us not to play with fire. 我的老师让我们不要玩火。 ⑩thank you for your help = thanks for your help 谢谢你的帮助 Thanks/Thank you for your dictionary 谢谢你的字典 Thank you 的答语：you’re welcome. That’s my pleasure. Not at all（不用谢）. That’s OK That’s all right Sorry的答语：Not at all（没关系）Never mind It doesn’t matter Don't mention it. 不要客气。It's nothing. 没什么。/没关系Not at all. 不用谢。/没关系。 That's all right. 不用谢。/没关系。 That's OK. 不用谢。/没关系。 5 . 定冠词the 不定冠词 a a n The :①用在特定的人或事物的名词前 Beijing is the capital of China. 北京是中国的首都 ②指双方都知道的人或事物 Open the window please. 请把窗户打开。(双方都知道指的是哪一扇窗户)
（满分120分，考试时间120分钟） 姓名：成绩： 一、单项选择：（共20小题，计20分） 1. Don't eat ____food in the evening. It's bad ____ you. A. too much; with B. much too; for C. too much; for D. much; with more exercise you take, ____you will be. A. healthier B. happier C. the healthier D. the weaker 3.—Are you going to Tibet for vacation —Yes, I want you to ____me with some information about it. A. drop B. show C. give D. provide 4.—What a heavy rain! Will it last long —_______We're getting into the rainy season now. A．Of course not B．I’m afraid so C．That's impossible D．I'm afraid not 5. You can ____a conversation with you partner to practice English. A．pick up B．make up C．look up D．catch up 6. It's too hot. I can't wait ____in the lake. A．to swim B．swim C．swims D．swimming 7. David found a little girl______on his way to school, and he called police for help. A. cry B. cried C. crying D. cries 8. We have activities these days. Everyone in our class is as________as a bee. A. busy B. busier C. busiest D. the busiest 9. He knocked on the door but______answered. A. somebody B. anybody C. nobody D. everybody 10. Before she went abroad, she spent plenty of time ____ English. A. to practice to speak B. practicing speaking C. to practice speaking D. practicing to speak 11. I will send you an email when I___________ in Canada. A. arrive B. arrived C. am arriving D. will arrive 12. My brother is _____a hardworking student that he always gets high marks. A. so B. very C. such D. too 13. Many students have interests. Some interests are relaxing and________ are creative. others B. others C. another D. the other 14. Please _____ the book back tomorrow when you come. A. take B. carry C. return D. bring 15. Don’t worry. We have ________ time to leave. A. little B. a little C. few D. a few 16. It’s time for class now, please stop __________. A. talking B. to talk C. to speak D. spoke 17. ---Hi, Jack! Why do you look so sad ---Well, I don’t know how to speak English well, Can you give me ____. A. some advice B. an advice C. some advices D. some suggestion
2012词汇学复习资料 The development of the English Vocabulary 1.Indo-European Language Family The Indo-European Language Family is considered as one of the most important language families. It includes most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. Those languages, which are believed to have originated from this language family and developed alone different lines, show various degrees of similarity to one another. They fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern Set东部诸语族: Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语, Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语族, Armenian 亚美尼亚语族and Albanian阿尔巴尼亚语族; a Western Set: 西部诸语族Celtic凯尔特语族, Italic 意大利语族, Hellenic希腊语族, Germanic日尔曼语族. All the languages in both sets shed some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has lent words into the English vocabulary. Prussian普鲁士语 Lithuanian立陶宛语 Polish波兰语 Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语Czech捷克斯洛伐克语 Bulgarian保加利亚语 Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语 Russian Albanian阿尔巴尼亚 Persian波斯语 Hindi北印度语 Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语系Bengali孟加拉语 Romany，吉卜赛语 Armenian亚美尼亚语 Portuguese Spanish Italic意大利语族Italian Roumanian罗马尼亚语 French Indo-European Language Family Irish Celtic凯尔特语Breton Scottish Norwegian挪威语 Icelandic，冰岛语 Danish丹麦语 Germanic Swedish瑞典语 日尔曼语言English Dutch Flemish German Hellenic，古希腊语- Greek
七年级英语易错知识点总结 本文从网络收集而来，上传到平台为了帮到更多的人，如果您需要使用本文档，请点击下载按钮下载本文档（有偿下载），另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意！ 刚步入中学阶段的学生在英语学习上很容易犯错，如果不能及时更正，会给以后的学习带来很坏的影响。卓越教育总结初一英语易错点，提醒初一学生们在英语学习时要注意易错点，打好英语基础。 [第一类] 名词类 1. 这些女老师们在干什么 [误] what are the woman teachers doing [正] what are the women teachers doing [析] 在英语中，当一名词作定语修饰另一名词(单或复数形式)时，作定语的名词一般要用其单数形式;但当man，woman作定语修饰可数名词复数形式时，要用其复数形式men，women. 2. 房间里有多少人 [误] how many peoples are there in the room [正] how many people are there in the room [析] people作“人、人们”解时，是个集合名词，其单复数同形。 3. 我想为我儿子买两瓶牛奶。
[误] i want to buy two bottle of milk for my son. [正] i want to buy two bottles of milk for my son. [析] 表示不可数名词的数量时，常用“a / an或数词+表量的可数名词+ of + 不可数名词”这一结构，其中当数词大于1时，表量的可数名词要用其复数形式。 [第二类] 动词类 4. 你妹妹通常什么时候去上学 [误] what time does your sister usually goes to school [正] what time does your sister usually go to school [析] 借助助动词do(或does)构成疑问句或否定句时，句中的谓语动词用其原形。 5. 琳达晚上经常做作业，但今晚她在看电视。 [误] linda often do her homework in the evening，but this evening she watching tv. [正] linda often does her homework in the evening，but this evening she is watching tv. [析] 在初一英语学习阶段，我们接触到了两种主要时态：一般现在时和现在进行时。一般现在时表示经常的或习惯性的动作，常和often，usually，sometimes 等时间状语连用。在一般现在时的句子中，若主语是
武汉大学 2017年攻读博士学位研究生外语综合水平考试试题 （满分值100分） 科目名称：英语科目代码：1101 注意：所有的答题内容必须写在答案纸上，凡写在试题或草稿纸上的一律无效。 Part I Reading Comprehension (2’×20 = 40 points) Directions:In this part of the test, there will be 5 passages for you to read. Each passage is followed by 4 questions or unfinished statements, and each question or unfinished statement is followed by four choices marked A, B, C and D. You are to decide on the best choice by blackening the corresponding letter on the ANSWER SHEET. Passage One Mr Gordon is right that the second industrial revolution involved never-to-be-repeated changes. But that does not mean that driverless cars count for nothing. Messrs Erixon and Weigel are also right to worry about the West’s dismal recent record in producing new companies. But many old firms are not run by bureaucrats and have reinvented themselves many times over: General Electric must be on at least its ninth life. And the impact of giant new firms born in the past 20 years such as Uber, Google and Facebook should not be underestimated: they have all the Schumpeterian characteristics the authors admire. On the pessimists’ side the strongest argument relies not on closely watching corporate and investor behavior but rather on macro-level statistics on productivity. The figures from recent years are truly dismal. Karim Foda, of the Brookings Institution, calculates that labor productivity in the rich world is growing at its slowest rate since 1950. Total factor productivity (which tries to measure innovation) has grown at just 0.1% in advanced economies since 2004, well below its historical average. Optimists have two retorts. The first is that there must be something wrong with the figures. One possibility is that they fail to count the huge consumer surplus given away free of charge on the internet. But this is unconvincing. The official figures may well be understating the impact of the internet revolution, just as they downplayed the impact of electricity and cars in the past, but they are not understating it enough to explain the recent decline in productivity growth. Another, second line of argument that the productivity revolution has only just begun is more persuasive. Over the past decade many IT companies may have focused on things that were more “fun than fundamental” in Paul Krugman’s phrase.But Silicon Valley’s best companies are certainly focusing on things that change the material world.
初二英语上册练习题 1. There is ________old watch in his hand. A. an B. a C. the D. / 2.That is my aunt._________ is my mother's sister. A. He B. Him C. Her D. She 3. Monday is the __________ of the week. A. first B. second C. third D. fourth 4. ---___________ does he exercise? ---Once a week. A. How long B. How often C. How far D. How old 5. Hawaii is in _____________. It's very beautiful. A. China B. the USA C. Canada D. Japan 6.They came back to school _____________Sunday morning. A. in B. on C. at D. for 7.---Can your brother go out tonight? ---________________. A. No, he can B. Yes, he can't C. Yes, he can D. No, she can't 8. Milk is_____________ our health. I like it very much. A. good at B. good for C. good in D. good to 9. I'm very thirsty. I want some_________. A. chicken B. duck C. water D mustard 10.---I have a headache. I can't sleep. ---____________________ A. You are bad. B. I'm sorry to hear that C. Why do you say that D. Thank you 11.When someone helps you, you should say_____________. A. Can I help you B. That's OK C. Thank you D. Of course 12.This time I am going to do______________. A. interesting something B. something interesting C. anything interesting D. interesting nothing 13.Mr White goes to work ___________ every day. A. on bus B. by a bus C. take the bus D. by bus 14.We don't have _____________ meat at home. A. some B. any C. no D. many 15.My friend is _______________ than me. A. very heavy B. heavyer C. heavier D. more heavy 16.Yesterday afternoon Jack and I ____________ the floor. A. don't sweep B. weren't sweep C. didn't swept D. didn't sweep 17.What's the ____________radio station? A. good B. best C. better D. well 18.I hate to do the dishes because it's very ____________. A. interesting B. boring C. fun D. exciting
《英语词汇学》期末考试试卷附答案 I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers．Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket．(45％) 1．There are two approaches to the study of polysemy．They are_____. A．primary and secondary B．Central and peripheral C．diachronic and synchronic D．Formal and functional 2．Which of the following is NOT a stylistic feature of idioms? A．Colloquial B．Slang C．Negative D．Literary 3．Synonyms can be classified into two major groups，that is：_____. A．absolute and relative B．Absolute and complete C．relative and near D．Complete and identical 4．In the early period of Middle English，English，____existed side by side， A．Celtic and Danish B．Danish and French C．Latin and Celtic D．French and Latin 5． A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single_______morpheme． A．formal B．Concrete C．free D．bound 6．Which of the following groups of words is NOT onomatopoeically motivated? A，croak，drum B．squeak，bleat C．buzz，neigh D．bang，trumpet 7．LDCE is distinctive for its____. A．Clear grammar codes B．usage notes C．language notes D．all of the above 8．From the historical point of view, English is more closely related to A．German B．French C．Scotttish D．Irish 9．Which of the following is NOT an acronym? A．TOEFL B．ODYSSEY C．BASIC D．CCTV 10. In the course book，the author lists____types of context clues for inferring word meaning． A．eight B．Six C．seven D．five 11．Sources of homonyms include____. A．changes in sound and spelling B．borrowing C．shortening D．all of the above
初一英语语法易错知识点归类例析 英语有很多很细小的知识点，而这些细小的知识点往往就是考点。同学们很容易由于注意不到而犯错误，下面就初一年级同学们比较容易犯错误的知识点做一个汇总。 [第一类] 名词类 1. 这些女老师们在干什么？ [误] What are the woman teachers doing？ [正] What are the women teachers doing？ [析] 在英语中，当一名词作定语修饰另一名词(单或复数形式)时，作定语的名词一般要用其单数形式；但当man, woman作定语修饰可数名词复数形式时，要用其复数形式men, women. 2. 房间里有多少人？ [误] How many peoples are there in the room？ [正] How many people are there in the room？ [析] people作“人、人们”解时，是个集合名词，其单复数同形。 3. 我想为我儿子买两瓶牛奶。 [误] I want to buy two bottle of milk for my son. [正] I want to buy two bottles of milk for my son. [析] 表示不可数名词的数量时，常用“a / an或数词+表量的可数名词+ of + 不可数名词”这一结构，其中当数词大于1时，表量的可数名词要用其复数形式。 [第二类] 动词类 4. 你妹妹通常什么时候去上学？ [误] What time does your sister usually goes to school？ [正] What time does your sister usually go to school？ [析] 借助助动词do(或does)构成疑问句或否定句时，句中的谓语动词用其原形。 5. 琳达晚上经常做作业，但今晚她在看电视。 [误] Linda often do her homework in the evening, but this evening she watching TV. [正] Linda often does her homework in the evening, but this evening she is watching TV. [析] 在初一英语学习阶段，我们接触到了两种主要时态：一般现在时和现在进行时。一般现在 时表示经常的或习惯性的动作，常和often, usually, sometimes 等时间状语连用。在一般现在时的句子中，若主语是第三人称单数，谓语动词要用其第三人称单数形式。现在进行时表示现阶段正在进行或发生的动作，现在进行时由be(am / is / are)+ving形式构成。 6. 这双鞋是红色的。
初二上学期英语期中考试 I. 单项选择（30分） ( ) 1. He _______ TV every day. A. watch B. watches C. watching D. watched ( ) 2. They are in _______ class. A. different B. same C. the same D. difference ( ) 3. --- Can you _____ us a story in English? ---- Sorry. I can’t ____ English. A. tell; speak B. speak; talk C. tell; say D. say; tell ( ) 4. Mary likes______ football match very much. A. to look at B. to see C. looking at D. watching ( ) 5. We have ______ homework to do today. A. many B. lot of C. much D. few ( ) 6. I’m not feeling ______ . I have a headache. A. good B. well C. best D. ill ( ) 7. What’s ____ matter with you ? A. a B./ C. the D. an ( ) 8. Everyone ____ a good time now. A. has B. have C. are having D. is having ( ) 9. ____ in bed is _____ for your eyes. A. Reading; good B. Reading; bad C. Reading; badly D. read; bad ( ) 10. Miss Yang usually______ on Sundays. A. goes shopping B. go to shopping C. go shopping D. to go shopping ( ) 11. Look! Kate with her brothers _____ in the park.. A. skateboarding B. is skateboarding C. are skateboarding D. skateboards ( ) 12. The students are cleaning their classroom. ____ are cleaning the windows, ____ are cleaning the desks and chairs. A. Some; others B. Some; another C. Others; some D. Others; others ( ) 13. --- Do you know the man ___ a big nose. --- Yes. He is my uncle. He ___ big eyes, too. A. has; with B. with; has C. have; with D. with ; have
名词解释（10选5，一个4分） 词=The minimal free form of a language, which has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. 词根=The basic unchangeable part of a word, and covers the main lexical meaning of the word. 词缀=Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 一词多义=Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. 同形异义=Homonyms are different words with the same form (spelling or pronunciation) 完全同形异义=Perfect homonyms are different words identical both in sound and spelling, though different in meaning. 同音异形异义=Homophones are different words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. 同形异音异义=Homographs are different words identical in spelling, but different in sound or meaning. 同义关系=Synonymy is a relationship of “sameness of meaning” that may hold between two words. 反义关系=Antonymy is a relationship of “meaning opposition” that may hold between two words.
初一英语易错知识点总结 刚步入中学阶段的学生在英语学习上很容易犯错， 如果不能及时更正，会给以后的学习带来很坏的影响。卓越教育总结初一英语易错点，提醒初一学生们在英语学习时要注意易错点，打好英语基础。 ［第一类］名词类 1. 这些女老师们在干什么？ ［误］What are the woman teachers doing? ［正］What are the women teachers doing? ［析］在英语中，当一名词作定语修饰另一名词 （单 或复数形式）时，作定语的名词一般要用其单数形式；但当man, woman作定语修饰可数名词复数形式时，要用其复数形式men, women. 2. 房间里有多少人？ ［误］How many peoples are there in the room? ［正］How many people are there in the room? ［析］people 作人、人们解时，是个集合名词，其单
复数同形。 3. 我想为我儿子买两瓶牛奶。 ［误］I want to buy two bottle of milk for my son. ［正］I want to buy two bottles of milk for my son. ［析］表示不可数名词的数量时，常用 a / an或数 词+表量的可数名词+ of + 不可数名词这一结构，其中当数词大于1时，表量的可数名词要用其复数形式。 ［第二类］动词类 4. 你妹妹通常什么时候去上学？ ［误］What time does your sister usually goes to school? ［正］What time does your sister usually go to school? ［析］借助助动词do（或does）构成疑问句或否定句时，句中的谓语动词用其原形。 5. 琳达晚上经常做作业，但今晚她在看电视。 ［误］Linda often do her homework in the evening ，but this evening she watching TV. ［正］Linda often does her homework in the evening ，but this evening she is watching TV. ［析］在初一英语学习阶段，我们接触到了两种主要时