Academic Writing
A Course for Postgraduates at
Chongqing Medical University (CQMU)
Dr. N.D. Melgiri, M.D.
Instructor
Foreign Affairs Office, CQMU
Introduction to medical writing
●Writing in biomedical academia
●Overview of biomedical academia
●Research journals in biomedical academia
●Basic written structure of a research journal
●Summary for next class
Introduction to Medical Writing
●1: Writing in biomedical academia
-Writing in basic research journals
-Writing in clinical research journals
●2: Writing in clinical practice
-Writing in patient charts/medical record
-Writing of operative reports
-Writing of diagnostic/lab reports
-Writing of patient case histories
Writing in Biomedical Academia
●Part One of this course will cover writing in biomedical academia
●Writing in biomedical academia is done through drafting and editing in research journals
●So, before we start, we must first understand biomedical academia and then research journals in
biomedical academia
●First, what is biomedical academia?
What is Biomedical Academia?
Biomedical academia is a system of 5 institutions that work together
Research Funding (Government)各种机构功能
University Research
Laboratories
●University research labs have scientists and students
●They conduct experiments in the lab that produce data
●Scientists use this data to:
–Raise more grants (money) from govt. for more research
–Write articles to submit to research journals for publication
Research Journals
●Scientists in research labs submit articles to research journals
●Research journals review the articles for scientific errors (peer review)
●After revisions, the article is edited then published in a journal
●The journal is then sold to:
–University research laboratories
–Drug companies
–The general public
Drug Companies
(“Big Pharma”)
●Drug companies have research labs and scientists just like universities
–Called Research & Development department or “R&D”
●The R&D scientists study the articles in the research journal
●Drug companies use knowledge from articles to create new drugs in the lab
●Drug companies then pay university teaching hospitals to test the new drugs
University Teaching
Hospitals
●Drug companies pay money to university teaching hospitals to test new drugs on hospital patients
–This is called “clinical research”
●This clinical research is also published in research journals
●If the new drugs meet govt. standards for safety and efficacy, the improved drugs can be sold at
higher prices
●Drug companies earn more profit
※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※我是分割线※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Research journals key to biomedical academia
As distributors and storehouses of new knowledge, research journals are important
Quick Review
●We now understand what biomedical academia is
– A system composed of 5 institutions that work together to advance biomedical knowledge and improve drug treatments
●We also see that research journals are important in biomedical academia
–Research journals distribute and store new knowledge produced by research
●Let us now look more closely into research journals in biomedical academia
Research Journals in Biomedical Academia
●We have seen that research journals distribute and store new knowledge produced by research
●There are 2 basic types of research in biomedical academia, so there are 2 basic types of research
journals:
–Basic research journals
–Clinical research or medical journals
Two Types of Research Journals
●Basic research journals publish articles on topics of basic biomedical science
–Research NOT directly involving human patients
–For example, research on viruses and bacteria
●Clinical research (or medical) journals publish articles on topics of clinical medicine
–Research directly involving human patients
–For example, research on a new blood pressure medication in hospital patients
Prestigious English Research Journals
●Basic research journals
–Nature
–Cell
–Science
Basic Written Structure of Research Journals
● A research journal is composed of the following 6 elements:
–News – announces important scientific news/events
–Editorials – opinions written by editorial staff
–Correspondence/views – opinions mailed in by readers
–Articles (& letters) – original research submitted by scientists/doctors, peer reviewed & edited for publication by the journal
–Insights/reviews – summarizes research on a topic; not original
–Job Postings & Advertisements –available jobs (professor positions) and ads for lab equipment, supplies, etc.
The Articles Section
●The Articles (& letters) section is the largest and most read section of a research journal
●This is because this section contains writing on the newest, original scientific research
–Journal readers (scientists) want to read these articles to help them advance their own work
–Also, most Chinese/English translation jobs in biomedical academia apply to these articles
●Therefore, for this course and next class, we will focus on writing articles
※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※还是分割线※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Structure of an Article
An Article usually consists of 9 sections:
●Title
Provides the topic and authors of the article
Usually provides the titles, departments and institutions of the authors
Sometimes provides correspondence address
●Abstract
Shortened version of the paper:
1.objectives of study (purpose)
2.how study was done (M&M)
3.what data (results) were obtained
4.the significance of results (discussion/conclusion)
●Introduction
Provides detailed background information on the topic
Allows reader to learn context behind the study
●Purpose
Describes the exact objective of the study
Should logically follow after Introduction
Often not a separate section –forms “tail” of Introduction
●Materials & Methods
Describes the technical equipment and procedures used in the study
Allows other scientists to repeat and test the study
Usually uses highly technical language; difficult to read
●Results
States the data that comes from the experiments
Data is put into organized forms for reader (tables, charts, graphs)
●Discussion
Describes new and original scientific insight
Combines data from the Results section and previous research from Introduction section
●Conclusion
Briefly summarizes background for the reader
Briefly restates the new and original scientific insight from the study
Often forms “tail” of Discussion
●References & End Notes
References: provides sources to other published works for reader's reference
End Notes: provides additional detailed notes on certain topics
Order of Writing the Sections of an Article
The order of writing:
●Title (written last)
●Abstract (written last)
●Introduction
●Purpose (written 1st)
●Materials & Methods (written 2nd)
●Results (written 3rd)
●Discussion
●Conclusion (written last)
●References & End Notes (written last)
Preparing the Results section
●Step 1: Look for basic patterns in the data.
●Step 2: Organize the raw data into neat charts and graphs that show the patterns clearly.
●Step 3: Label the axis correctly.
●Step 4: Title the charts and graphs; the title should describe the relationships being shown.
●Step 5: Write out text explaining the charts and graphs.
※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※又是分割线※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Nature Formatting Guidelines
M&M section
?M&M should be brief (<1000 words)
–Use references - “as previously described by Chien et al.”
–If >200 words, M&M should be moved to the end of article
?M&M divided into subsections with short bold headings
?Order M&M chronologically
?3rd person past tense passive voice
–“The sample was heated for 3 hours.”
–NOT “I heat the sample for 3 hours.”
?Materials available “off the shelf” should be described exactly
–“Licor underwater quantum sensor, Model LI 192SB”
?If not common, identify the source of materials
?Quantify measurements precisely by metric system and include errors
?Identify groups by description, not generic title
–“healthy control group” NOT “group A”
?If uncommon procedures or statistical methods are used, describe or reference
Results section
?Figures (graphs) in Results section should be small and simple
?Unnecessary figures should be avoided; some data can be described in the text
?Labeling of axes should be in lower-case type with the first letter capitalized and no period at end ?Units should have a single space between the number and the unit and follow SI nomenclature (metric system)
?Figures should be presented in portrait (not landscape) orientation
?Figure legends should begin with a brief title
?Figure legends should have a short, one-line title in bold text (with no period at the very end of the title)
?After the short title, the legend should state a short description of each panel and the symbols used ?Each legend item is to be followed by a period“.”
Introduction section
?The Introduction section begins by introducing the pertinent background:
?States previous authors, their areas of study, and their major findings
?Next, establishes the significance of the article's topic: Why was there a need to conduct the study? ?Avoid a list of points or bullets; use prose
?Essential but specialized terms should be explained concisely but not didactically
?For specialized terms, can use preferred terminology as long as in current use by the scientific community
–But, must give all known names at first use in the paper
–A uthors should use internationally agreed nomenclature
?The Introduction section should end with the Purpose(like a “tail”)
–the statement of objectives or,
–a brief statement of the principal findings
?In this way, the reader has an idea of which direction the article is heading
Discussion section
?Discuss what principles have been established or reinforced
?How the findings compare to the findings of previous work
?What generalizations can be drawn
?Whether there are any theoretical or practical implications of your work
?It is crucial that your Discussion section rests firmly on the evidence (factual data) presented in the Results section
?Refer briefly to your Results section to support your Discussion section
?Some brief speculation about what your results may mean is usually acceptable, but this speculation should not form the bulk of the Discussion section
?Address the Purpose in the Discussion and discuss the significance of the Results
–Do not leave the reader thinking "So what?"
?End the Discussion with the Conclusion (like a “tail”):
–provides a short summary and states the significance (new or original scientific insight) of the work
References & End Notes
?Only articles that have been published or submitted to a named publication should be in the reference list
–papers in preparation should be mentioned in the text with a list of authors
?Published conference abstracts, numbered patents and pre-prints on recognized servers may also be
included in reference lists
?All authors should be included in reference lists
–unless there are more than five, in which case only the first author should be given, followed by …et al.?
?Authors should be listed surname (family name) first, followed by a comma and initials of given names
?Titles of all cited articles are required
?Titles of articles cited in reference lists should be in upright, not italic text
?The first word of the article title is capitalized, ending with a period (.)
?Journal titles are italic and abbreviated according to common usage
?V olume numbers of journals are bold
?References to web-only journals should give authors, article title and journal name as above, followed by URL in full and the year of publication in parentheses ()
?References to websites should give authors if known, title of cited page, URL in full, and year of posting in parentheses ()
? 4 kinds of End Notes
1.Supplementary Information
2.Acknowledgements
3.Author Contributions
4.Author Information
Abstract Section
? A well-prepared abstract allows the reader to identify the article's content quickly, to
–determine its relevance, and thus
–decide whether to read the entire article
?The abstract concisely states the background and objectives of the study (Intro/Purpose)
?It also briefly summarizes the M&M, Results and Discussion/Conclusion but does not include details of the M&M
?The abstract must be concise:
–Most journals limit < 250 words
–Should not repeat information in the title
?Must be self-contained as they are published separately by abstracting services
?Best to omit references to literature and figures
?Best to omit abbreviations and acronyms even if they are defined in the article
?The title should have the fewest words that describe the topic of the article:
–Omit waste words such as "A study of ...", "Investigations of ...", "Observations on ...", etc.
–Titles should not exceed two lines in print
–Titles do not usually include numbers, acronyms, or abbreviations
?Abstracting services depend on the accuracy of the title
–They use keywords useful in cross-referencing internet databases
? A poorly titled paper may never reach its intended audience, so be specific
–If the study is on a particular species or chemical, or has been limited to a particular region or system, then name them in the title
※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※额皱是分割线※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※
Submission Process
?After writing the article, it needs to be submitted to a journal for publication
?Submission is not one act, but a process with three (3) major steps:
–First, assure the article is of publishable quality
–Second, select the appropriate journal
–Third, submit the article in the correct format
Nature Submission Guidelines
?Submission can be online or by post
–If you submit a manuscript online, do not make a postal contribution
?Online submissions require the full names and e-mail addresses of all authors
–Errors in contact information, particularly your e-mail address, create problems in the handling of your submission
?Submission entails that all listed authors have agreed on all content
–The corresponding (submitting) author is responsible for this agreement ? A copy of a permission letter or e-mail must be included for any work described in the paper as "personal communication"
?Ensure that any unpublished data cited within the manuscript are properly credited
?Submissions should be accompanied by a cover letter from the corresponding author
?This cover letter should contain two paragraphs (100-word or shorter) describing:
–the scientific grounds for consideration, and
–the popular appeal to a non-scientific audience (special rule for Nature) ?The cover letter should state:
–If any supplementary information is added;
–number of words of text;
–number of figures and panels (e.g., 4 figures, totaling 16 panels);
–estimate of desired size of figures in terms of pages; and
–current postal address, telephone and fax numbers, and e-mail address
?Figures should be original
?In cases where figures are commissioned, obtained or bought externally, or where figures have been previously published elsewhere, the corresponding author is responsible for
–pointing this out, and for
–including written permission for use of such figures
?Convert figures to medium-resolution (~150 dpi) JPEG file to reduce upload time
?Figures should be prepared at the size you would expect them to appear in the article
–single column width of 89 mm
–double column width of 183 mm
?Colors, when used as an identifying tool in figures, should be distinct from one another
?Name your figure files with the following convention: "CorrespondingAuthorSurname_fig1.jpg"
?For figures with more than one panel, label parts "a", "b", etc., and create a PDF scan of the whole figure to show the preferred layout
?On each figure composite include the corresponding author's name, reference number (if known), and the figure number
?If part of a contribution has appeared or has been submitted elsewhere, the paper is not automatically rejected
–so long as the main result, conclusion and implications are not apparent from the other work ?In this event, the corresponding author must specify in the cover letter which part of the contribution
will appear or has appeared elsewhere, indicating the publication concerned
?Authors must state whether any material in the paper has appeared or will appear on a pre-print server and, if so, which server
?After submission, the editor handling the manuscript must be consulted if the author wishes to publish any part of it elsewhere during the consideration process
?Acceptable text formats are MS Word (preferred), PostScript (PS, EPS or PRN), PDF, WordPerfect, Rich Text Format (RTF), TeX and plain text (TXT)
?The text filename, including the extension, must not exceed 31 characters
?All figure legends and tables should be included in the manuscript
?When ready to submit, proceed to the online submission system
?Fill in your details on the submission form and submit all files related to the manuscript
?The manuscript will be submitted to the editors and you will receive an e-mail
?At any time, you can use the system to check the status of your manuscript
?You may also send the documents on CD by post
※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※华丽的分割线※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※
●Basic research journals publish articles on topics of basic biomedical science
–Research NOT directly involving human patients
–For example, research on viruses and bacteria
●Clinical research (or medical) journals publish articles on topics of clinical medicine
–Research directly involving human patients
–For example, research on a new blood pressure medication in hospital patients
●Basic research journals
–Nature
–Cell
–Science
●Clinical research journals
–JAMA
–NEJM
–Lancet
●Clinical trials
–Treatment
–Prevention
–Diagnostic
–Screening
–Quality of Life
1.Harm study
2.Prognosis study
3.Clinical decision analysis
4.Outcomes study (for variations of health services)
5.Economic analysis of clinical practice
6.Disease probability study (for differential diagnosis)
7.Technology impact study (for computer-based clinical decision support systems)
●Treatment trials test experimental treatments, new combinations of drugs, or new approaches to
surgery or radiation therapy (highest-impact; well-funded by “Big Pharma” and medical equipment manufacturers)
?Treatment trials test experimental treatments, new combinations of drugs, or new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy
?The trial team includes hospital staff (doctors, nurses, and social workers)
?The staff check the health of the participant at the start of the trial, give specific instructions and monitor the participant during the trial, and stay in touch after the trial is completed Treatment trials are conducted in four (4) phases. Each phase has a different purpose:
?In Phase I trials, the experimental treatment is tested in a small group of people (20-80) for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects ?In Phase II trials, the treatment is given to a larger group of people (100-300) to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety
?In Phase III trials, the treatment is given to large groups of people (1,000-3,000) to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to standard treatments, and collect information that will allow the treatment to be used safely
?In Phase IV trials, post marketing studies collect additional information including the drug's risks, benefits, and optimal use
?Clinical research is different from basic research as it involves humans, not lower forms of life
?Thus, participants in clinical research must be recruited based on criteria (rules) such as age, gender, and previous medical history
–The rules that allow someone are called inclusion criteria
–The rules that block someone are called exclusion criteria
?The participant also decides whether or not to sign the informed consent that details the purpose, duration, procedures, risks/benefits, and key contacts of the study
?Like basic research, clinical research involves designing and then performing experiments
?When designing a clinical trial, there are some important factors to keep in mind:
–Placebo-control: the treatment is tested against a placebo (“sugar pill”)
–Randomization: recruited subjects are randomly allocated to receive one or other of the alternative treatments under study
–Blinding: single-blinded - subjects do not know which treatment is given; double-blinded - two groups of individuals involved in the trial, patients and treating physicians, do not know
which treatment is given
☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★偶素另一种分割线★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★
●Writing for clinical research
–For research involving human patients (e.g., clinical trials)
●Writing for clinical practice
–For documenting patient care activities in patient's medical record (not for research)
–Examples include the progress note (SOAP),operative report, admission evaluation (H&P), laboratory/diagnostic report, etc.
●The progress note is part of the medical record where healthcare professionals (doctors, nurses,
social workers, etc.) record details of medical care over the course of treatment
●Progress notes are usually written in SOAP format:
●S ubjective
–Info learned from interviewing patient
–Also family/friends, witnesses, and caretakers
●O bjective
–Observations during physical examination
–Also observations from diagnostic tests
●A ssessment
–Based on above, states current diagnosis or issues
●P lan
–Based on above, planned treatment/action
●The operative report is part of the medical record written by the primary surgeon or other assisting
physician(s) who have performed surgery on the patient
●Contains the following information:
–primary surgeon and any assistants
–pre-op and post-op diagnoses,
–detailed account of findings,
–indications for surgery,
–procedures used,
–Post-operative orders (follow-up care)
●Diagnostic trials are conducted to find better tests or procedures for diagnosing a particular disease
or condition
●Prevention trials look for better ways to prevent disease in people who have never had the disease
or to prevent a disease from recurring
●Screening trials test the best way to detect certain diseases or health conditions
●Quality of Life (QoL) trials (or Supportive Care trials) explore ways to improve comfort and the
quality of life for individuals with a chronic illness
★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★最后一条分割线☆★☆★★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★☆★Tips on English Writing
Here are some tips for today:
–Contractions(there's, isn?t, etc.)
–Capitalization (how to use CAPITAL letters)
–Punctuation (periods, commas, etc.)
–Tenses (past, present, and future)
–Pluralization and Matching Case
–Punctuation (periods and commas)
Periods are “full stops” at the en d of sentences
Commas separate modifiers, clauses, and lists
–Capitalization (proper nouns, titles, and acronyms)
–Conjunctions (and, or, because, as, since)
–Articles (definite: the; indefinite: a, an)
–Prepositions (at, on, in, of, with, to, from, about)
Used to designate time, place, and movement
Used with nouns, adjectives, and verbs
At: indicate a specific time; Used to place something or someone at a specified location; Also used to indicate movement toward something or someone
On: place on a surface; indicate a specific day
高中英语作文写作技巧方法 导读：本文高中英语作文写作技巧方法，仅供参考，如果觉得很不错，欢迎点评和分享。 审题是做到切题的第一步。所谓审题就是要看清题意，确定文章的中心思想、主题，并围绕中心思想组织材料。 高中英语作文写作技巧方法：构思并列出简单的提纲审好题、立好意后，就要写提纲，打造文章的骨架。文章布局要做好几件事：安排好层次段落，铺设好过渡，处理好开头和结尾。 高中英语作文写作技巧方法：扩展成文根据字数多少扩展成篇。扩展的内容一定要紧扣主题，千万不要写那些与主题不相关的内容。展开的方式包括：顺序法、举例法、比较法、对比法、说明法、因果法、推导法、归纳法和下定义等。可以根据需要任选一种或几种方式。 在这一步骤中还需注意三方面问题： 1)确保提纲中段落结构的思路与各段主题句的一致性。只有这样，才能保证所写段落不 偏题、不跑题。 2)要综合考虑各个段落的内容安排，避免段落内容的交叉。 3)用好连接词，注意段落间、句子间的连贯性。要做到所写文章层次分明，思路清晰， 文字连贯，就需要在句与句之间、段与段之间架起一座座桥梁，
而连接词起的正是桥 梁作用。 在扩展的过程中也有些窍门，以下几点可供参考： 1)在整篇文章中，避免只是用一两个句式或重复用同一词语。英语中存在着极为丰富的同义词，准确地使用同义词可以给读者清新的感觉。同时要灵活运用各种句式，如 倒装句、强调句、省略句、主从复合句、对比句、分词短语、介词短语等，从而增加 文章的可读性。 2)使用不同长度的句子。如果一个意思用一句话写不清楚的话，通过分句和合句或用两 句、三句来表达，增强句子的连贯性和表现力。 3)改变句子的开头方式，不要总是以主、谓、宾、状的次序。可以把状语至于句首，或 用分词等。 4)学会使用过渡词。 (1) 递进furthermore，moreover，besides，in addition，then，etc (2) 转折however，but，nevertheless，afterwards，etc (3) 总结finally，at last，in brief，to conclude，etc (4) 强调really，indeed，certainly，surely，above a11，etc (5) 对比in the same way，just as，on the other hand，etc
专业英语写作考点总结 Part ?Academic English Writing （专业英语写作）Chapter 1 Six Considerations in Academic Writing 1、Academic writing is a product of many consideration : audience, purpose and strategy ,organization, style, flow and presentation. （学术写作六要素：写作对象，目的，组织结构，文体特征，表达连贯和宣讲或宣读）。 2、Organization usually has the following four parts : 问题-解决方法包括四个部分 (1)description of a situation （描述情况） (2)Identification of a problem （甄别问题） (3)Description of a solution （描述解决方法） (4)Evaluation of the solution （评估解决方法） 3、Formal Grammar Style：（正规的语法风格） (1) Generally avoid contractions （一般来讲避免使用略缩词） 例：won’t改为will not (2)Use the more appropriate formal negative forms （使用更为适宜的正规的否定 形式） 例：not...any改为no not...much改为little not...many改为few (3)Limit the use of “run-on” expressions, such as and so forth and etc. （限制使用 多个词连用的表达法） 例：句子内不能出现and so forth和etc.出现时应将省略的部分扩展出来。(4)Avoid addressing the reader as you(except, of course, if you are writing a textbook or other instructional materials).（避免向读者说“你”） 例：You can see the results in Table 1. 改为：The results can be seen in Table 1. (5)Be careful about using direct questions. In some fields they are common, while in others they are not.（使用直接引语时需谨慎） 例：What can be done to lower costs? 改为：It is necessary to consider how costs may be lowered. 或者We now need to consider how costs may be lowered. (6)Place adverb within the verb. （将副词放于动词词组内） 例：This model was developed by Krugman originally. 改为：This model was originally developed by Krugman.
1.段落解释： is a unit of thought composed of sentences,smaller units of thought,that relate to a single topic.Paragraph divisions serve two very useful functions 2.A good paragraph is composed 组成 in such a way that it has : idea with nothing in the paragraph not covered by the topic explores the main idea explicitly and concretely,with 3.第一个写作常识has sound internal structure.The qualities that indicate sound internal structure are unity,coherence,and completeness. 4.怎样做到内容一致An excellent way of achieving unity is by means of the topic sentence.Properly used,the topic sentence forces the writer to adhere to and to sustain the point he is trying to establish 5.标题句① the topic sentence properly used can achieve unity in the paragraph,which indicate the importance of the topic sentence;②the topic sentence 6.第二个写作常识 In short,a good topic sentence has a limited subject and a sharp focus,namely,a good topic sentence is not too general nor too narrow.A topic sentence that is too general requires much more than a paragraph to develop it.A topic sentence that is too narrow leaves little to be said in the rest of the coherence is connection and consistency.A coherent paragraph is one in which all the sentence are related logically and grammatically to make a whole that allows the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought step by step 8．第三个写作常识 Just as topic sentences help readers follow our ideas,other signals also help them understand what we have to say.When we write and when we revise,look for the areas that seem choppy or unconnected—that lack coherence.We can establish better coherence by using the following devices:pronoun reference,repetition ,and in a paragraph means that the topic is adequately developed by details,explanations,definitions,evidences,and the like,so that the reader is not left with only a fuzzy idea of what the writer means 1第四个写作常识：Development of the main idea, then, is like enlarging a photograph to make the details clearer. So, development in the paragraph is as important as unity and coherence between skillful development helps us to stick to our subject and focus and to keep up the sense of oneness. 2Inductive Pattern (归纳法概念)：In developing a paragraph by means of the inductive pattern of reasoning the writer presents particular instances of a like kind and leads them into valid generalization which serves as his topic sentence. 3Deductive Pattern (演绎法概念)：In developing a paragraph by means of the deductive pattern the writer begins with a generalization(the topic sentence) and proceeds with specific elaboration or application of the general idea. 4Inductive-deductive Pattern(归纳演绎法)：As the name indicates, in developing a paragraph by means of inductive-deductive pattern the writer first presents particular instances and a resulting generalization, then applies the generalization to a new instance.5第五个写作常识：Sequences of development are not independent of types of development. The most important sequences of development are general to particular, particular to general, climactic, chronological, and spatial. 6Climactic Sequence (层递顺序)：In a climactic sequence, the most intense or highest point of interest is saved for the final sentence, which may be, but is not necessarily, the topic sentence. 7.Chronological Sequence (时间顺序):A chronological sequence is one in which earlier things precede later things; items are listed in the order in which they occur in time. The most obvious use of a chronological sequence is in telling a story. 8Spatial Sequence (空间顺序)：A spatial sequence is used in descriptions of various types. It starts the reader at a particular point and then moves logically in some direction, from one place to another. 9第六个写作常识：The type of development is the way in which the main idea is supported-by details, definitions, statements of cause and effect, and so on. 10段落展开方式：Among the most important types of paragraph development are development by detail, comparison and contrast, process, classification and partition, cause and effect, definition, and mixed development.
2009中考英语书面表达写作技巧汇总（一）掌握技巧： （1）注意篇章结构，合理布局 开始部分（opening paragraph）——说出文中的要点、核心问题。 正文部分（Body paragraphs）——围绕主题开展叙述、讨论。 结尾部分（concluding paragraphs）——对全文的总结和概括。 要做到全文中心突出、段落之间必须是有机地联系，内容完整、连贯。前后呼应，祛除与主题无关的内容。 （2）确定主题句 主题句是对全文的概括，是文章的主旨。它能在文章中起到“画龙点睛”的作用。通常主题句出现 在一篇文章的开头，而后，全文对主题句所提出的内容进行解释，扩展。 写主题句应注意以下几点： ①归纳出你要写的文章的几个要点 ②提炼出一句具有概括性的话 ③主题句应具有可读性，抓住、吸引读者。 （二）巧用连接词 要想使文章有整体性、连贯性，就要学会正确使用连接词 表示罗列增加 First, second, third, First, then / next, after that / next, finally
For one thing…for another…, On (the) one hand…on the other hand, Besides / what’s more / in addition / furthermore / moreover / another / also, Especially / In particular, 表示时间顺序 now, at present, recently, after, afterwards, after that, after a while, in a few days, at first, in the beginning, to begin with, later, next, finally, immediately, soon, suddenly, all of a sudden, at that moment, as soon as, the momentform now on, from then on, at the same time, meanwhile, till, not…until, before, after, when, while, as during, 表示解释说明 now, in addition, for example, for instance, in this case, moreover furthermore, in fact, actually 表示转折关系 but, however, while, though, or, otherwise, on the contrary, on the other hand, in contrast, despite, in spite of, even though, except (for), instead, of course, after all, 表示并列关系
专业英语写作考点总结 part ? academic english writing （专业英语写作）chapter 1 six considerations in academic writing 1、academic writing is a product of many consideration : audience, purpose, organization, style, flow and presentation. （学术写作六要素：写作对象，目的，组织结构，文体特征，表达连贯和宣讲或宣读）。 2、organization usually has the following four parts : 问题-解决方法包括四个部 分 (1) description of a situation （描述情况） (2) identification of a problem （甄别问题） (3) description of a solution （描述解决方法） (4) evaluation of the solution （评估解决方法） 3、formal grammar style：（正规的语法风格） (1) generally avoid contractions （一般来讲避免使用略缩词） 例：won’t改为will not (2) use the more appropriate formal negative forms （使用更为适宜的正规的否定 形式） 例：not...any改为nonot...much改为little not...many改为few (3) limit the use of “run-on” expressions, such as and so forth and etc. （限 制使用多个词连用的表达法） 例：句子内不能出现and so forth和etc.出现时应将省略的部分扩展出来。 (4) avoid addressing the reader as you(except, of course, if you are writing a textbook or other instructional materials).（避免向读者说“你”）例：you can see the results in table 1. 改为：the results can be seen in table 1. 改为： it is necessary to consider how costs may be lowered. 或者 we now need to consider how costs may be lowered. (6) place adverb within the verb. （将副词放于动词词组内）例：this model was developed by krugman originally. 改为：this model was originally developed by krugman. (7) consider whether you should split infinitives.（考虑是否该使用割裂不定式）例：we need to adequately meet the needs of those enrolled in the program. (8) aim for an efficient use of words. （目的是为了有效地使用词汇）例：there are some inorganic materials that can be used by bioengineers in the process of tissue engineering that have been shown to be very promising. 改为：some inorganic materials used in tissue engineering have shown great promise. 习题： （1）you can use this model to analyze the effects of several parameter changes. 错误：使用了you。 改为：this model can be used to analyze the effects of several parameter changes. （2）ok, what are the reasons that coffee prices have fallen? there’re a lot of possibilities. 错误：使用了口语ok；直接引语的使用；使用了缩略词there’re。
关于六级和考研作文 对于考研和六级的你们而言，作文只有一次，所以不要害怕自己用滥一些表达 方式。一下给大家的建议和词汇并非最难的，但是本人以为最实用的,如有遗漏 和不足，欢迎补充。 1.考前反复熟记框架，挑选5个单词和2个表达方式强制自己在文中使用 2.用上非谓语结构，以及经典的介词词组远远比从句更吸引人。太复杂的表达 不要用，容易错，也容易表意不明。（强调句不错，可以使用） 一．普通词替换 1．Remarkable（显著的，显赫的，替换significant） 2．Dramatically（戏剧性地，这个单词用的人很多了，可以不用） 3．Durable/enduring（持续的，恒久的，很实用的单词） 4．Overwhelming（常用语overwhelming majority<绝大多数>，或者表示“不可抵挡”） 5．Incredible/unbelievable（不可思议的，难以置信的，非常推荐使用这个形容词） 6．Tranquil（安静的，代替peaceful，高级词汇） 7．Simultaneously（同时地，代替meanwhile，很实用很推荐） 8．Fulfill（代替finish，还可以表示更高端的“实现”等意义） 9．Whereas（表转折，非常推荐，but的意思） 10．Witness（句子倒转使用，“见证了…”也可代替see，很推荐） 11．Sophisticated（复杂的，世故的） 12．Alarming（震惊的，一般表示数字，也可以用it really shocks me that…） 13．Decent/elegant/dignity（尊严，得体的，高雅的，高贵的类似意思） 14．Self系列（self-esteem, self-improvement等） 15．Manifold（多方面的，各种各样的，代替various） 16．Manifest（显示，体现出，代替indicate或show） 17．Affirm（断言，声称，还有assert和allege） 18．Prevailing（代替popular，流行的，还有epidemic不常用） 19．Endeavour（努力，很实用的单词，endeavor to do）
中考英语作文写作技巧总结 中考写作注意事项： 知识点1： ①记叙文之人物写作通常需要介绍人物的姓名，外貌，性格，爱好等多个方面，但是不能出 现真实的姓名，校名及家庭住址。 ②考试时最好以学生身边普通的人物进行描写，从平凡的人中找到不平凡的精神。考试的时 候需要严格按照题目要求进行写作，包括所给的全部信息，既不能遗漏，也不能随意添加。 ③议论文体裁特点：要求学生就某一方面的问题通过摆事实、讲道理的方式来发表自己的看 法。一般来说，议论文由论点、论据、论证三部分组成。 1）论点要正确无误。 2）论据要可靠充分。论据可以是人们公认的真理，也可以是经过实践考证的经典著作。 3）论证要合理严密。人们常用的论证方法有归纳法、推理法、对比法。 4）议论文一般按提出问题、解决问题的逻辑顺序来安排层次。 知识点2：写作思路 1.认真审题，理清思路: 确定题目中的关键词，文章体裁和主旨。 2.搜集材料，制定提纲: 展开一次“Brain Storming”即头脑风暴，对该题引申出各种联想和论点。根据自己已有的经 验和词汇量选择自己最熟悉、最有把握的方面和论点来写作。
3.选择词句，动笔行文: 确定基本的写作时态，如记叙文通常用一般过去时 典型案例分析： 1. Write a letter in at least 60 words according to the given situation (根据所给情景写一封不少于60 词的信) Suppose you are Joe. Your friend Betty is upset about a coming exam for she cares too much about the result. What do you think? Try to offer her some advice. （假如你是Joe, 你的好朋友Betty 因为过于在意考试结果而感到焦虑。请给她写一封信，谈谈你的看法，并给她一些建议。） 。） （注意：文中不得出现任何姓名、校名及其它相关信息，否则不予评分 ．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 第一步：分析题目 1. 审题 1) 这篇文章根据题目要求，我们可以确定文章的是一篇应用文即：书信。 2）根据写作要求知道是给他人提出建议或意见的文章，需要针对Betty遇到的问题实际出发来进行写作。 2. 确定写作重点和写作目的。 1）重点是安慰处于考试焦虑的Betty。 2）给出解决问题的建议。 3. 书信的格式： 英文信一般可以分为下列几个部分。 1）信端（Heading）即写信人的地址和发信日期。 2）收信人姓名地址
学术论文写作课程总结 科研的进步在于科研工作之间交流，讨论，阅读。在第一节课，老师就告诉我们，面对全球众多的科研工作者来说，本领域学者之间的交流多以文字的形式进行。英语作为世界各国人们交流的一种流通语言，让那些非英语为母语和以英语为母语国家的科研人员不会对我们投稿的英语学术论文所要表达的内容产生歧义，才能达到学术交流与进步的目的。 在本次的英语学术论文写作课程学习中，我们组经历了第一次的细致分工，到以后的分工与合作相结合的进步。由于我的研究方向为InSAR监测矿区，在本次论文写作中主要负责我们‘空天地一体化矿区环境灾害监测’中D-InSAR监测矿区部分的实验以及数据分析的工作。同时，在小组汇报的过程中共同进行了第一部分Introduction 部分的汇报，完成了Authors and Keywords部分PPT的制作与汇报工作。从选择汇报PPT模板、搜集资料、总结资料，再到最后制作修改完成终稿，最后是台下的汇报演练，每个步骤的实践经历都给了我弥足珍贵的经验。 回首这学期本门课程的学习，我发现自己在慢慢地积累中有了很多的收获。首先，作为一个学制只有2年的工程硕士，在本学期已经完成了自己学位论文的开题工作，在下一个学期就要着手于自己学位论文的撰写工作。无论是发表期刊论文，还是撰写自己的学位论文，插入、添加参考文献都曾经是写作的一大难题。本次课程老师给我们介绍了几款文献管理器（Noteexpress，Endnote）。通过对文献管理器软件的学习与使用，让我熟悉了文献管理器，在本学期的其他专业课程中的论文写作中已经可以熟练使用，极大的方便了论文写作。其次，语料库的检索分析，制定自己论文写作方向，都对我的论文写作有着十分重要的作用。 接着就是自己关于学术论文写作方面的收获。从第一节课开始，老师给我们写学术论文的正确态度，给初入学术写作的我论文写作方面奠定了很好的基础。原来对英语论文的态度就是从中文的论文通过翻译软件直接进行翻译。在本次课程中，我们在老师的带领下，通过小组合作的形式，对introduction，methodology,results,conclusion等几个论文的主体部分，以及title，authors,abstract，keywords进行了细致的学习，理解了每个部分在论文中所起到的作用，以及写作这些部分的英文论文的时候所需要注意的时态语法主语人称等方面的问题。也让我明白，英语学术论文的写作，不应该是简单的中译英，而更重要的是自己的学术内容与思想能够清晰而又高效的传达出来，进而实现学术交流与提高的作用。
【花开两朵型】 1.出题思路 ①有一些人认为…（好方面） ②另一些人认为…（坏方面） ③你的观点 2.写作提纲（4段） 第一段： 第1句：引入话题 第2句：引入两种观点 第二段： 第1句：On the one hand(有一些人认为) 第2句：支持性分论点，两到三条（一定要有承接词） 第3句：本段总结（可有可无，如果论点写的多就不用写，总结主要为凑字用）第三段： 第1句：On the other hand（另一些人认为） 第2句：支持性分论点两到三条（还是要有承接词） 第3句：本段总结（可有可无） 第四段：个人观点 【各段例句】： 第一段： 1：设问型 How should we read?Should we read selectively or extensively?Everyone has his own view. 2:话题引出句： 1：When it comes to ______,people’s notions vary from one to another.Recently,a sensational debate has taken place as to whether _______ or _______. 2：Now,it is generally accepted that ______ plays an important part in
people’s lives.But,there is an ongoing heated discussion as to whether ______ is a blessing or a curse. 注意：“_______”是指所提到的话题。 Blessing是祝福的意思。Curse是灾难的意思。 这几种开头可以相互穿插交换着用。 第二段第1句： 1：On the one hand,some people believe that… 2:As is often pointed out by some people,they argue that… 3:From a certain point of view(从某种观点来看)，people who hold the former opinion argue that(持有前者观点的人认为)… 第三段第1句： 1:On the other hand,others consid er that… 2:However,other people insist that… 3:Whereas/Nevertheless,people who hold the latter opinion insist that…第二、三段第2句： 1: To begin/start with(首先),What’s more(其次)，Last but not the least(最后)… 2：First an foremost(首先)，Moreover（其次），Last but by no means the least(最后)… 第二、三段第3句：本句是凑字用的，可有可无。 1:Hence(因此，以后)… 2:Thus…
小学英语写作技巧 小学阶段的英语教学要使学生掌握一定的英语基础知识和听、说、读、写技能，形成一定的语言综合运用能力，写作有助于词汇、语法、句型、课文等语言知识的学习，并能够促进听、说、读和思维能力的潜在性发展。同时，听、说、读和思维能力的发展又反作用于写作能力的培养。写作教学对于帮助学生了解英语思维方式，形成用英语进行思维的习惯，提高学生综合运用语言知识的能力大有益处。 小学阶段不同年级的作文有不同要求和写作技巧。 （一）小学三年级 对于小学3年级的学生，在他们已经掌握好了如颜色（colour）、衣服（clothes）、数字（number）、星期（day of the week）、月份（month）、宠物（pet）、情感（feeling）、身体部位（body）、文具（school things）的基础上进行文章的填空，如果学生能够按照文章的要求写进相关的信息，那就已经很不错了。下面是一个自我介绍的简单例子： Myself Hello，my name is_____. I am_____years old.My favourite colour is_____，_____，and_____.My favourite pet is______，_____ and______. My favourite food is_____，______and______.My favourite day is______. My favourite school thing is______and______.My favourite number is ______ and______. I am______today. 上面的这个例子，如果学生能够依次能吧自己的姓名、年龄、喜欢的颜色、喜欢的宠物、喜欢的食物、喜欢的日子、喜欢的文具、喜欢的数字和今天的心情准确无误地写出来，那么就已经能够完成了3年级阶段的作文要求。 （二）小学四年级 对于4年级的学生，可以写一篇介绍自己课室或者自己卧室的文章。下面是一篇4年级学生的介绍课室范文。 My classroom I am studying at Tongji primary school.I am in Class Two，Grade Four.（介绍
Comparison of the Flood Myth between China & the West 2010583 行政100班 ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC STUDY COURSE Department of Political Science Southwest University of Science and Technology
Abstract Flood myth is a common theme of all ethnic groups in the world．F or the past，the research on the western myth of the flood was particularly in the comparison study of the basic structure and the story contrast. The important significance of studying the lies in rehabilitation history and tapping—its deep cultural connotations by using the way of primitive people．In this paper, from the Angle of cultural function of myth, Chinese and western the flood myth rooted by the culture differences. Overall，the creation-made the sin．correctional impunity of the flood—creation again，as the more common myths flood program．Flood myth of Chinese and in the west can be embodied in the story of the god of punishment as the cause of floods，reflecting the original people’S awareness of the early relationship between mankind and nature．After the floods，the recycling world reflected the awareness of the relationship of the original people．They expressed the aspirations of civilization. However，the flood myths of Chinese and in the west have a marked difference．The theme of western flood myth is asylum，which did not reflect the spirits of protest．On the contrary，Chinese flood myths take the”harnessing water”as a theme，which mainly reflected the use and control of flood．The people who are in harnessing water, the west flood myth Was God-centered and embodied a strong sense of religion while the Chinese flood myths is people—oriented．Yu and his son became the representatives of the floods and beco me heroes of the Chinese nation． Key Words：flood；myths；compare；difference References [1] (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary)7th Edition [2] Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
高中英语写作课题总结 丁彩云 一、课题的目的与意义 探寻高中英语写作中学生存在的主要问题，指导并帮助学生解决疑难，探究和学习各种写作题材、话题，并在不断实践中总结写作经验和熟悉经典句式，逐步提高写作水平和写作应试能力，最终能在高考等考试中写出高质量的作文。 二、过程实施 准备阶段 1.选题依据 在听说读写四项语言技能中，写作的技能难度最大，需要动手动脑，如有条件和必要还要使用电脑。写作是运用语言传递书面信息的手段，要求语言文字准确；要求文字通顺、结构严谨、格式正确、文体合适。这就要求学生具有较强的思维能力和表达能力。因此，加强学生对写作的研究，尤其是高考中基础写作应用文的写作，为其将来高考写作完成高质量的作文有很大帮助。 2. 课题选定 综合目前新课程标准中对写作的基本要求，结合学生的学情、能力，选定本研究课题为《英语基础写作》。 实施阶段 1. 时间及地点安排
按照学校教研处的部署安排，定于每周三下午第七节课在高一班教室进行本研学课程。 2.成立研究小组及组员具体分工 选定本课题的共有11人，分别是高一班的王永浩、封玉婷、宋晓玲、苏永亮、赵一鸣、曹玲瑞、孙少俊；高一班的王晓红；高一班的苏建钰和高一班的张世巧。通过第一节课开题课的讨论决定，成立一个研究小组。具体分工如下：苏永亮为课题组组长，负责组织研学讨论；王永浩、封玉婷、宋晓玲负责记录讨论内容；赵一鸣、曹玲瑞、孙少俊、王晓红负责上网搜集查询研究性学习所需资料；苏建钰、张世巧负责问题的整理和反馈。 3. 研究的条件与方法 文献资料研究，研究部分名篇中的经典名句； 网上查询相关话题资料； 整理、分析、讨论、归纳相关资料。 4. 课题研究的步骤 第三周：讨论并完成开题报告 第六周：英语写作基本技巧 第七周：英语写作基本句型之开篇句型 第九周：英语写作基本句型之过渡句型 第十周：英语地点写作 第十二周：英语议论文对比观点题型写作
Figures of speech 1 metaphor Metaphor involves a comparison between two or more unlike things which share at least one property on characteristic in common, but the comparison is implied or condensed 2 personification Writing about a nonhuman thing as if it were human 3 metonymy The substitution of the name of one thing for that of another 4 parallelism Employ the deliberate arrangement of a succession of parallel constitution to achieve emphasis 5 climax Climax is a rhetorical device which arranges a succession of thought according to the rate of significance or interesting like the steps of a ladder ascending events. 6 hyperbole Hyperbole is the deliberate use of overstatement or exaggeration to achieve emphasis 7 simile makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common. To make the comparison, words like as, as...as, as if and like are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other. 8 irony achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant, the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense. 9 analogy a form of comparison, but unlike simile or metaphor which usually uses comparison on one point of resemblance, analogy draws a parallel between two unlike things that have several common qualities or points of resemblance. 10 understatement It is the opposite of hyperbole, or overstatement. It achieves its effect of emphasizing a fact by deliberately understating it, impressing the listener or the reader more by what is merely implied or left unsaid than by bare statement. To understand what the definition of the figure of speech and to analyze its function in a certain sentence