3专八人文知识:英国地理概况
the english channel: the channel is a narrow sea passage which separates england and france and connects the atlantic ocean and north sea.
英吉利海峡：英吉利海峡是一道狭长的海峡，分割英法两国，连接大西洋和北海。
the dee estuary: a small sea ( in irish sea) where the dee river enters.
迪河河口：是迪河流入的一个小海。
"the act of union of 1801": in 1801 the english parliament passed an act by which scotland, wales and the kingdom of england were constitutionally joined as the kingdom of great britain.
1801合并法：1801年英国议会通过法令，规定英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士根据宪法合并成为大不列颠王国。
gaelic: it is one of the celtic language, and is spoken in parts of the highlands.
盖尔语：是盖尔特语言的一种，在高地地区仍有人说这种语言。
the "backbone of england": it refers to the pennies, the board ridge of hills.
英格兰脊梁：指的是山脉的背脊。
lead ore: british lead ores have been worked since pre-roman times. it contains silver.
铅矿：自前罗马时代开始，英国的铅矿就被开发了。内含银。
china clay: the deposits of china clay in cornwall are of great economic value.
瓷土：康沃尔的瓷土沉淀带来了巨大的经济价值。
4专八人文知识复习：美国地理概况
本文针对英语专业八级考试的人文知识部分，总结了美国国家的主要地理概况，希望对同学们有所帮助。The Fall Line 瀑布线：A point where water-falls or rapids suddenly drop from a higher level to the lower one.
瀑布线指的是瀑布急速地从高处向低处流泻的点。
The Appalachian Range阿巴拉契亚山脉：1200 miles long，consists of the Piedmont Plateau, Appalachian Plateaus and Appalachian Range.
阿巴拉契亚山脉全场1200英里，由皮德蒙特高原、阿巴拉契亚高原及阿巴拉契亚山脉组成。
The Cordillera Range科迪勒拉山脉：Composed of the Coast Range, the Cascades and the Rocky Mountains.
科迪勒拉山脉由海岸山脉、卡斯卡德山以及洛基山组成。
The Great Basin大盆地：The Part between the Colorado and Columbia Plateaus.
指的是科罗拉多和哥伦比亚高地之间的部分。
The Great Central Plain中部大平原：The land mass between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachians.
指的是洛基山和阿巴拉伊亚山之间的平原。
The Great Plain大平原：The western part of the central plain.
大平原：指的是中部平原以西的部分。
The Mississippi River密西西比河：The longest, the most important river in the U.S.A. . It has a drainage area of 3225000 square kilometers.
密西西比河是美国最长、最重要的河流。它的流域面积达3225000平方公里。
The Five Great Lakes北美五大湖：Lake Michigan, Superior, Erie, Huron and Ontario.
北美五太湖指的是密歇根湖、苏必利尔湖、伊利湖、休伦湖以及安大略湖。
The Niagara Falls尼亚加拉瀑布：Famous falls in North America, 1240 meters wide, the drop averages 49 meters.
尼亚加拉瀑布是北美最著名的瀑布，有1240米宽，平均落差为49米。
Yellow stone National Park黄石国家公园：Located in the northern part of Wyoming. It is the oldest national park in the world and the largest wildlife preserve in the U.S.A.
黄石国家公园位于怀俄明州的北部地区。是世界上最古老的国家公园，是美国最大的野生保护区。
Grand Canyon大峡谷：In northern Arizona, one of the great natural wonders of the world. It measures about 277 miles long, up to 18 miles wide, and more than a mile deep. Its walls show layers that tell the story of the formation of the earth.
大峡谷在亚利桑那州的北部，是世界上最伟大的自然奇迹之一。它约有277英里长，18英里宽，约1英里深。它的墙壁断层记录了地球形成的过程。
Old Faithful老忠实喷泉：The most famous gayer in Yellowstone National Park, erupting more than l00 feet in the air about every 73 minutes.
老忠实喷泉是黄石国家公园最著名的喷泉，每73分钟向空中喷水100英尺多高。
Chinatown唐人街：An area in a city where many Chinese people live and where are Chinese shops, restaurants, clubs; two, important Chinatowns: New York City and San Francisco.
唐人街是许多中国人生活、居住的地区，那里有许多中国店铺、饭店、夜总会。两条最重要的唐人街分别在纽约和旧金山。
Indian Reservation印第安保留地：It refers to the barren desert regions where only Indians live exclusively.
印第安保留地指的是专门给印第安人居住的贫瘠的沙漠地区。
New England新英格兰：It consists of six states: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. This region is featured with mountains, valleys, rivers.
新英格兰由六个州组成：缅因州、新罕布什尔州、佛蒙特州、马萨诸塞州、罗德岛州以及康涅狄格。这个地区主要以多山、多山谷、河流为特征。
The Mountain States山地诸州：Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico.
山地诸州指的是蒙大拿州、怀俄明州、科罗拉多州以及新墨西哥州。
The Pacific Coast States太平洋沿岸诸州：Washington, Oregon and California.
太平洋沿岸诸州包括华盛顿州、俄勒冈州以及加利弗尼亚州。
Mount McKinley 麦金利山：6187 meters high, on the middle of the Alaska, the highest peak on this continent.
麦金利山高达6187米。在阿拉斯加的中部。是这片大陆上最高的山峰。
Pearl Harbor 珍珠港：The base of the Pacific Fleet of the U.S.A. near the city of Honolulu in Hawaii.
珍珠港是美国太平洋舰队的基地，在夏威夷的火奴鲁鲁市附近。
5专八人文知识复习：加拿大地理概况
Canada is the world's second largest country after Russia. 60% of the population in Canada inhabit in the area between Quebec city and the western end of Lake Ontario.
加拿大是世界上幅员第二大的国家，大约60%的人口集中在魁北克市与安大略省西端。
Toronto多伦多：Toronto is Canada's largest city and the provincial Capital of Ontario.
多伦多是安大略省的省会，加拿大经济中心，第一大城市。
Ottawa渥太华：Ottawa is the capital of Canada and the country's fourth largest city. It is located in the Ottawa Valley in the eastern part of the province of Ontario.
加拿大首都，第四大城市，地处安大略省东部的安大略谷。
Vancouver温哥华：Vancouver is British Columbia’s largest city and the third largest city in Canada. It is an important ice-free harbor and the major Canadian outlet to the Pacific Ocean and the largest cargo port on the Pacific.
不列颠哥伦比亚省的最大城市，也是加拿大第三大城市。它是加拿大一个非常重要的不冻港，而且是加拿大通往太平洋的主要通道，太平洋最大的货运港口。
Quebec魁北克省：Quebec is the largest province in Canada geographically, and the second most populous, after Ontario. It differs from the other provinces of Canada because of its strong French culture. Montreal, the second largest city of Canada, is located in this province. The Quebec city is the center of the province.
魁北克省是加拿大最大的省，人口仅次于安大略省。法国文化的强烈影响使它与其他省区不一样。加拿大第二大城市蒙特利尔位于该省。其中心是位于圣劳伦斯河上的魁北克城。
The Canadian Shield加拿大地盾：The Canadian Shield is a semicircle band of rocky highlands and plateaus around the Hudson Bay from the northern shores of Quebec to the Arctic shores of the Northwest Territories. The Shield covers almost half of the Canadian territory.
这是围绕哈得孙海湾的一块半圆形多石高低和高原，从魁北克省的北部海岸一直延伸到西北自治领的北极沿岸。几乎加拿大的一半面积在加拿大地盾一带。
Mount Logan 洛跟峰：Mount Logan is the highest peak in Canada and is located in the Yukon Territory of northwest Canada.
加拿大最高峰，位于加拿大西北部的育空地区。
The Mackenzie River 马更些河：The Mackenzie River is the longest river in Canada, flowing between the Canadian Shield and the Rocky Mountains.
马更些河是加拿大最长的河流，流经加拿大地盾与西部落基山脉之间，全长1600公里。
英国文学(English Literature)
一、Old and Medieval English Literature中古英语文学(8世纪-14世纪)
1) The Old English Period / The Anglo-Saxon Period古英语时期(449-1066)
a. pagan poetry(异教诗歌): Beowulf《贝奥武甫》- 最早的诗歌；长诗(3000行) heroism & fatalism & Christian qualities
the folk legends of the primitive northern tribes; a heroic Scandinavian epic legend; 善恶有报b. religious poetry: Caedmon(凯德蒙610-680): the first known religious poet; the father of English song
Cynewulf(基涅武甫9C): The Christ
c. 8th C, Anglo-Saxon prose: Venerable Bede(673-735); Alfred the Great(848-901)
2) The Medieval Period中世纪(1066-ca.1485 / 1500):
a. Romance中世纪传奇故事(1200-1500): the Middle Ages; 英雄诗歌
无名诗人- Sir Gawain and the Green Knight《高文爵士与绿色骑士》: Celtic legend; verse-romance; 2530 lines
~ 14th C, Age of Chaucer:
* Geoffrey Chaucer(乔叟1340-1400): 文风：vivid and exact language, his poetry is full of vigor and swiftness
the father of English poetry; the father of English fiction; 首创“双韵体”;首位用伦敦方言写作英国作家
The Canterbury Tales:pilgrims stories 受Boccaccio(薄伽丘) - Decameron《十日谈》启发
The House of Fame; Troilus and Criseyde; The Romaunt of the Rose《玫瑰罗曼史》(译作)
* William Langland(朗兰1332-1400)：The Vision of Piers Plowman《农夫皮尔斯之幻象》: 普通人眼中的社会抗议
b. 15th C, English ballads: Thomas Malory (1395-1471) :Morte d’Arthur《亚瑟王之死》- 圆桌骑士
二、The Renaissance Period英国文艺复兴(1500-1660): humanism 十四行诗，文艺复兴，无韵诗，伊丽莎白戏剧
1) 诗歌Henry Howard(霍华德1516-1547)
a. Thomas Wyatt (怀亚特1503-1542): the first to introduce the sonnet into English literature
b. Sir Philip Sidney(雪尼爵士1554-1586)：代表了当时的理想- “the complete man”Defense of Poetry《为诗辩护》
Astrophel and Stella; Arcadia《阿卡狄亚》: a prose romance filled with lyrics; a forerunner of the modern world
c.Edmund Spenser(斯宾塞1552-1599): the poets’ poet; non-dramatic poet of伊丽莎白时代- long allegorical romance
文风：a perfect melody, a rare sense of beauty and a splendid imagination. The Shepherd Calendar
The Faerie Queen《仙后》：long poem for Queen Elizabeth; Allegory - nine-line verse stanza/ the Spenserian Stanza Spenserian Stanza(斯宾塞诗体): Nine lines, the first eight lines is in iambic(抑扬格) pentameter(五步诗),
and the ninth line is an iambic hexameter(六步诗) line.
2) Prose 散文
a. Thomas More(莫尔1478-1535): 欧洲早期空想社会主义创始人Utopia《乌托邦》: More与海员的对话
b. John Lyly (黎里1553-160，剧作家&小说家)：Eupheus
Euphuism(夸饰文体): Abundant use of balanced sentences, alliterations(头韵) and other artificial prosodic(韵律) means.
The use of odd similes(明喻) and comparisons
c. Francis Bacon (培根1561-1626)：英国首位散文家，中世纪至现代欧洲时期; 近代唯物主义哲学奠基人和近代实验科学先驱
the trumpeter of a new age;Essays(论说文集)：Of Studies, Of Love, Of Beauty: the first true English prose classic
3) 戏剧
a. Christopher Marlowe(马洛1564-1593): University Wits 大学才子派Edward II；The Jew of Malta《马耳他的犹太
人》
first made blank verse(无韵诗：不押韵的五步诗) the principle instrument of English drama
The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus《浮士德博士的悲剧》：根据德国民间故事书写成; 完善了无韵体诗。
Tamburlaine the Great《帖木儿大帝》：残酷而野心勃勃的帝王
b. William Shakespeare(剧作家&诗人, 1564-1616): 154 sonnets(十四行诗) + 37 plays + long poems; 现实主义创始人
16 comedies : Merchant of Venice (Shylock; Antonio; Bassanio; Portia);The Taming of the Shrew《驯悍记》
A Mid-Summer Night’s Dream; As You Like It《皆大欢喜》; The Twelfth Night;The Comedy of Errors;
Much Ado About Nothing《无事生非》; The Winter’s Tale《冬天的故事》; All is Well that Ends Well《终成眷属》
11 tragedies: Romeo and Juliet;Hamlet; Macbeth《麦克白》;The Tempest《暴风雨》
Othello: a hero Othello vs. bad man Iago; Venice and Cyprus
King Lear: British King; greatest achievement; most complex in plot and most painful
10 historical plays: Henry IV; Henry V
c. Ben Jonson(琼生1562-1637 诗人&剧作家&批评家): Comedy of Humors; Volpone《狐狸》; The Alchemist《炼金
术士》
三、17世纪文学
1) Literature of the Revolution Period (Age of Milton)资产阶级革命时期: poetry (Metaphysical玄学派+ Cavalier骑士派)
a. John Donne(多恩1572-1631)：玄学派创始人; A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning《临别辞：莫悲伤》
文风：obscene, vulgar and serious philosophical thinking – the conflict between body and soul
The Holy Sonnets; The Flea; Go and Catch a Falling Star; The Songs and Sonnets（主题-爱）
b. John Milton(弥尔顿1608-1674)：Renaissance and Reformation (宗教改革)
Paradise Regained《复乐园》;Paradise Lost《失乐园》: the greatest English epic; Satan is the hero
Samson Agonistes《力士参孙》：closet drama; for reading rather than performing;
On His Blindness《目盲自咏》; Areopagitica《论出版自由》; Comus;L’allegro《快乐的人》;Lycidas
c. John Bunyan(班扬1628-1688): prose writing in the Puritan Age; 文风：simple and lively prose style
Th e Pilgrim’s Progress《天路历程》: prose allegory depicting a human soul searching for salvation 宗教寓言
“具有永恒意义的百科全书”，英国文学史上里程碑式著作。与但丁《神曲》、奥古斯丁《忏悔录》并列世界三大宗教题材文学杰作。
2) Literature of the Restoration Period (Age of Dryden)王政复辟/德莱顿时期: tendancy to Realism and Formalism
restoration literature: cliquish culture小集团文化; French classical taste
a. John Dryden (德莱顿1631-1700, 批评家&戏剧家)：first poet laureate(桂冠诗人); the father of English Criticism
establish the heroic couplet(英雄史诗式两行诗) as the fashion for satiric, didactic(说教) and descriptive(描写) poetry 最先提出“玄学诗人”一词；他创造的“英语双韵体couplet”,成为英国诗歌的主要形式之一。All for Love; Alexander’s Feast;
An Essay of Dramatic Poesy《论戏剧诗歌》: the great playwrights of Greece and Rome, 英国文艺复兴&当代法国
四、18世纪英国文学: Realism (关注社会现状，普通人) The Neoclassical Period (17世纪中期-18世纪)
~ Enlightenment (启蒙运动): 18th C, 法国-西欧, a progressive intellectual movement. 文艺复兴的衍伸；资本主义反对封建主义
Enlighten the world with modern philosophical and artistic ideas; rationality, equality & science ~ Neo-Classicism: 早期(Addison, Steele and Pope); 中期(Samuel Johnson) old classics
Conform to rules and principles established by Roman and Greek Classical writers; use rimed couplet(押韵的两行诗) Order, logic, restrained emotion and accuracy, be judged in terms of the thematic concern
a. Samuel Pepys(毕博思1633-1703): The greatest diarist in 17th C The Diary
b. Alexander Pope(蒲柏1688-1744) : 新古典主义代表; master in satire and heroic couplet;Age of Pope– 18世纪初
期
文风：词句工整、精练、富有哲理；对Byron影响巨大first introduced rationalism to England
An Essay on Criticism(处女作); An Essay on Man; Odyssey; The Rape of the Lock《夺发记》; Dunciad《愚人记》
c. Richard Steele (斯梯尔1672-1729) & Joseph Addison (艾迪生1672-1719): literary periodicals
The Tattler(闲谈者报): 1709, by Steele; Addison wrote essays; 抨击封建偏见，傲慢的富人，及大众对赌博和决斗的反感
The Spectator(旁观者报)：共同创办；the Spectator Club --- 现代英语小说先锋
贡献：资产阶级新社会道德；18世纪英国社会真实写照；英语散文正式成为一大文学流派
d. Samuel Johnson (字典约翰1709-1784) : literary dictator; “grand champion in literature of that age”
The Dictionary of the English Language: 英语字典的基础；The Lives of English poets: 52 early English poets
2) 十八世纪小说的崛起: 首批英国小说家– the Sentimentalist & the Realist
* 现实主义
a. Daniel Defoe(笛福1661-1731): 英国现实主义小说奠基人; Father of English and European Novels Moll
Flanders
The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: the first person singular
Crusoe represented the English bourgeoisie at the early stage of its development. A Journal of the Plague Year
b. Henry Fielding(菲尔丁1707-1754, 小说家&戏剧家):英国小说之父; 英国现代小说创始人；comic epic in prose创始人
文风：exact study and observation of real life Joseph Andrews; Amelia
The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling《弃婴汤姆·琼斯的故事》: 18世纪英国群像；Mr. Allworthy “Prose Humor”
c. Jonathan Swift(斯威夫特1667-1745, 政论家&讽刺小说家): 伟大文学创造者之一；master of English satirical prose
文风：simple, clear and vigor; “Proper words in proper places, makes the true definitions of a style”
Gulliver’s Travels《格列佛游记》: Liliput(小人国); Brogdingnagians(大人国); Laputa(勒普泰岛); Houyhnhnms(慧马国) The Battle of the Books; The Tale of a Tub; A Modest Proposal(bitter irony)
d. Tobias George Smollett (1721-1771)：冒险小说
* Sentimentalism(感伤主义): It indulges in emotion and sentiment, which are used as a sort of relief for the grief felt
towards the world’s wrongs and as a kind of mild protest against social injustice.
a. Samuel Richardson(理查森1689-1761): the founder of the English domestic novel 小说开始审视“发生于内心的东西”
Pamela; Clarissa; The History of Sir Charles Grandison
b. Laurence Sterne (斯特恩1713-1768)：Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy《项狄传》- unusual and queer artistic form
c. Oliver Goldsmith (戈德史密斯1728-1774)：Romantic school; The Deserted Village《荒村》; She stoops to Conquer
The Vicar of Wakefield《威克菲尔德的牧师》：one of the most enduring characters in English fiction
3) Poetry of the Pre-Romanticism and Sentimentalism (前浪漫主义和感伤主义诗歌)：18世纪中期
a. James Thomson(汤姆森1700-1748 苏格兰)：
The Seasons: theme - nature; blank verse；the first significant poem in the tradition of Pre-Romanticism
b. Edward Young(杨1683-1765)
c. William Collins(柯林斯1721-1759)：Ode to Evening《晚颂》
d. Thomas Gray(格雷1716-1771)：sympathy for the poor and unknown, mocks the great ones who despise and hurt them
Elergy Written in a Country Churchyard《墓园挽歌》；Ode on the Spring
e. William Blake(布莱克1757-1827 浪漫派诗人、画家、雕刻家)：symbolism The Marriage of Heaven and Hell
Songs of Experience《经验之歌》: The Tiger; London; The Chimney-Sweeper《扫烟囱的孩子》世间的丑恶Songs of Innocence《天真之歌》: The Lamb Poetical Sketches《素描诗集》
f. Robert Burns(彭斯1759-1796 苏格兰)：the greatest songwriter; the national poet of Scotland;the people’s poet
文风：lyrics on love and friendship; simplicity; Scotch dialects My Heart’s in the Highland
A Red, Red Rose; Auld Lang Syne《旧日美好时光》; For a’ That and a’ That《不管那一套》
4) 戏剧
a. John Gay(盖伊1685-1732):The Beggar’s Opera《乞丐歌剧》: one of the most conspicuous stage triumphs
b. Richard Brinsley Sheridan(谢立丹1751-1816 喜剧作家)：tendency to Realism
the artificial comedy (风俗喜剧) & anti-sentimental movement 顶峰The Rivals《情敌》
The School for Scandal《造谣学校》：best English comedy since Shakespeare
two brothers – Joseph/Charles surface; criticize English high society for its vanity, greed and hypocrisy
五、The Romantic Period英国浪漫主义文学(1798-1832) 女性小说家涌现passion, emotion and natural beauty
It begins with William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s joint work –Lyrical Ballads in 1798.
It ends with the death of Walter Scott in 1832.
~ The Poetic Revolution(1798-1837): Blake, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley and Keats 反对新古典主义文学
1) 特点individuals
1. It is marked by a strong reaction and protest against the bondage of rule and custom.
2. It returns to nature and to plain humanity for its material.
3. It is marked by renewed interest and medieval ideals and literature.
4. It is marked by intense human sympathy and by a consequent understanding of the human heart.
5. It is the expression of individual genius rather than established rules.
6. Spenser, Shakespeare and Milton are inspiration of the Romantic Movement.
2) 诗歌– Lakers / Lake Poets (湖畔诗人, 第一代): Wordsworth, Coleridge & Southey- worshipper of nature
a. William Wordsworth (华兹华斯1770-1850)：Poet Laureate
Lyrical Ballads《抒情歌谣集》：Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey《丁登寺杂咏》;
Lines Written in Early Spring 英国浪漫主义开端
The Prelude《序曲》；The Solitary Reaper《孤独的割麦女》；I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud；
Composed upon Westminster Bridge；Lucy Poems; My Heart Leaps Up; To the Cuckoo《致布谷鸟》
b. Samuel Taylor Coleridge(柯勒律治1772-1834)：poet and literary critic；Kubla Khan《忽必烈汗》；Christabel；
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner(Lyrical Ballads)《古舟子咏》; The Fall of the Bastille《巴士底狱的倒塌》
c. Robert Southey(骚赛)：Joan of Arc《圣女贞德》
3) 诗歌–第二代诗人: 早熟、热情而短命；against the bourgeois society and the ruling class; 自由至上
a. George Gordon Byron(拜伦1788-1824)：lyrical poems deal with nature and love Cain《该隐》
Don Juan《唐璜》：西班牙贵族子弟周游各国，发生在18世纪后半叶。长诗
Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage《恰尔德·哈罗尔德游记》: Childe是其诗歌中首位拜伦式英雄。长诗
Byronic Heroes: 孤傲、狂热、浪漫，却充满反抗精神。内心孤独苦闷，却又蔑视群小。
She Walks in Beauty; When We Two Parted; Hebrew Melodies《希伯来歌曲》
b. Percy Bysshe Shelley(雪莱1792-1822)：love the people and hated their oppressors and exploiters
Queen Mab；The Revolt of Islam《伊斯兰的反叛》；Adonais；A Defence of Poetry；The Necessity of Atheism(无神论)诗剧：The Cenci《钦契一家》；Promethus Unbound《解放了的普罗米修斯》(Greek mythology)
love lyrics: Ode To a Skylark《云雀颂》；Ode to the West Wind (冬天来了，春天还会远吗): swift, proud and wild的西风
c. John Keats (济慈1794-1821)：ode; “Beauty is truth, truth beauty”– leading principle Ode to Psyche《普赛克颂》
His poetry is distinguished by sensuousness(知觉) and the perfection of form. Ode on Melancholy；Isabella Ode to Autumn; Ode to a Nightingale；Ode on a Grecian Urn《希腊古瓮颂》
4) 散文: 19世纪早期，critical prose writing - Leigh Hunt, De Quincy
a. Charles Lamb(兰姆1774-1834 随笔): nostalgia, humor, delicacy, personal and observations 最佳散文家
Old China《古旧的瓷器》; Tales from Shakespeare(儿童文学); Essays of Elia(论说文集)
b. William Hazlitt (哈兹利特1778-1830): 犀利的文学批评- The Characters of Shakespeare’s Plays
Lectures on the English Poets; Lectures on the Dramatic Literature of the Age of Queen Elizabeth
My First Acquaintance with Poets;On Going a Journey《论出游》
5) 小说
a. Walter Scott (司各特1771-1832): 西欧历史小说之父；the first novelist to recreate the past 浪漫主义向现实主义转变
Waverley《威弗利》；Rob Roy《罗伯·罗伊》(苏格兰历史)；Ivanhoe《艾凡赫》
b. Jane Austen(简奥斯丁1775-1817)：humor, wit and delicate satire; true to life
首位女作家，以特有的敏锐和细腻刻画英国乡村中产阶级的生活和思想。预示现实主义小说崛起Northanger
Abbey《诺桑觉寺》
Sense and Sensibility；Pride and Prejudice；Emma；Persuasion《劝导》; Mansfield Park《曼斯菲尔德庄园》
c. Mary Shelly (雪莉)：Frankenstein
六、The Victorian Period维多利亚时期(1832-1901) Critical Realism 批判现实主义- novel poetry/prose
Full and detailed representation of social and political events, and the fate of common people and of whole social class
1) 小说
a. Charles Dickens(狄更斯1812-1870): 小资产阶级知识分子humoritst, satirist
With striking force and truthfulness, he pictured bourgeois civilization, showing the misery of common people.
Bleak Hous《荒凉山庄》；Hard Times《艰难时世》；A Christmas Carol《圣诞颂歌》
~ 1st Period (1836-1841): youthful optimism - The Old Curiosity Shop《老古玩店》; Oliver Twist《雾都孤儿》The Pickwick Papers《匹克威克外传》：退休商人Pickwick冒险经历- 18世纪早期的英国的小资们petty-bourgeoisie ~ 2nd Period(1842-): excitement and irritation David Copperfield; Dombey and Son《董贝父子》
~ 3rd Period: intensifying pessimism Great Expectations《远大前程》
A Tale of Two Cities:革命主题–法国革命中的巴黎与伦敦Dr. Manette -Lucie&Darnay, Defarge, Sidney Carton
b. The Bronte Sisters
Charlotte Bronte(1816-1855): Jane Eyre(Mr. Rochester); Shirley《雪莉》
Emily Bronte (1818-1848): Wuthering Heights (Heathcliff & Catherine) –资本主义社会婚姻制度
Anne Bronte(1820-1849): Agnes Grey
c. Mrs. Gaskell (盖斯凯尔夫人1810-1865): Life of Charlotte Bronte–英国最佳传记
Mary Barton《玛丽·巴顿》：the class struggle between the workers and the capitalists
d. George Elliot(艾略特1819-1880 女作家): 田园生活，道德问题，心理描写Silas Marner《织工马南》
文风：rich humor and keen observation, very philosophical Adam Bede：Adam爱上变心女
The Mill on the Floss《弗洛斯河上的磨房》：Tom & Maggie；Middlemarch, a Study of Provincial Life《米德尔马契》
e. William Makepeace Thackera y(萨克雷1811-1863): Vanity Fair/ A Novel without a Hero《名利场》
f. Thomas Hardy(哈代1840-1928 诗人&小说家): 多以农村生活为背景；自然主义小说家。the Wessex novels(虚构地点)
Under the Greenwood Tree《绿荫下》；The Mayor of Casterbridge《卡斯特桥市长》；The Return of the Native《还乡》Far from the Madding Crowd《远离尘嚣》；Jude the Obscure《无名的裘德》
Tess of the D’Urbervilles《德伯家的苔丝》: Tess & Angel Clare –人无法掌控自己的命运
g. Robert Stevenson(史蒂文森1850-1894): Treasure Island《金银岛》; Kidnapped
h. William Morris(莫里斯): The Earthly Pradise; Pilgrims of Hope《希望的探求者》
2) 诗歌: optimism and progressive vitality
a. Alfred Tennyson(丁尼生1809-1902)：维多利亚时代最具代表性的诗人Poet Laureate In Memoriam《悼念》
sounds and rhythms; evoking moods; linking descriptions of nature to the state of minds Poems by Two Brothers The Princess; Maud; Break, Break, Break《拍岸曲》；The Idylls of the King《国王叙事诗》; Ulysses《尤利西斯》b. The Brownings 布朗宁夫妇Robert/Elizabeth Browning The Ring and the Book; Sonnets from the Portuguese
~ Robert Browning(1812-1889)：dramatic monologues; realistic; optimistic; believed in the progress of mankind
Men and Women(诗集)；My Last Duchess《我的前公爵夫人》；Meeting at Night；Home Thoughts, from Abroad
3) 散文
a. Thomas Carlyle(卡莱尔1795-1881 历史学家): The French Revolution –起因(the worker’s miserable living condition)
b. John Ruskin(作家&艺术评论家): 其社会和经济观念对William Morris, Oscar Wilde, Bernard Shaw & D. H. Lawrence影响巨大
Modern Painters; The Seven Lamps of Architecture; Unto this Last; Sesame and Lilies
c. Matthew Arnold(阿诺德1822-1888): Dover Beach《多弗尔海滩》
4) 无产阶级文学 a. Ernest Jones(琼斯1819-1869): the Chartist poets(宪章派诗人)
b. William Morris(莫里斯1834-1896): the first socialist writer
5) 19世纪末期文学趋势
a. Naturalism: 19世纪后半期，从现实主义发展而来；subjective and somber - 达尔文Emile Zola & George Gissing
b. New-Romanticism: oppose the idea that art reflects life reality –Stevenson (苏格兰小说家)
c. Aestheticism(唯美主义): art is self-sufficient and has no reference to life –在诗歌中倾向于withdrawal or aversion
d. Descadence(颓废派文艺): the crisis of bourgeois culture; opposes the democratic and socialist ideals; “art for art’s sake”
~ Oscar Wilde(王尔德1854-1900): Aestheticism and Decadence - An Ideal Husband; A Woman of No Importance;
The Picture of Dorian Grey; The Happy Prince and Other Tales ; Salome《莎乐美》
Lady Windermere’s Fan《温德米尔夫人的扇子》；The Importance of Being Earnest《认真的重要》
七、The Modern Period现代时期(1914-)：symbolism; the stream of consciousness; naturalism; impressionism
Impressionism–个人经历(低层中产阶级&工人阶级) Poetry– short lyrics
Novels (代表James Joyce) –心理活动；人性的深度及缺陷an unending stream of impression, feelings and thoughts
a. John Galsworthy(高尔斯华绥1867-1933 小说家&剧作家): 1932 Nobel Prize The White Monkey《白猿》
strength & elasticity; powerful sweep & 深度心理分析文风：concise, clear and straightforward
The Forsyte Saga《福赛特家史》(小说集)：The Man of Property《有产者》(批判现实主义顶峰Soames Forsyte & Irene) In Chancery《骑虎难下》；To Let《出让》; Interlude: The Indian Summer of a Forsyte; Awakening
b. George Bernard Shaw(萧伯纳1856-1950批判现实主义剧作家)：1925Nobel Prize Mrs. Warren’s Profession;
批判资本主义的罪恶面；humorist deals with contemporary social problems Heartbreak House; Widower s’House;
Man and Superman《人与超人》；Pygmalion《卖花女》；Major Barbara《巴巴拉少校》；The Apple Cart《苹果车》
c. William Butler Yeats(叶芝1865-1939 爱尔兰诗人&剧作家)：1923Nobel Prize；The Irish nationalist
Sailing to Byzantine《驶向拜占庭》；The Second Coming《基督再临》；Leda and the Swan《丽达与天鹅》
The Wind Among the Reeds《芦苇中的风》；Responsibilities；The Winding Stair《盘旋的楼梯》；
The Lake Isle of Innisfree《茵尼斯弗里岛》；Easter, 1916；The Tower；The Land of Heart’s Desire
d. T. S. Eliot(艾略特1888-1965 诗人&剧作家&批评家): 1948 Nobel Prize The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock
classicist in literature, royalist in politics and Anglo-Catholic in religion The Hollow Men《空心人》
The Waste Land《荒原》: a landmark and a model of the 20th C English poetry
The Four Quartets《四个四重奏》：a new serenity of outlook Ash Wednesday
e. D. H. Lawrence(劳伦斯1885-1930 诗人&小说家&散文家)：心理活动；资本主义工业化吞噬人性Women in Love
The White Peacock《白孔雀》；The Rainbow；Sons and Lovers(半自传体)；Lady Chatterley’s Lover
f. James Joyce(乔伊斯1882-1941 爱尔兰小说家)：意识流奠基者obsessed with words
The Dubliners《都柏林人》(短篇小说集)；Finnegan’s Wake 《芬尼根守灵夜》
A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man《青年艺术家的肖像》: 自传性– bitter experiences; 最终艺术和精神上的解
放
Ulysses《尤利西斯》(非传统小说)：modernism – no story/plot/action
g. Virginia Woolf(伍尔芙1882-1941 )：现代主义&意识流代表; Bloomsbury Group The Common Reader；Orlando
Novels: Mrs. Dalloway ; To the Lighthouse; The Waves
Essays:A Room of One’s Own; Three Guineas《三个基尼》- 女权运动经典作品
h. Joseph Conrad(康拉德1857-1924): The Nigger of the Narcissus《白水仙号上的黑家伙》；Lord Jim；Heart of Darkness
i. Robert Tressell (屈赛尔1870-1911)：The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists《穿破裤子的慈善家》
j. Edward Morgan Forster(E. M.福斯特): Howards End《霍华德庄园》; A Passage to India《印度之行》
A Room with a View; Where Angels Fear to Tread《天使不敢驻足的地方》
k. William Somerset Maugham(W. S.毛姆1874-1965): The Moon and Six Pence; Of Human Bondage《人生的枷锁》
i. George Orwell (奥威尔1903-1950)：政治讽刺小说Animal Farm; 1984
* Post-modernism (二战后): 愤怒青年Aldous Leonard Huxley(赫胥黎): Brave New World
a. John James Osborne(奥斯本1929-1994 剧作家)：Look Back in Anger
b. Samuel Beckett(贝克特1906-1989 爱尔兰剧作家&小说家)：1969 Nobel Prize荒诞派Waiting for Godot《等待戈多》
c. William Golding(戈尔丁1911-1993 小说家): 1983 Nobel Priz e 寓言风The Lord of The Flies《蝇王》
d. Doris Lessing(多丽丝·莱辛1919- 小说家)：2007 Nobel Prize The Grass is Singing (1950)；The Golden Notebook (1962)
e. V. S. Naipaul (奈保尔1932- 印度裔小说家): 2001 Nobel Prize小说及非虚构文学
A House for Mr. Biswas; In a Free State; A Bend in the River《河湾》; The Enigma of Arrival《抵达之谜》
g. Harold Pinter(品特1930-2008 剧作家): 2005 Nobel Prize 萧伯纳之后英国最重要剧作家- 20世纪下半叶
英国戏剧创作流派Pinteresque，早期作品常为荒诞派戏剧The Caretaker《看房者》；The Birthday Party；The
Homecoming
g. Herbert George Wells (小说家-科幻)：The Time Machine; The Invisible Man
美国文学
一、Before the Revolution of Independence(17世纪之前)
1)Native American Literature(American Indians)印第安传统文学
1. Traditional Literature: 口头文学–祝词、部落神话、英雄传说、民歌
2. Transitional Literature: 19世纪白人侵占史；翻译作品
3. Modern Literature: 19-20世纪，美国印第安人所著作品
2) Colonial America殖民时期(16世纪末-17世纪中): narratives & journals - earliest settlers/Puritans 外来文学本土化~ Puritanism: stressed predestination, original sin, total depravity, and limited atonement from God’s grace
Stressed hard work, thrift, piety and sobriety 以伊甸园传说为基础
1.Captain John Smith: the first American writer A Map of Virginia: with a Description of the Country (1612)
A True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as Hath Happened in Virginia since the First
Planting of That Colony《关于弗吉尼亚的真实叙述》(1608) - 首部美国文学作品
2. William Bradford: The History of Plymouth plantation
3. John Winthrop: The History of New England
4. Roger Williams: A Key into the Language of America;
A Help to the Language of the Native in That Part of America Called New England
二、Around the Revolution of Independence独立革命时期(17世纪中-18世纪末) 爱国主义&独立民主自由history/diary/political essay/religious articles 文风：plain and firm style; a polished and rhythmical balance of phrases ~ Calvinist(加尔文主义): original sin and predestination
~ Enlightenment: 18th C, an intellectual movement whose rationalistic spirit inspired Americans Deism
~ Deism(自然神论)：Deist –一神论；人能通过自身道德感和智慧创造辉煌；love truth and do good; 科教=幸福
1. Benjamin Franklin(富兰克林1706-1790): 思想家; 启蒙运动代表; rational man 《独立宣言》起草者之一
A Modest Inquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Money；The Way to Wealth
Poor Richard’s Almanac《穷查理历书》；The Autobiography《自传》：simplicity, frankness & wit; American Dream 2. Thomas Paine(潘恩1737-1809 政治宣传册): Common Sense《常识》：独立革命时期最佳政治宣传册
Rights of Ma n《人权》；The Age of Reason《理性时代》；The American Crisis: 16本系列宣传册；
The Case of the Officers of Excise《税务员问题》；Downfall of Despotism《专制体制的崩溃》
3. Philip Freneau(弗伦诺1752-1832 诗人): Father of American Poetry; Poet of the American Revolution
文风：satire; bitter polemicist(辩论家)The Wild Honeysuckle《野金银花》；The Indian Burying Ground (lyric)
The Rising Glory of America；The British Prison Ship；To the Memory of the Brave Americans - 同类诗中最佳；
4. Thomas Jefferson(杰斐逊1743-1826): the 3rd President The Declaration of Independence起草者之一
三、American Romanticism/Renaissance浪漫主义文学(18世纪末-19世纪中后期)individualism
fold stories as an escape from the civilized society and were rich in mystic color; against rationalism
1) Pre-Romanticism(1770-1830):
1. Washington Irving(欧文1783-1859): 美国首位国际闻名作家& 美国文学之父
the author of the first American short stories; the first prose stylist of American Romanticism
文风：American indigenous humor; mild and prone；simplicity, lucidity, poise and ease flow
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow《睡谷传说》；Tales of a Traveler；Bracebridge Hall《布雷斯布里奇田庄》；
Rip Van Winkle: German legend；an escape from society and return to nature；The Alhambra《西班牙见闻札记》；
A History of New York: 美国第一部诙谐文学杰作；Essay: The Sketch Book《见闻札记》: 美国浪漫主义开端
2. William Cullen Bryant(布莱恩特1794-1878 诗人): the first American lyric poet；one of the earliest naturalist poets
theme: 自然；宗教；humantarian reforms and national morality; self-consciousness 译作：Homer – Iliad; Odyssy To a Waterfow l《致水鸟》; The Yellow Violet《黄色堇香花》; The Fountain; The White-Footed Deer《白蹄鹿》;
A Forest Hymn《森林赋》; The Flood of Years《似水流年》; Thanatopsis《死亡随想》(nature poems)
3. James Fenimore Cooper(库珀1789-1851 小说家): The Littlepage Manuscripts《利特佩奇的手稿》;
发展了三类小说：the revolutionary past- The Spy; sea novels -The Pilot《领航者》; the American frontier novels
Leather Stocking Tales: frontier novels - The Pioneer《拓荒者》(the first true romance of American frontier)；
The Pathfinder《探路者》; The Prairie《大草原》; The Deerslayer《杀鹿者》; The Last of Mohicans《最后的莫希干人》(成就最高) 2) Post-Romanticism(1830-1860)
* American Renaissance(1836-1855): 首次美国知识分子运动- Transcendentalism(超验主义)
marked the maturity of American Romanticism and the first renaissance
spirit and individual and nature；American Puritanism + European Romanticism 1. Ralph Waldo Emerson(爱默生1803-1882 思想家，散文家&诗人)：超验主义代表; 主题- nature & meditation
Essays: Nature《论自然》：超验主义圣经(manifesto) ；Self-Reliance《论自立》；The Transcendentalist
The American Scholar《论美国学者》：美国知识分子独立宣言–文化独立&文学地位; Divinity School Address《神学院演说》Poetry: Concord Hymn《康考德颂》; The Rhodo《杜鹃花》; The Humble Bee《野蜂》; Days: 首开自由诗之先河
2. Henry David Threau(梭罗1817-1862 思想家): Walden《瓦尔登湖》; A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers
Resistance to Civil Government《抵制公民政府》; Civil Disobedience《论市民之不服从》
* The Peak of Romanticism
1. Nathaniel Hawthorne(霍桑1804-1864 小说家): 美国首位杰出小说家道德伦理问题; human soul
文风：the most ambivalent; mystical; criticism of life; soft, flowing and almost feminine The Marble Faun《玉石雕像》The Scarlet Letter: Hester Prynne, Chillingworth & Dimmesdale The Blithedale Romance《福谷传奇》；
The House of the Seven Gables《有七个尖角阁的房子》：family decadence Mosses from an Old Manse《古屋青苔》2. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow(朗费罗1807-1882诗人)：首位葬入西敏寺美国诗人
highly spiritual; birth, death and love; The first to write the narrative poems; Voices of the Night《夜吟》
文风：filled with melody and charm of meter；manly, affirmative note 译作：Dante –Divine Comedy《神曲》Song of Hiawatha《海华沙之歌》：美国第一部印第安人史诗; A Psalm of Life《生命颂》; Evangeline《伊凡吉琳》3. Edgar Allan Poe(爱伦?坡1809-1849 诗人,小说家&批评家):首位美国职业作家；美国侦探小说之父
Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque《怪诞奇异故事集》: first collection of short stories
Poems:To Helen The Raven；Annabel Le e(哥特风)
小说：The Fall of the House of Usher《厄舍古屋的倒塌》; The Murders in the Rue Morgue《莫格街谋杀案》
4. Walt Whitman(惠特曼1819-1892 诗人)：democratic poet weekly newspaper: the Long Islander
~ Free verse: no regular rhythm/line length;
depends on natural speech rhythms & the counterpoint of stressed and unstressed syllables Leaves of Grass《草叶集》：Democratic Bible；the birth of truly American poetry & the end of the American romanticism Song of Myself《自我之歌》; I hear America Singing；When Lilacs Lost in the Dooryard Bloom’d《小院丁香花开时》5. Emily Dickinson(迪金森1830-1886女诗人)：theme – religion, life and death, love and marriage, nature, immortality
文风: Abundant use of dashes, and irregular and often idiosyncratic punctuation and capitalization and clear-cut and delicately original imagery, precise diction and fragmentary pattern; Imagism
Because I Could Not Stop for Death《因为我不能等待死神》；I’m Nobody. Who Are You?《我是无名小卒！你是谁？》This is My Letter to the World; I Heard a Fly Buzz When I Died《我死时听到一只苍蝇叫》
6. Herman Melville(梅尔维尔1819-1891小说家)：Typee《泰比》：romanticized story with the Polynesians
Moby Dick《白鲸》: the first American prose epic; Ishmael as the narrator
The voyage = the search for the truth; Moby Dick = 宇宙的神秘；自然的强大；世间的邪恶
四、The Age of Realism现实主义(19世纪中期-20世纪初) 南北战争–废奴小说- 现实主义起点
~ 温和现实主义：William Dean Howells –大贵族大资产阶级vs. 乡土小说：Mark Twain –底层社会
~ The Gilded Age(镀金时代1865-1914)：Mark Twain –内战后的普遍disillusionment & frustration工业化成果& Gold Rush
特点：1. Straightforward 2. Focus on commonness of common people’s lives
3. Objective
4. Present moral visions
5. Usually open ending
~ Naturalism: a term created by Emile Zola(法国女作家)；men are weak; philosophical pessimists
1. Harriet Beecher Stowe(斯托1811-1896女作家)：the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war
Uncle Tom’s Cabin《汤姆叔叔的小屋》: 南方种植园生活the first well-known sociological novel
2. William Dean Howells(豪威尔斯1837-1920): The Rise of Silas Lapham《赛拉斯拉帕姆的发迹》;
A Modern Instance《现代例证》; A Hazard of New Fortunes《新财富的危害》：三部曲
3. Stephen Crane(克莱恩1871-1900): 自然主义代表
The Red Badge of Courage《红色英勇勋章》：美国内战Henry Flemming
Maggie: A Girl of the Streets《街头女郎梅姬》：美国文学史上首次同情地描写受辱妇女的悲惨命运；美国自然主义文学里程碑；
4. O. Henry(欧亨利): The Cop and the Anthem《警察与赞美诗》
5. Mark Twain(马克?吐温1835-1910): 美国文学里程碑the true father of our national literature
realists and humorists ；local color fiction: mixed with plots with realistic description Life on the Missippi;
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer《汤姆?索耶历险记》; The Prince and the Pauper《王子与贫儿》
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn《哈克贝利?费恩历险记》：western literature and civilization; 美国现代文学自此始The Innocents Abroad《傻瓜出国记》：newspaper articles about his European trip；
The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County《卡拉韦拉斯县有名的跳蛙》;The Gilded Age《镀金时代》;
6. Theodore Dreiser(德莱赛1871-1945 小说家): 自然主义代表Jennie Gerhardt《珍妮姑娘》; The “Genius”;
Sister Carrie《嘉莉妹妹》：the purposelessness of life;An American Tragedy;
Trilogy of Desire《欲望三部曲》: The Financier; The Titan; The Stoic
7. Henry James(詹姆斯1843-1916小说家): the founder of psychological realism 文风：highly refined language
Daisy Miller: an outrage to American girlhood；the heroine = the free spirit of the New World The Ambassadors;
The Bostonians《波士顿人》; The American; The Portrait of a Lady; The Wings of the Dove; The Golden Bowl；
评论集：French Poets and Novelists; Hawthorne; Partial Portraits《不完整的画像》
8. Jack London(伦敦1876-1916 作家): 工人阶级代表The Son of the Wolf: 短篇小说集
The Call of the Wild《野性的呼唤》;Love of Life; The Sea Wolf; White Fang
Martin Eden：the contradiction between socialism of Marx and the triumph of individuals
9. Edwin Arlington Robinson(罗宾逊1869-1935 诗人): The Town Down the River; The Man Against the Sky
10. Sherwood Anderson(安德森1876-1941 小说家): Death in the Woods; The Triumph of the Egg
Winesburg, Ohio《俄亥俄州的温斯堡》: 23 stories about a small town;
五、the Age of Modernism 现代主义(一战后–至今)现代诗歌繁荣(1912-1922)
~ Modernism: cutting off history and a sense of despair and loss; refused to accept the traditional values
1) 诗歌：introspection(自省) and social criticism 1912-1922: 繁荣期
1. Ezra Pound(庞德1885-1972诗人&评论家)：the father of modern American poetry Imagism self-conscious
Pisan Cantos《比萨诗章》：the Bollingen Prize - In a Metro Station
2. Robert Lee Frost(弗洛斯特1874-1963 诗人): focus on New England 诗集：A Boy’s Wish《少年的意志》; North of Boston
文风：combine traditional verse forms with a clear American local speech rhythm Desert Places
New Hampshire; The Road Not taken; Mending Wall; Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening;
3. Wallace Stevens: the rationalist humanist tradition代言人- The Auroras of Autumn《秋天的晨曦》
4. Thomas Stearns Eliot(艾略特1888-1965 诗人,剧作家&批评家): leader of the new poetry and criticism
Ash Wednesday; Murder in the Cathedral; The Hollow Man《空心人》; The Sacred Wood《圣林》; Gerontion《小老头》；
The Waste Land《荒原》: 二战后的社会文化；西部地区的精神贫穷central text of modernism
2) 小说：Lost Generation - Hemingway vs. 南方文学- Faulkner
~ Lost Generation: Paris, a term created by Gertrude Stein(美国女作家) Hemingway –代言人
Young writers who were cut off from old values and yet unable to handle the new era
~ Jazz Age(1920s)/the Roaring Twenties: exciting acceleration; restless pursuit of stimulus and pleasure
disillusionement(幻灭) with ideas and civilization F. Scott Fitzgerald
1. Ernest Hemingway(海明威1899-1961): 1953 Pulitzer Prize & 1954 Nobel Prize theme – courage to tragedy
文风：spare, laconic, yet intense prose with sort sentences and very specific details The Old Man and the Sea The Sun Also Rises: 迷惘一代的写照; A Farewell to Arms(Lieutenant Henry);For Whom the Bell Tolls;
短篇小说：The Winners Take Nothing；Death in the Afternoon: 生死观政论：To Have and Have Not《贫与富》2. F. Scott Fitzgerald(菲茨杰拉德1896-1940): leader of the Jazz Age/Lost Generation；Tales of the Jazz Age
This Side of Paradise《人间天堂》; Tender Is the Night《夜色温柔》;The Last Tycoon《最后的巨头》
The Great Gatsby: irony and disillusionment of the American Dream; Nick Carraway视角
短篇小说：Babylon Revisted《重访巴比伦》The Crack-up《崩溃》(自传体文集)
3. John Steinbeck(斯坦贝克1902-1968 小说家): the foremost writer of the Great Depression(1930s); 被压迫者代言人
The Grapes of Wrath《愤怒的葡萄》：Pulitzer Prize - an angry certainty of injustice system that has impoverished the people The Pearl: post-war novel –bitter feelings against this greedy society which made the war possible
Of Mice and Men: the tragic friendship of two migrant workers
4. Sinclair Lewis(刘易斯1885-1951 小说家): Babbitt《巴比特》: 批评资本主义的物质性，以及中产阶级道德的压迫性
Main Street《大街》: a bitter criticism of a Middle Western village for its dullness, hypocrisy, prejudice and oppression; 5. William Faulkner(福克纳1897-1962 小说家): 1950 Nobel Prize the foremost southern writer of the 20th century
An analysis of the underlying cause for the failure and decay of the South before the Civil War
文风：the human heart in conflict with itself & the creative method is capricious; symbolic & modernistic techniques The Sound and the Fury《喧哗与骚动》: lost innocence & 意识流;As I Lay Dying《在我弥留之际》: 意识流短篇小说;
Light in August: realistic novel; Absalom, Absalom《押沙龙，押沙龙！》：a fable about the south; historical novel
6. Willa Cather(凯瑟1873-1947 女作家): My Antonia
7. Eugene Galdstone O’Neil(奥尼尔1888-1953 戏剧家): pessimistic The Hairy Ape《毛猿》;
Long Day’s Journey into Night《长夜漫漫路迢迢》: the problem of modern man’s identity
Desire Under the Elms《榆树下的欲望》; The Iceman Cometh《卖冰的人来了》
六、American Literature since 1945 南方小说；犹太小说；心理小说；科幻小说
~1950s–the Beat writers ~1960s – black humor ~1970s –百花齐放
~the Beat Generation(垮掉的一代): an alienation from society because they rejected conventional social and moral values
1. Ralph Ellison(埃里森1914-1994 黑人): Invisible Man
2. Saul Bellow(贝娄1915-2005): 1976 Nobel Prize
The Adventures of Augie March;Seize the Day《勿失良辰》; The Dangling Man《摇摆不定的人》
3. Flannery O’Connor(奥康纳1925-1964 女作家): A Good Man Is Hard to Find
4. John Updike(厄普代克1932-2009): the most realistic of postwar realists - Protestant mediocrity
Rabbit Run; Rabbit Redux《兔子归来》; Rabbit is Rich; Rabbit at Rest《兔子安息》
5. William Carlos Williams(1883-1963 诗人): The Yachts《游艇》; Paterson; The Red Wheel Barrow《红色手推车》
6. Tennessee Williams(威廉斯1914-1983 剧作家, 诗人&小说家): The Glass Menagerie《玻璃动物园》;
A Streetcar Named Desire《欲望号接车》; Cat on a Hot Tin Roof《热铁皮屋顶上的猫》
7. Arthur Miller(米勒1915-2005 剧作家)：Death of a Salesman
8. Edward Albee(阿尔比1928- 剧作家): The Zoo Story; Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf
9. J.D. Salinger(塞林格1919-2010): The Catcher in the Rye《麦田守望者》: the young against the dubious values of adults
10. Allen Ginsberg(金斯堡1926-1997 诗人): Howl《嚎叫》: the birth trauma of the Beat Generation
11. Jack Kerouac(克鲁亚克1922-1969 小说家): On the Road
语言学
第一节语言的本质
一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）
1.任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式
2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning）
3.多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand
and create unlimited number with sentences）
4.移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表
达根本不存在的东西等
5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握
二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）
1.传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function
2.人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their
identity
3.行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses
4.表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions
5.寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等
6.元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book
这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”
三、语言学的分支
1. 核心语言学Core linguistic
●语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。Its main focus
is on the articulation，transmission and reception of human sounds，especially isolated sounds
●音位学Phonology：从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其组合、分布规律进行
研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective.
●形态学Morphology：研究单词的内部构造the internal structure of words
●句法学Syntax：研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. ●语义学Semantics：对语言产生的意义的方法的系统研究，以研究词义和句义为主it’s the systemic
studies on the meaning-producing mechanism in languages, including words and sentences meaning
●语用学Pragmatics：从语言同使用者之间的关系出发，研究在实际交际in real-time communication
contexts中影响人们语言使用的各种因素mainly in terms of the relationship between language and language-users。
2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:
·心理语言学psycho-linguistics ·社会语言学socio-linguistics ·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics ·计算机语言学computer-linguistics
四、语言学中几对基本概念
1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究Descriptive
●Prescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标
准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作
●Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的
2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic
●Synchronic：以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象，如现代汉语研究、莎士比亚时代语言研究等
●Diachronic：研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律
3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）
●Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的词语-
形象word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定
●Parole：指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语actual use of language，是随时间
和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体。
4．语言能力competence与语言运用performance（由Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基提出）
●Competence：指理想语言使用者关于语言规则的知识储备
●Performance：指真实的语言使用者在实际场景中的语言使用
——索绪尔着重于从社会的角度social perspective来研究语言，乔姆斯基则从语言使用者的知识构成the knowledge base of the language users来看待语言，如乔从心理学的角度来分析语言
第二节语音学Phonetics
一、语音学的分支
1．发音语言学Articulatory phonetics：研究语音产生的方式，这是普通语言学主要研究的分支 2. 声学语言学Acoustic phonetics 3. 听觉语言学Auditory phonetics
二、语音学中两个重要概念
1．言语语音Speech sounds：
●是语音学研究的对象，亦可叫做音段Segment或者音素Phone；● 分为两种：辅音
consonants 和元音vowels
2．发音器官Speech organs：
●声带the V ocal Cords：位于咽喉the Larynx中，咽喉突出的部分较喉结The Adam’s Apple
●三个回声腔：咽腔the Pharynx、口腔the oral cavity和鼻腔the nasal cavity
三、关于辅音Consonants
1．概念：发音过程中产生了气流阻塞的那些音There is an obstruction of the air at some point of the vocal tract.
2．分类：三类划分——发音部位Places of articulation 、发音方式Manners of articulation和清浊特征?按照发音部位places：
● 唇间音bilabial：/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/ ● 唇齿音labio-dental：/f/ /v/ ● 齿间音dental：/ 6/ /咬舌Z/
● 牙龈音alveolar：/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/ ● 龈腭音alveo-palatal/post-alveolar：● 硬腭音Palatal：/师/ /3/ /ts/ /d3/ /j/
● 喉音glottal：/h/
?按照发音方式manners
● 完全阻塞辅音complete obstruction/爆破音plosives/stops:/p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ /k/, /g/ ● 鼻音nasals：/m/ /n/ /n长/
● 擦音fricatives：/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /师/ /3/ /6/ /咬舌z/ /h/ ● 破擦音affricates：/ts/ /d3/ ● 流音liquids : /r/ /l/
● 滑音/半元音glides/simivowels：/w/ /j/ ● 接近辅音approximants ● 中央流音central ● 边流音lateral：
3．特征：
?清浊特征Voicing
●分类：浊辅音voiced consonants 清辅音voiceless consonants ●体现形式：声带是否震
动in the vibration of the vocal cords ●E.g：/p/ 和/d/
?送气特征Aspiration
●articulated with a strong air stream pushing out ●只有爆破音和破擦音有送气与否的区别
●不造成词义改变，是非区别性特征●E.g：/p/ 在please中送气，在speak中不送气
?区别性特征Distinctive Features
●可以用来区分不同音位（phonetic voicing）如清浊特征，但送气特征就不是●区别性特征一般都是双元Binary的(+voicing/ -voicing)
四、关于元音Vowels
1．概念：发音中没有出现任何气流阻塞的音A sound pronounced with no obstruction of the air stream 2．分类：舌翘位置the part of the tongue that is raised、舌高the extent to which the tongue rises和嘴唇的形状the shape of the lips
舌翘：front——/i/ /e/ /a/；back——/o/ /u/ 舌高：high——/i/ /u/；mid——/e/ /o/；
low——/a/ 唇形：unrounded——/i/ /e/ /a/；rounded——/o/ /u/
/a/:front, low, unrounded /e/:front, mid,un rounded /i/:front, high, unrounded /o/: back, mid, rounded /u/: back, mid, rounded
3.标准元音Cardinal vowels：由一组任意确定的元音组成，这些元音都是作为抽象的单位存在，为描
述现实语音中的元音提供一个参考框架，由琼斯提出。
4.双元音Diphthongs：有两个音组成——纯元音pure vowel+短促的滑音brief gliding sound，由前音滑
向后音，又称元音过渡V owel Glides
五、其他相关概念
1.语音同化Co-articulation或Assimilation：在一个语音群中，一个语音总会带上其附近语音的某种性
质，这个现象就成为语音同化。最明显的就是鼻化，如can一词中，a的音会带上后面的鼻音n
2.国际音标图IPA chart：全称是International Phonetic Alphabet，由国际语音协会IPA=International
Phonetic Association在1888年首次确定
第三节音位学Phonology
一、基本概念及区分
1．广义音位学指对自然语言声音系统的一般性特征研究，可以包括语音学；狭义的音位学主要研究言语语音组合方式模式及变化，普通语言学取其狭义
2．音位学与语音学的区别：
●Phonetics 着重语言的自然属性physical properties，关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音，是音位学研究的基础；
●Phonolo gy着重强调语音的社会功能social functions，对象是某种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音
二、重要概念
1．音位Phoneme：
●在语言中具有区别表义单位作用的最小语音单位the smallest unit that is capable of distinguishing or contrasting words，●E.g: pig 和big中的/p/和/b/就是独立的音位。
2．音位变体Allophones：
●没有区分表义单位作用的音段（segment）
●E.g：同样/s/音，在shoe和she中读音却有差别，若把两个有差别的/s/音调换位置，并不会改变单词意义，只是有点别扭。所以，这两音就叫做/s/的音位变体。
Phoneme和Allophone的区别：音位具有区别性，是抽象、理想化的单位，具有系统性；音位变体都属于同一个音位，他们共同代表或者源于音位，是音位在实际环境中的体现。
3．最小语音对Minimal Pairs：
●两个词互相之间的差别只是一个音段，就是最小语音对；可以确定某个音段是否为音位●E.g：pen 和pin就是M-p，可以确定/e/和/i/
4．两种分布关系
?对比性分布Contrastive Distribution
●若两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中而产生了两个不同的单词，则处于对比性分布关系。●最小语音对中的不同音段就是这种关系。3.中的例子
?互补性分布Complementary distribution
●若两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中，则它们之间就是互补性分布的关系。
●E.g：送气的p（peak）绝不会出现在s之后，而不送气的p（speak）也不会出现在词首
5．自由变体Free variation
●如果两个音段出现在相同的环境中，但并未产生两个不同的单词，那么它们就是同一个音位的自由变体。
●E.g:将act中失去爆破的/ko/换成爆破的/k/是很常见的，但并不会造成单词意义的变化。
6．区别性特征Distinctive Features：清浊特征、发音位置以及发音方式
三、超音段音位学Suprasegmental Phonology
1．概念：对大于音段的语音单位如音节、单词和句子的语音特征进行的研究。主要包括：重音Stress，音长Lenth，音高Pitch和此三者共同作用的结果—语调intonation
●重音：分为单词重音和句子重音
?单词重音：位置固定，可分为三级——零zero重音，次secondary重音，和主要primary重音?句子重音：
——结构重音structural：句语句之间的对比产生的某一个单词重音的变化或某一个一般不重读的单词的重读，如ThirtTEEN girls and thirty boys中的TEEN重读
——强调重音contrastive：指纯粹出于交际需要对句中的任意部分进行强调，句中的任意音节都可能成为重读音节
——语法重音grammatical：约定俗成的语法成分功能决定的重音，如重读实词，轻读虚词等
●音高：指某个语音单位（音段或者超音段）因为发音时声带震颤的快慢而导致的声音高低之分。某些语言中，音高变化起区别性作用，如汉语的四声tone
2．音节Syllable：大于音段但小于单词的单位；单词可以分为单音节词monosyllabic word和多音节词polysyllabic word
3．音节结构：●音节头onset——一般为辅音●节峰/节核Peak/nucleus：核心部分，由元音担任，不可或缺●节尾coda：一般为辅音
4．辅音群Consonant cluster：
●几个辅音组合在一起成为单词的一部分，称为辅音群。●一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过3个辅音，作为节尾的不能超过4个辅音
第四节形态学Morphology
一、基本概念：研究单词内部结构及其构成的规则It studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
二、相关概念
1．语素Morpheme：研究的basic unit，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或者彻底改变词汇/语法意义的单位，desire是a morpheme，desir+able就是two morphemes
?自由语素free morpheme：可以独立出现、独立成词的语素。如girl，rely等
?黏着语素bound morpheme：必须与其它语素一起出现的语素，词缀居多。如pre-，-al，-ment，dis-等
2．语速变体Allomorph：相对抽象，是语素的实际体现，不改变词义，但会在形式上有所变化similar to allophone
3．词的曲折变化Inflection：其实就是在原词上加上词缀（主要是suffix）的过程-ed，-ing，-s etc.不会改变词义，也不会引起词的语法类别的改变
4．几个易混的概念
?词素Lexemes：就是“同底数幂”的概念，是一组词的共有因子，如writer、writing、wrote等拥有的write就是词素，必须有一群词
?词根Root：单词的基础，无法再分割成更小的单位。两类：若词根是自由语素，则为自由词根（大部分都是free），否则是黏着词根（如-pal，-ceive,-tain,-vert）
?词干Stem：是可以附加词缀的语素或者语素群：friend in friends；friendship in friendships，词干>词根，如education是词干，词根是educate
5．词语Word：词的三种含义——a physically definable unit, a common facter underlying a set of forms, a grammatical unit，介于词组和语素之间
?实词Lexical words：传递实际语义内容的词，包括nouns, verbs, adj., 大部分adv.
?虚词Functional words：承担语法意义、执行句法或结构功能的词，包括prep. Articles冠词，pronoun. Conj.连词等
?开放词open classes：可无限容纳新成员的词，如名形、部分动词/副词等；封闭词类closed classes 无法或很难容纳新成员的词，如介代连指情态等
6．三种语言：
?黏着语言Agglutinating or Agglutinative Language：在英语中一般用介词、所有格来表达的概念，在黏着语言中一般作为语素出现在一个单词中
?曲折语言Inflecting Language：指那些大量使用曲折形式的语言
?孤立语言Isolated Language/分析语言Analytical Language：一般使用独立的词语来表示单独的概念和功能。中文为此类的典型代表。
三、造词Invention的几种形式
1．混成法Blending：两个单词混合在一起构成新词，取一词之前，另一词之后。如smoke+fog=smog 2．缩写语Abbreviation/截断法Clipping：将一个单词截断成长度稍短的形式，如ad—advertisement等3．首字母缩写Acronym：将几个单词的首字母组合在一起而形成的新词。如UN=United Nations 4．逆构词法Back-formation：从一个长单词中山区一个看似是词缀的部分，形成这个长词的一个变体形式，从而造词。如edit来源于editor，televise来源于television
5．类推造词Analogical Creation：动词变化全部想当然根据规则变化，如work的过去分词想成wrought 和worked两种形式
6．借词Borrowing：直接从外语中借用词语的造词过程，如sofa，tofu等
第五节句法学Syntax
一、基本概念：研究句子结构以及词、词组和短语构成的句子的规则the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.
二、几个重要概念
1．横组合关系Syntagmatic relations/线形关系Linear relations：即词序word order，指句子中单词的链状顺序关系
纵聚合关系Paradigmatic relations：把句子各个位置当成插槽Slot，则同义或相近词都可填入此槽，这就是词间纵聚合关系
Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of 索绪尔Saussure’s syntactic theory.
2．直接成分分析法Immediate Constituent Analysis简作IC Analysis：通过多次的二元切割将句子分割为词组、单词的一种句子分析手段
3．语法范畴Grammatical Categories：指代名词、动词等此类的标志性特征definding properties
●名词：性Gender，数Number，格Case 【数：单数Singular和双数Dual；性：阴性Feminine 和阳性Masculine以及中性Neuter；格：代词——主格Nominative，宾格Accusative，名词——一般格General和所有格Genitive】
●动词：时态Tense，体Aspect，语态V oice
三、关于句子：the maximum free form最大的语法分析单位
1．句子关系：
?一致关系Agreement：两个或更多单词在某个特定环境下必须保持其某个范畴的一致，主要表现在主谓、修饰语和被修饰语之间。如this man/these men
?支配关系Government：一个或几个单词因受到其他相邻词语的支配而必须与或者保持某个范畴的一致，如代词在动词后必须成宾格状态beat him等
2.句子的扩展Extension of sentence三种方法：结合Conjoining，嵌入Embedding和递归Recursiveness
3.句子结构
●向心结构Endocentric construction：具有核心的结构体。分为从属Subordinate（e.g. poor John）
和平行Coordinate（e.g. boys and girls）
●离心结构Exocentric construction：没有核心的结构体，任何一个成分都无法代替他本身。e.g.
on the shelf
4．句子以上的句法Syntax beyond the sentence:主要研究段落和篇章中句与句的句法关系，主要是语篇语言学Text linguistic。
四、关于语法——全由Chomsky提出
1．转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar简作TG Grammar：认为所有语言形式都是由人脑中的一些深层结构通过一系列转换规则衍生而来
2．普遍语法：Universal Grammar：一切人类语言必须具备的原则、条件和规则系统，叫做普遍语法或者语言普遍现象，他认为研究的目的就是去寻找普遍语法。
3．语言习得机制Language Acquisition Device简作LAD：儿童天生具备学习一切语言的能力，从而表达无限的思想
五、句法结构
1．深层结构Deep Structure：抽象的句法结构，位于于语法生成模式的最深层，句子各部分之间的结构关系在这个层次都被清晰清楚表现出来
2．表层结构Surface Structure：通过一系列转换规则之后得到的最后结果，是说话人实际说出的句子。3．系统功能语法Systemic-functional Grammar：由英国语言学家韩礼德M.A.K. Halliday发展出的一套语法体系，区分转换生成语法——
●Halliday系统功能语法：关注语言和社会之间的关系；认为语言是A form of doing, 研究语言与环境的关系；重视个别语言及个别变体的描写
●Chomsky转换生成语法：从心理学角度研究语言；认为语言是A form of knowing,着重于语言使用者头脑里的知识结构；重视发现语言的普通现象
第六节语义学Semantics
一、语义学的七种意义——Geoffrey Leech:七种意义可以被分成三大类：概念意义Conceptual，联想
意义Associative and 主题意义Thematic Meanings
1. 概念意义Conceptual Meaning：是Leech理论的中心Core概念，表示单词和其所指代的事物之间的关系，类似于“Reference”
2.联想意义Associative Meaning：五小类——内涵意义，社会Social意义，情感Affective意义，反映Reflected意义和搭配Collocative意义
●内涵Connotative意义：指在交际中语言所传达出来的意思●社会Social意义：使用语言时传达出的有关社会场合的信息
●情感Affective意义：指说话人或作者表达出来的情感或态度●反映Reflected意义：通过联想某个表达法的别种意义而产生出来的意义
●搭配Collocative意义：通过联想经常同现于一个语境中的单词而产生的意义
3. 主题意义Thematic Meanings：通过信息的组织方式而传达的意义what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis
二、语义关系Sense Relations——三种：同义关系Synonymy，反义关系Antonymy，上下义关系Hyponymy 1．同义关系Synonymy：来源有二——Anglo-Saxon Language and Latin;完全同义的单词不存在，主要差别在于地域Dialect，场合Register，风格Style，正式度Formality，态度Attitude等
2．反义关系Antonymy：
●可分等级的Gradable：最常见的，两词间并非绝对而是相对对立的。E.g. good-bad，long-short等
●互补的Complementary：两词间的对立是绝对的，非此即彼的。E.g. alive-dead，absent-present等
●相反的Converse：并非肯定否定的关系，两个实体之间关系的颠倒。E.g. buy-sell, employer-employee 等
3．上下义关系Hyponymy：意义包含的关系，包容者为上义词Superordinate，被包容者成为下义词Hyponym，如animals包含dog、cat等许多
三、几个知识点
1．语义和所指Sense Vs Reference
Sense指代的是语言内部各种因素构成的复杂体系，Reference关心语言项目如单词句子等和外部世界之间的关系，语义学重点关注的是语义关系。
2. 搭配Collocation：指单词之间惯常出现的组合情况，如：“满月”在英语中表示为A full moon，而非a complete moon
3. 成语Idiom：要以整体理解，不是其组成部分的简单相加
第七节语用学Pragmatics
一、几个重要概念
1．语用学Pragmatic：研究如何通过Context来理解和使用语言
2．符号学Semiotics：美国哲学家C. Morris he R. Carnap将符号学划分为三个分支——
●符号关系学Syntactic：主要研究符号之间的形式关系the study of the formal relations between signs
2003年英语专八人文知识真题 31. is not a nationally observed holiday of America. [A] Christmas [B] Easter Sunday [C] Thanksgiving Day [D] Independence Day 32. The university of Dublin was not founded until . [A] the 19th century [B] the 18th century [C] the 17th century [D] the 16th century 33. The introduced old-age pensions in New Zealand in 1898. [A] Labor Party [B] Democratic Party [C] Liberal Party [D] Conservative Party 34. Irish culture experienced a golden age from to . [A] the eighth century, the eleventh century [B] the seventh century, the ninth century [C] the sixth century, the eighth century [D] the ?fth century, the seventh century 35. Which of the following writings is not the work by Charles Dickens? [A] A Tale of Two Cities [B] Hard Times [C] Oliver Twist [D] Sons and Lovers 36. is a dramatist who holds the central position in American drama the modernistic period. [A] Sinclair Lewis [B] Eugene O'Neill [C] Arthur Miller [D] Tennessee Williams 37. is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age. [A] Ernest Hemingway [B] F. Scott Fitzgerald [C] William Faulkner [D] Ezra Pound 38. is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories. [A] Concord [B] Immediate constituent [C] Syntagmatic relations [D] Government 39. studies the sound systems in a certain language. [A] Phonetics [B] Phonology [C] Semantics [D] Pragmatics 40. A linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers is called . [A] situational dialect [B] slang [C] linguistic taboo [D] bilingualism 2004年英语专八人文知识真题 31. The following are products imported by Australia from China EXCEPT . [A] food [B] textiles [C] steel products [D] electronics 32. Scots regard as the most important festival in a year. [A] Near Year's Day [B] Christmas Day [C] New Year's Eve [D] Easter 33. The republican movement has been gathering momentum in Australia since became Prime Minister in 1992. [A] John Howard [B] Bob Hawke [C] Malcolm Fraser [D] Paul Keating 34. was known for his famous speech "I have a dream". [A] John F. Kennedy [B] Martin Luther King, Jr [C] Abraham Lincoln [D] Thomas Jefferson 35. Of all the 18th century novelists, ______ was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a "comic epic in prose", and the first to give the modern novel its structure and style. [A] Daniel Defoe [B] Samuel Johnson [C] Oliver Goldsmith [D] Henry Feilding 36. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his .
Old English Literature 古英语文学 （450-1066年） Beowulf （贝奥武甫）---The first English national epic 中世纪英语文学（1066-1500） Geoffrey Chaucer(乔叟，c. 1343–1400) was an English poet. He is remembered for his The Canterbury Tales《坎特伯雷故事集》, called the father of English litera ture―英国文学之父‖William Langland (朗格兰，1330?-1400?),the author of the 14th-century English long narrative poem Piers Plowman《农夫皮尔斯》. 文艺复兴（16-17世纪） William Shakespeare (莎士比亚，1564-1616), English poet and playwright, his surviving works consist of 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems Venus and Adonis 《维拉斯和阿多尼斯》The Rape of Lucrece.《鲁克丽丝受辱记》 Shakespeare‘s greatest works: greatest tragedies are King Lear 《李尔王》,Macbeth《麦克白》,Hamlet《哈姆雷特》, Othello 《奥赛罗》,Romeo and Juliet 《罗密欧与朱丽叶》 grea t comedies: A Midsumme r Night‘s Dream《仲夏夜之梦》,As You Like It 《皆大欢喜》,The Merchant of Venice 《威尼斯商人》, Twelfth Night 《第十二夜》 great historical plays: Richard III 《理查三世》,Henry IV 《亨利四世》, Henry V 《亨利五世》, Henry VII 《亨利八世》 John Milton (弥尔顿, 1608-1674)was an English poet and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England. He is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost《失乐园》, Paradise Regained《复乐园》Samson 《力士参孙》. 18世纪文学和新古典主义 Alexander Pope (浦柏,1688-1744 ) is generally regarded as the greatest English poet of the eighteenth century, best known for his satirical epigram 讽刺隽语and heroic couplet英雄双韵体.His major works include mock epic satirical poem An Essay on Man 《人论》and An Essay on Criticism 《论批评》 Daniel Defoe ( 笛福，1660—1731)was an English writer who gained enduring fame for his novel Robinson Crusoe《鲁滨逊漂流记》, spokesman for middle-class people Henry Fielding (菲尔丁, 1707 ---1754) ，an English novelist known for his novel:The History of Tom Jones. Jonathan Swift (斯威夫特,1667-1745), was an Anglo-Irish novelist, satirist. He is remembered for novel such as Gulliver‘s Travels《格列佛游记》. Richard Sheridan ( 谢立丹，1751—1816), Irish playwright ,known for his satirical play School of Scandal(造谣学校). He was a represntative writer of Comedies of Manners. Laurence Sterne (斯特恩,1713—1768 ), an English novelist. He is best known for his novel Tristram Shandy （《商第传》）. Oliver Goldsmith （哥尔德斯密斯，1728-1774）English novelist, known for his novel Vicar of Wakefield (《威克菲尔德牧师传记》) Thomas Gray (托马斯?格雷1716—1771 )，an English poet, author of Elegy Written in a
英语专八英美文学常识汇总
3专八人文知识:英国地理概况 the english channel: the channel is a narrow sea passage which separates england and france and connects the atlantic ocean and north sea. 英吉利海峡：英吉利海峡是一道狭长的海峡，分割英法两国，连接大西洋和北海。 the dee estuary: a small sea ( in irish sea) where the dee river enters. 迪河河口：是迪河流入的一个小海。 "the act of union of 1801": in 1801 the english parliament passed an act by which scotland, wales and the kingdom of england were constitutionally joined as the kingdom of great britain. 1801合并法：1801年英国议会通过法令，规定英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士根据宪法合并成为大不列颠王国。 gaelic: it is one of the celtic language, and is spoken in parts of the highlands. 盖尔语：是盖尔特语言的一种，在高地地区仍有人说这种语言。 the "backbone of england": it refers to the pennies, the board ridge of hills.
英语专八人文知识考试总结 1 专八考试人文知识考试内容总结 其中英美文学包括英国文学和美国文学。英国文学主要分为六个时期： 1. Old and Medieval English Literature（中古英国文学）。 2. The Renaissance Period（文艺复兴时期）。 3. The Neoclassical Period（新古典主义时期）。 4. The Romantic Period（维多利亚时期）。 5. The Victorian Period（维多利亚时期）。 6. The Modern Period（现代时期）。 美国文学主要分为四个时期： 1. The Literature Around the Revolution of Independence（独立革命前后的文学）。 2. American Romanticism（美国浪漫主义文学）。 3. American Realism（美国现实主义文学）。 4. American Modernism（美国现代主义文学）。 语言学，考生不光要知道语言的本质还要掌握语音学，音位学，形态学，句法学，语义学和语言学的知识。 关于英语国家概况，英语专业的学生都会开设英美概况这门课程，但是专八考试的中需要考生了解的是英语国家概况，不光包括英国和美国，还有其他一些说英语的地区，包括爱尔兰概况，加拿大概况，澳大利亚概况和新西兰概况。 3专八人文知识:英国地理概况 the english channel: the channel is a narrow sea passage which separates england and france
英国文学 一、古英语时期的英国文学（499-1066） 1、贝奥武夫 2、阿尔弗雷德大帝：英国散文之父 二、中古英语时期的英国文学 1、allegory体非常盛行 2、Romance开始上升到一定的高度 3、高文爵士和绿衣骑士 4、Willian Langlaud 《农夫皮尔斯的幻象》 5、乔叟坎特伯雷故事集（英雄双韵体） 6、托马斯.马洛礼《亚瑟王之死》 三、文艺复兴时期的英国文学（伊丽莎白时代）（14-16世纪） 1、托马斯.莫尔《乌托邦》 2、Thomas Wyatt 和Henry Howard引入sonnet 3、Philips Sidney 《The defense of Poesie》 《阿卡迪亚》描述田园生活；现代长篇小说的先驱 4、斯宾塞《仙后》诗人中的诗人；斯宾塞体诗节； 5、莎士比亚： 长篇叙事诗：《维纳斯和阿多尼斯》、《露克丝受辱记》 四大悲剧：哈姆雷特、李尔王、奥赛罗、麦克白 7、本.琼森风俗喜剧（comedy of manners）《人性互异》 8、约翰.多恩“玄学派”诗歌创始人
9、George Herbert 玄学派诗圣 10、弗朗西斯.培根现代科学和唯物主义哲学创始人之一 《Essays》英国发展史上的里程碑 《学术的推进》和《新工具》 四、启蒙时期（18世纪） 1、约翰、弥尔顿：《失乐园》、《为英国人民争辩》 2、约翰、班扬：《天路历程》religious allegory 3、约翰、德莱顿：英国新古典主义的杰出代表、桂冠诗人； 《论戏剧诗》 4、亚历山大.蒲柏：英国新古典主义诗歌的重要代表；英雄双韵体的使用达到登峰造极的使用；《田园组诗》是其最早田园诗歌代表作 5、托马斯、格雷：感伤主义中墓园诗派的代表人物《墓园挽歌》 6、威廉、布莱克：天真之歌、经验之歌； 7、罗伯特、彭斯：苏格兰最杰出的农民诗人； 8、Richard Steel和Joseph Addison合作创办《The tatler》和《the spectator》 9、Samuel defoe 英国现实主义小说的奠基人之一；《鲁滨逊漂流记》；《铲除非国教徒的捷径》，仪表达自己的不满； 10、Jonathan Swift 《一个小小的建议》；《格列佛游记》；《桶的故事》； 11、Samuel Richardson 英国现代小说的创始人；帕米拉；克拉丽莎；查尔斯.格蓝迪森爵士的历史； 12、Henry Fielding 英国现实主义小说理论的奠基人；《约瑟夫。安德鲁》；《汤姆.琼斯》，英国现实主义小说的最高成就； 13、劳伦斯、斯特恩：感伤主义小说的杰出代表，《项狄传》，第一部开创了意识流小说的先驱之作品；《感伤的旅行》
专八文学常识 专八考来考去就这些东西，背就行了。 1. A Tale of Two Cities was written by Charles Dickens. 2. Phonology: The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patternin g and to tacit rules governing pronunciation. 音位学; 在语言或一门语言中，对有关其分类和模式以及为大家所默认的发音规则的研究音韵学, 音系学 3. Syntax: The study of the rules whereby words or othe r elements of sentence structure are combined to form gra mmatical sentences. 句法，研究词或其它句子成分如何联合起来形成合乎语法的句子规则的学科 4. Semantics: The study or science of meaning in language forms.语义学，以语言形式表示意思的研究或科学 5. acronym : 首字母组合词，首字母缩略词，比如，NATO, UNESCO, BASIC,它们可以连拼，但VOA 是 Initialism。 6. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which one word or ph rase is substituted for another with which it is closely asso ciated, as in the use of Washington for the United States government or of the sword for military power. 换喻或转喻，一种,一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的
专八人文知识总结(终) 英语专业八级考试人文知识 -- 文学 Ⅰ英国文学 一、 The Anglo-Saxon period古英语时期的英国文学（499-1066） The Song of Beowulf（贝奥武甫）：英国的民族史诗（epic），口头文学遗产 二、 The Anglo-Norman period中古英语时期的英国文学（1066-1350） 1、 allegory非常盛行 2、 Romance（传奇文学）：Sir Gawain and the Green Knight 高文爵士和绿衣骑 士 3、Geoffrey Chaucer乔叟: “Father of English poetry”被誉为英国诗歌之父,代表作The Canterbury Tales，首引入“英雄偶句体”(the Heroic Couplet)，。 4、Ballads 民谣：Robin Hood and Allin-a-Dale《罗宾汉和阿林代尔》。 三、 The Renaissance文艺复兴时期的英国文学（伊丽莎白时代）（14-16世纪） 1、 Thomas More托马斯·莫尔： Utopia《乌托邦》 2、 Thomas Wyatt 最先将sonnet引入英国文学。 3、 Philips Sidney锡德尼：An Apology for Poetry((also known as The Defense of Poetry)《为诗辩护》，这是伊丽莎白时代文学批评的最佳之作。Arcadia《阿卡迪亚》描述田园生活；现代长篇小说的先驱。 4、Edmund Spenser斯宾塞: The Fairy Queen《仙后》, the greatest epic poem of the time. 5、William Shakespeare莎士比亚：plays and sonnets 四大悲剧:《哈姆雷特》Hamlet《奥赛罗》Othello《李尔王》king Lear《麦克白》Macbeth 四大喜剧:《威尼斯商人》The Merchant of Venice 《仲夏夜之梦》A Midsummer Night's Dream《皆大欢喜》As You Like It《第十二夜》Twelfth night 7、Ben Johnson 本·琼森风俗喜剧（comedy of manners）《人性互异》 8、 John Donne约翰·多恩metaphysical poet“玄学派”诗歌创始人
* William Langland(朗兰1332-1400)：The Vision of Piers Plowman《农夫皮尔斯之幻象》: 普通人眼中的社会抗议 b. 15th C, English ballads: Thomas Malory (1395-1471):Morte D’Arthur《亚瑟王之死》- 圆桌骑士 二、The Renaissance Period英国文艺复兴(1500-1660): humanism 十四行诗，文艺复兴，无韵诗，伊丽莎白戏剧 1) 诗歌Henry Howard(霍华德1516-1547) a. Thomas Wyatt (怀亚特1503-1542): the first to introduce the sonnet into English literature b. Sir Philip Sidney(雪尼爵士1554-1586)：代表了当时的理想- “the complete man”Defense of Poetry《为诗辩护》 Astrophel and Stella; Arcadia《阿卡狄亚》: a prose romance filled with lyrics; a forerunner of the modern world c.Edmund Spenser(斯宾塞1552-1599): the poets’ poet; non-dramatic poet of伊丽莎白时代- long allegorical romance 文风：a perfect melody, a rare sense of beauty and a splendid imagination. The Shepherd Calendar The Faerie Queen《仙后》：long poem for Queen Elizabeth; Allegory - nine-line verse stanza/ the Spenserian Stanza Spenserian Stanza(斯宾塞诗体): Nine lines, the first eight lines is in iambic(抑扬格) pentameter(五步诗), and the ninth line is an iambic hexameter(六步诗) line. 2) Prose 散文 a. Thomas More(莫尔1478-1535): 欧洲早期空想社会主义创始人Utopia《乌
General Knowledge for Literature in TEM8（2014—1998） (2014） 35. “Grace under pressure”is an outstanding virtue of_____ heroes. A. Scott Fitzgerald's B. William Faulkner's C. Ernest Hemingway's D. Eugene O'Neill's 36. Widowers' House was written by_____. A. John Galsworthy B. George Bernard Shaw C. William Butler Yeats D. T. S. Eliot 37. Who wrote The Canterbury Tales? A. Geoffrey Chaucer B. William Shakespeare C. John Donne D. William Blake (2013） 35. Which of the following clusters of words is an example of alliteration? A. A weak seat. B. Safe and sound. C. Knock and kick. D. Coat and boat. 36. Who wrote Mrs. Warren's Profession? A. John Galsworhty. B.William Butler Yeats. C. T.S.Eliot D. George Bernard Shaw. 37. Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser is a(n) . A. novel B. short story C. poem D. autobiography (2012） 35. Who is the author of The Waste Land? A. George Bernard Shaw B. W. B.Yeats C. Dylan Thomas D. T.S.Eliot 36. Which of the following novelists wrote The Sound and the Fury? A.William Faulkner B. Ernest Hemingway C. Scott Fitzgerald D. John Steinbeck 37. “The lettuce was lonely without tomatoes and cucumbers for company”is an example of . A. exaggeration B. understatement C. personification D.synecdoche (2011） th-century England. in the 20 35. Virginia Woolf was an important female A. poet B. biographer C. playwright D. novelist 36. refers to a long narrative poem that records the adventures of a hero in a nation's history . A. Ballad B. Romance C. Epic D. Elegy th century? 37. Which of the following best explores American myth in the 20A. The Great Gatsby B. The Sun Also Rises C. The Sound and the Fury D. Beyond the Horizon (2010） 35. is best known for the technique of dramatic monologue in his poems. A. William Blake B. W. B. Yeats C. Robert Browning D. William Wordsworth 36. The Financier is written by . A. Mark Twain B. Henry James C. William Faulkner D. Theodore Dreiser
美国文学 第一阶段独立革命之前（十七世纪中期之前）（before the revolution of independence） 第一节美国本土文学（美国印第安传统文学） 印第安传统文学的主要内容和形式：在各种典仪上咏颂的祝词，在劳作中吟唱的歌曲，时代交口相传的部落神话故事和英雄故事，刻写在山河岩壁上的象形史诗。 第二节北美殖民时期文学（十六世纪末-----十七世纪中）（colonial settlement） 这一时期的文学作品主要是一些英国的殖民地官员或者传道士、冒险家们以日记或游记等形式记录的新大陆的风土人情、自然景色和民间生活等。 John Smith 约翰·史密斯《关于弗吉尼亚的真实叙述》A True Relation of Virginia （被认为是美国文学史上的“第一部作品”） 第三节请教思想的表述（Puritanism） 他们的作品主要是以传布清教主义思想的布道文为主 第二阶段独立革命时期（十七世纪中期-------十八世纪末） （around the revolution of independence） 独立革命前后的美国文学，标志着北美文学产生后的第一次大转折 该期文学特色：充满浓烈的政治性和思辨性。主题多为爱国主义及对于独立民主自由的热切呼唤。 Benjamin Franklin 本杰明·富兰克林《穷查理历书》Poor Richard’s Almanac 《自传》The Autobiography Thomas Paine 托马斯·潘恩《常识》Common Sense 《美国危机》The America Crisis 《人的权利》Rights of Human《理性时代》The Age of Reason Philip Freneau 菲利普·弗伦诺（18世纪最杰出的美国诗人，被誉为“the poet of the American revolution） 《英国囚船》The British Prison Ship 《美国的荣耀蒸蒸日上》The Rising Glory of America 《印第安人殡葬地》（lyric）The Indian Burying Ground 《野金银花》The Wild Honey Suckle 第三阶段浪漫主义时期（18世纪末---19世纪中后期）（American Romanticism） 该时期主题多为传统文化与现代文明之间的冲突、“对久远与遥远故事的兴趣”以及对死亡、潜意识的剖析等。 Washington Irving 华盛顿·欧文the first prose stylist of American Romanticism / “Father of American Literature” 《纽约史》A History of New York 《见闻札记》The Sketch Book---标致美国浪漫主义的开始 《瑞普·凡·温克尔》Rip Van Winkle 《睡谷的传说》The Legend of Sleepy Hollow 《旅行者的故事》Tales of Traveler 《阿尔罕伯拉》The Alhambra James Fenimore Cooper 詹姆斯·费尼莫尔·库珀《间谍》The Spy《领航者》The Pilot “皮袜子故事系列”: 《杀鹿者》The Deerslayer 《最后的莫希干人》The Last Mohicans 《拓荒者》The Pioneers 《探路人》The Pathfinder《大草原》The Prairie Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 亨利·沃慈沃斯·朗费罗（美国第一个写叙述诗的诗人） 《夜吟》Voices of the Night《人生礼赞》A Psalm of Life William Cullen Bryant 威廉·柯伦·布莱恩特（强调美国人个人意识，关注自然） 《泉》The Fountain 《白蹄鹿》The White-Footed Deer 《森林赋》The Forest Hymn 《似水流年》The Flood of Years 《死亡随想》Thanatopsis
英国文学(English Literature) 一、Old and Medieval English Literature中古英语文学(8世纪-14世纪) 1) The Old English Period / The Anglo-Saxon Period古英语时期(449-1066) a. pagan poetry(异教诗歌): Beowulf《贝奥武甫》- 最早的诗歌；长诗(3000行) heroism & fatalism & Christian qualities the folk legends of the primitive northern tribes; a heroic Scandinavian epic legend; 善恶有报b. religious poetry: Caedmon(凯德蒙610-680): the first known religious poet; the father of English song Cynewulf(基涅武甫9C): The Christ c. 8th C, Anglo-Saxon prose: Venerable Bede(673-735); Alfred the Great(848-901) 2) The Medieval Period中世纪(1066-ca.1485 / 1500): a. Romance中世纪传奇故事(1200-1500): the Middle Ages; 英雄诗歌 无名诗人- Sir Gawain and the Green Knight《高文爵士与绿色骑士》: Celtic legend; verse-romance; 2530 lines ~ 14th C,Age of Chaucer: * Geoffrey Chaucer(乔叟1340-1400): 文风：vivid and exact language, his poetry is full of vigor and swiftness the father of English poetry; the father of English fiction; 首创“双韵体”couplet; 首位用伦敦方言写作英国作家 The Canterbury Tales:pilgrims stories 受Boccaccio(薄伽丘) - Decameron《十日谈》启发 The House of Fame; Troilus and Criseyde; The Romaunt of the Rose《玫瑰罗曼史》(译作) * William Langland(朗兰1332-1400)：The Vision of Piers Plowman《农夫皮尔斯之幻象》: 普通人眼中的社会抗议 b. 15th C, English ballads: Thomas Malory (1395-1471):Morte D’Arthur《亚瑟王之死》- 圆桌骑士 二、The Renaissance Period英国文艺复兴(1500-1660): humanism十四行诗，文艺复兴，无韵诗，伊丽莎白戏剧 1) 诗歌Henry Howard(霍华德1516-1547) a. Thomas Wyatt (怀亚特1503-1542): the first to introduce the sonnet into English literature b. Sir Philip Sidney(雪尼爵士1554-1586)：代表了当时的理想- “the complete man”Defense of Poetry《为诗辩护》 Astrophel and Stella; Arcadia《阿卡狄亚》: a prose romance filled with lyrics; a forerunner of the modern world c.Edmund Spenser(斯宾塞1552-1599): the poets’ poet; non-dramatic poet of伊丽莎白时代- long allegorical romance 文风：a perfect melody, a rare sense of beauty and a splendid imagination. The Shepherd Calendar The Faerie Queen《仙后》：long poem for Queen Elizabeth; Allegory - nine-line verse stanza/ the Spenserian Stanza Spenserian Stanza(斯宾塞诗体): Nine lines, the first eight lines is in iambic(抑扬格) pentameter(五步诗), and the ninth line is an iambic hexameter(六步诗) line.
英美文学知识点总结（专八） Old English Literature （古英语文学） （450-1066年） Beowulf 《贝奥武甫》: The first English national epic. S ir Gawain and the Green Knight 《高文爵士与绿林骑士》：knight literature. 中世纪英语文学（1066-1500） Geoffrey Chaucer(乔叟，c. 1343–1400) was an English poet. He is remembered for his The Canterbury Tales《坎特伯雷故事集》, called the father of English literature ―英国文学诗歌之父‖William Langland (朗格兰，1330?-1400?), the author of the 14th-century English long narrative poem Piers Plowman《农夫皮尔斯》. 文艺复兴（16-17世纪） William Shakespeare (莎士比亚，1564-1616), English poet and playwright, his surviving works consist of 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems Venus and Adonis 《维拉斯和阿多尼斯》The Rape of Lucrece.《鲁克丽丝受辱记》 Shakespeare‘s greatest works: 1．Greatest tragedies are King Lear《李尔王》, Macbeth《麦克白》, Hamlet《哈姆雷特》, Othello 《奥赛罗》, Romeo and Juliet 《罗密欧与朱丽叶》. 2．Great comedies: A Midsummer Night’s Dream《仲夏夜之梦》, As You Like It 《皆大欢喜》, The Merchant of Venice 《威尼斯商人》, Twelfth Night《第十二夜》 3．great historical plays:Richard III 《理查三世》, Henry IV《亨利四世》, Henry V 《亨利五世》, Henry VII 《亨利八世》 Francis Bacon (弗朗西斯·培根, 1561-1626) a representative of the Renaissance in England, is a well-known philosopher, scientist and essayist. He lays the foundation for modern science with his insistence on scientific way of thinking and fresh observation rather than authority as a basis for obtaining knowledge. His Essays is the first example of that genre in English literature, which has been recognized as an important landmark in the development of English prose. Works by Bacon: The Advancement of Learning（1605）《学术的推进》，New Instrument (1620) 《新工具》，Essays (1625) 《培根文集》. John Donne (约翰·邓恩，1572-1631), a leading figure of the ―metaphysical school‖（玄学派主要代表人物），who frequently applies conceits (奇喻) or fantastic metaphors in his poems, involving dramatic contrasts. His poems feature a diversity of experiences and attitudes, and a free range of feelings and moods, achieving vividness of imagery, vitality of rhythms, ingenuity of speech and depth of philosophy. Works by Donne: Songs and Sonnets《歌与十四行诗》，of which ―The Flea‖, ―The Good Morrow‖, ―Break of Day‖and ―A Valediction: Forbidding Morning‖are most popular. Holy