一. 名词解释
1.无氧呼吸:
2.呼吸:
3.生物氧化
4.生物固氮
5.发酵
6.硝化作用：
7.反硝化作用：
8.抗生素:
9. Penicillium chrysogenum 产黄青霉
10.固氮作用：
二．填空
1.微生物产生ATP的方式有_____________,_____________和 _____________三种.
2.经呼吸链，每个NA DH可产生 ____________个ATP。
3.在循环光合磷酸化过程中，被激发的菌绿素分子释放的电子最后给__________.
4.在非循环光合磷酸化过程中，O2来自__________被氧化..
5.当微生物进行呼吸时，分解一个单个葡萄糖，一般形成_____________个ATP分子
的产生和氧化称为 _____________ 。
6.两种微生物间H
2
7.质氧化才能供给微生物能量，物质氧化的方式根据最终电子受体的不同有有三种方式：____________ 、_____________ 和_____________ 。
8.物质氧化才能供给微生物能量，物质氧化的方式根据最终电子受体的不同有有三种方式：_______________ 、_____________和_____________。
9.大肠杆菌发酵葡萄糖的V.P.反应为_______性，甲基红试验为______性。
10.放线菌对国民经济的重要性，在于它们是抗生素的主要产生菌，许多临床和生产上有使用价值如___________、____________等等都由放线菌产生。
11. EMP途径,HMP途径,ED途径三者相比,产能最多的途径是______,产还原力最多的途径是_______。
三．判断
1．能够固氮的微生物都是原核生物。（）
2．反硝化作用只有在无氧条件下进行。（）
3．氧化磷酸化包括发酵作用、有氧呼吸和无氧呼吸。（）
4同一种微生物由于环境中的pH不同可能积累不同的代谢产物。( )
5硝化细菌可以把氨转化为亚硝酸和硝酸,它属于化能自养型的微生物。( )
6．同一种微生物由于环境中的pH不同可能积累不同的代谢产物。( )
7．化能自养型微生物生长所需要的能源来自无机物氧化过程中放出的化学能。（）
8阿维菌素是一种抗生素，它是一种微生物杀虫剂。（）
四．选择
1．原核生物所特有的糖降解途径是：（）
A EMP
B HMP
C E
D D TCA循环
2．同型乳酸发酵中的丙酮酸来自（）
A EMP
B HMP
C E
D D TCA循环
3．通过有氧代谢，下述那个反应产生的ATP最多（）
A 葡萄糖→ 6-磷酸葡萄糖
B 葡萄糖→丙酮酸
C 琥珀酸→延胡索酸
4．下述过程那个不产生ATP （）
A 光合磷酸化
B 氧化磷酸化
C 底物水平磷酸化
D Calvin cycle
5．葡萄糖彻底氧化包括那三个典型的阶段（）
A 化学渗透，光合磷酸化，还原
B 葡萄糖降解，TCA循环，电子传递链
C 底物水平磷酸化，Calvin cycle，TCA循环
D 光合作用，发酵，氧化
6．异养生物利用有机物作能源和碳源，产生5碳中间产物供合成核酸，利用的途径是（）
A 混合酸发酵途径 B循环光合磷酸化 C TCA循环 D HMP途径
7．细菌在有氧条件下彻底分解一分子葡萄糖可产生（）分子ATP。
A． 2 B. 12 Ｃ．36 D. 38
8．原核微生物能量代谢及很多合成代谢的部位是（）
A.质膜
B.线粒体
C.高尔基体
D.核糖体
还原成细胞物质的微生物是( ) 9以无机物作为供氢体,利用化能将CO
2
A.光能自养型
B.光能异养型
C.化能自养型
D.化能异养型
10发酵作用是（）的生物氧化作用
A. 氧气参与下
B. 无机氧化物参与下
C. 有外源电子最终受体
D. 无外源电子最终受体
11下列（）不抑制细菌细胞壁肽聚糖的合成过程
A. 万古霉素
B. 青霉素
C. 杆菌肽
D. 链霉素
12（）是酿酒工业常用的糖化酶菌种
A.根霉
B.曲霉
C.青霉
D.枯草杆菌
13微生物产生能量后，（）不是能量消耗的主要方面。
A.营养物质的主动吸收
B.物质合成
C.生物发光
D.物质分解
五．问答
1．试述固氮微生物的种类及其固氮的生化机制。
2.什么叫无氧呼吸，比较呼吸，无氧呼吸，发酵的异同点？
3.在化能自养细菌中，亚硝化细菌和硝化细菌是如何获得生命活动所需的ATP和还原力
[H]的？
4.只能抑制代谢旺盛的细菌，其抑制机理如何？
5.共分几类，细菌的光合作用和绿色植物的光合作用之间有什么不同？
6.简述固氮酶固氮的条件？
7什么是初级代谢和次级代谢，二者关系如何？
《朗文英语 4 B》复习提要 C h a p t e r5：F ood f r o m a r o un d t h e w o r l d来自全世界的食物I.PartA 经过第1章的学习，下面的新单词我们要准确无误地读（r e a d t h e m c o rr e c t l y），知道它们的中文意思(k n o w t h e C h i n e s e m e a n i n g)，不看书进行英汉互译(t r a n s l a t e)，并且还要会拼写(s p e ll)。 1.I t a l y意大利 2.France 法国 3.Japan 日本 4.A m e r i c a美国 5.C h i n a中国 注意：国家名称首字母要大写 ?6.f r o m a r o un d t h e w o r l d来自全世界 ?7.i n t e r n a t i o n a l国际的 ?8.F r a n c e法国 ?9.F r e n c h法语、法国人、法国的 ?e g.H e i s a F r e n c h,s o h e c a n s p e ak F r e n c h.他是一个法国人，所以他会说法语。 ?H e i s f r o m F r a n c e,b u t h e c a n’t s p e ak F r e n c h.他来自法国，但是他不会说法语。
?I t i s F r e n c h f ood，a n d I li k e i t v e r y m u c h.它是法国的食物，我很喜欢它。 ?10.c o m e f r o m=b e f r o m来自 ?e g.I c o m e f r o m C h i n a.=I a m f r o m C h i n a. ?H e c o m e s f r o m I t a l y.=H e i s f r o m I t a l y. ?W e c o m e f r o m J a p a n.=W e a r e f r o m J a p a n. ?W h e r e do y o u c o m e f r o m?=W h e r e a r e y o u f r o m? ?S h e do e s n’t c o m e f r o m C h i n a.=S h e i s n’t f r o m C h i n a. II句型。下面的关键句型我们要会读（r e a d）,知道意思（k n o w t h e C h i n e s e m e a n i n g）,会根据不同的语境来运用（u s e t h e m i n d i ff e r e n t c o n t e x t s），会写（w r i t e t h e m c o rr e c t l y）。 一、---S h a ll w e t r y s o m e…?我们尝一些…好吗？ ---G ood i d e a.好主意。 S h a ll w e t r y s o m e s p a g h e tt i? S h a ll w e t r y s o m e p i zz a?
Notes 1.on the usual terms 按照惯常条款 under the usual terms 按照惯常条款 according to the usual terms 按照惯常条款 2.in reply to 现答复；兹复 in response to in answer to 3.unworkable adj. 不能实行的，价格做不开 4.end-users 最终用户，用户（指以使用或消费为目的的消费者） 5.regret vt. 抱歉，遗憾 6.to the level=to the extent 到达这样的程度 7.be on the high(low) side价格偏高（低） find your price too high 认为你方价格偏高 find our prices too low 认为我方价格偏低 find our prices reasonable 认为我方价格合 find our prices competitive 认为我方价格具有竞争性 find our prices in line with the market 认为我方价格与市价一致find our prices workable 认为我方价格可行 find our prices acceptable 认为我方价格可接受 8.i.e. 立即= that is 9.see one’s way clear to do sth 设法做某事 10.direct one’s attention to the fact that =invite/draw/call 提醒某人注意某事 11.out of line with 与…不一致 in line with 与…一致 12.the prevailing market 现行市场；现行行市 the present market the current market the ruling market 13.Price the present price 现行的价格 the ruling price 现行的价格 the going price 现行的价格 the prevailing price 现行的价格 the current price 现行的价格 the prevalent price 现行的价格 14.the Indian origin 产地 country of origin 生产国别；原产地 Certificate of origin 原产地证明 Eg:What is the place of origin? 原产地是哪里？ 15.indicate v. 表示；说明； indication n. 概念；迹象；示意；征兆 16.slightly adv. 略微；稍稍；稍微 17.the difference in (price) (价格方面)的差别
Chapter 5 Managing Marketing Information Multiple Choice 1.What went wrong with Coke in 1985? a.Management defined its marketing research problem too narrowly. b.The research looked only at taste and not feeling about dropping the old Coke. c.No account of intangibles was taken. d.All of the above (d; Moderate) 2.Despite the data glut that marketing managers receive, they frequently complain that they lack _____. a.enough information of the right kind b.quality information c.timely information d.accurate and reliable information (a; Easy) 3.An MIS consists of people, equipment, and procedures to gather, sort, _____, evaluate, and distribute information to marketing decision makers. a.test b.test market c.analyze d.critique (d; Easy) 4.Your firm has just developed its first successful MIS. It interacts with information users to assess information needs, develop needed information, _____ the marketing information, and help managers use it in their decision making. a.distribute b.collect c.retrieve d.store (a; Challenging)
《朗文英语4 B》复习提要 Chapter 5：Food from around the world来自全世界的食物I．PartA 经过第1章的学习，下面的新单词我们要准确无误地读（read them correctly），知道它们的中文意思(know the Chinese meaning)，不看书进行英汉互译( translate)，并且还要会拼写( spell)。 1.Italy意大利 2. France法国 3. Japan日本 4. America美国 5.China 中国 注意：国家名称首字母要大写 ? 6. from around the world来自全世界 ?7. international国际的 ?8.Fr an ce法国 ?9. Fr en ch 法语、法国人、法国的 ?eg. He is a French, so he can speak French. 他是一个法国人，所以他会说法语。 ?He is from France, but he can’t speak French. 他来自法国，但是他不会说法语。
?It is French food，and I like it very much.它是法国的食物，我很喜欢它。 ?10. come from =be from 来自 ?eg. I come from China.= I am from China. ?He comes from Italy.= He is from Italy. ?We come from Japan.= We are from Japan. ?Where do you come from?= Where are you from? ?She doesn’t come from China.= She isn’t from China. II句型。下面的关键句型我们要会读（read）, 知道意思（know the Chinese meaning）, 会根据不同的语境来运用（use them in different contexts），会写（write them correctly）。 一、---Shall we try some …? 我们尝一些…好吗？ --- Good idea. 好主意。 Shall we try some spaghetti? Shall we try some pizza? Shall we try some sushi?
Chapter 5 Consumer Markets and Consumer Buyer Behavior 1) ________ is never simple, yet understanding it is the essential task of marketing management. A) Brand personality B) Consumption pioneering C) Early adoption D) Consumer buying behavior E) Understanding the difference between primary and secondary data Answer: D Diff: 1 Page Ref: 135 Skill: Concept Objective: 5-1 2) The consumer market is made up of which of the following? A) individuals who acquire goods or services for personal consumption B) households that purchase goods or services for personal consumption C) businesses that purchase goods and services D) A and B E) all of the above Answer: D Diff: 2 Page Ref: 135 Skill: Concept Objective: 5-1 3) Economic, technological, and cultural forces are all ________ in the stimulus-response model of buyer behavior. A) buyer responses B) stimuli C) components of the buyer's decision process D) buyer characteristics E) buying attitudes Answer: B Diff: 2 Page Ref: 137 Skill: Concept Objective: 5-1
I. Choose the best answer and put the letter of your choice in the brackets. 1. The minimal meaningful units are known as _____. A. morphs B. stems C. morphemes D. roots 2. The word ‘shortenings’ contains _____ morphemes. A. three B. four C. five D. six 3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as _____. A. morphs B. phonemes C. lexemes D. allomorphs 4. Words like cat, dog, tree and so on are called ______ words. A. stem B. polysemous C. polymorphemic D. monomorphemic 5. Free morphemes are the same as _____ words. A. clipped B. stem C. native D. root 6. In the word “contradiction”, the morpheme “-dict-“ is _____. A. a free root B. a bound root C. an affix D. a free morpheme 7. In the word “international”, “nation” is not a _____. A. free morpheme B. stem C. bound morpheme D. free root 8. A bound morpheme has to combine with other _____ to make words. A. morphemes B. allomorphs C. phonemes D. Lexemes 9. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in _____ words. A. derived B. converted C. inflectional D. compound 10. _____ affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. A. Inflectional B. Bound C. Derivational D. Converted 11. A _____ is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. A. root B. morph C. morpheme D. stem 12. The word _____ contain an inflectional affix. A. worker B. happier C. formal D. enrich II. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions given in the course book. 1. A _____ is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. 2. The plural morpheme has a number of _____ in different sound context. 3. There is no _____ morpheme in the word “dictation”. 4. Free morphemes and free _____are identical. 5. Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words are called _____ affixes. 6. The word “internationalists” has _____ morphemes. 7. According to the _____ of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes. 8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and _____. III. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. 1. Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. 2. Inflectional morphemes indicate grammatical relationships. 3. Free morphemes can be used as words alone. 4. What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes is a stem. 5. A word is the minimal meaningful unit of a language.
Chapter 5 Semantics 1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning 答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. (2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. (3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist. (4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest. 2. What are the major types of synonyms in English 答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms. Examples（略） 3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”. 答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. (3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all its hyponyms. Examples（略） 4. How can words opposite in meaning be classified To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong north/south vacant/occupied literate/illiterate above/below doctor/patient wide/narrow poor/rich father/daughter 答：They can be gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms and relational opposite Gradable antonyms: literate/illiterate wide /narrow poor/rich
《朗文英语4A》复习提要 Chapter 5: Animals big and small大大小小的动物 I. 经过第5章的学习，下面的新单词我们要准确无误地读(read them correctly)，知道它们的中文意思(know the Chinese meaning)，不看书进行英汉互译(translate)，并且还要会拼写(spell)。 a horse 一匹马 a camel 一匹骆驼 a giraffe 一头长颈鹿an owl 一只猫头鹰 a peacock 一只孔雀an eagle 一只老鹰 a panda 一只熊猫 a hippo 一只河马(hippos 复数) an elephant 一头大象 a rabbit 一只兔子 a rat 一只老鼠(大) a mouse 一只老鼠(小) (mice 复数) *注意mouse 和rat的区别： 在英语中，rat含有贬义，就像国内的过街老鼠，肮脏，是害虫。Mouse一般不含贬义，外国人看mouse是一种动物，一般指实验室里的小白鼠。还有一种老鼠是仓鼠(hamster)。 II.句型。下面的关键句型我们要会读(read), 知道意(know the Chinese meaning), 会根据不同的语境来运用(use them in different contexts)，会写(write them correctly)。 1. The horse, the camel and the giraffe are tall. The camel is taller than the horse. The giraffe is the tallest. 2. The owl, the peacock and the eagle are big.
第五章物质跨膜运输 一、名词解释 1. 渗透 2. 载体蛋白 3. 离子通道 4. 协同运输 5. 简单扩散 6. 协助扩散 7. 配体门通道 8. 离子门通道 二、选择题：请在以下每题中选出正确答案，每题正确答案为1-6个，多选和少选均不得分 1. 以下哪一种运输器或运输方式不消耗能量 A.电位门通道 B.内吞（endocytosis） C.外排（exocytosis） D.协同运输 2. 红细胞膜上的带3蛋白是一种 A.离子泵 B.ABC转运器 C.离子通道 D.离子载体 3. 动物小肠细胞对葡萄糖的吸收依靠 A.钠离子梯度驱动的同向协同（symport） B.钠离子梯度驱动的反向协同（antiport） 4. 植物细胞和细菌的协同运输常利用哪一种的浓度梯度来驱动。 A.钙离子 B.质子 C.钠离子 D.钾离子 5. 人类多药抗性蛋白（multidrug resistance protein, MDR）属于
A.V型离子泵 B.P型离子泵 C.F型离子泵 D.ABC转运器 6. V型质子泵位于许多细胞器的膜上，用以维持细胞器内部的酸性环境，以下哪一种细胞器内的pH值低于显著细胞质的pH值 A.溶酶体 B.内吞体 C.植物液泡 D.线粒体 7. 神经递质在神经肌肉-接点处的释放是对哪一种离子浓度的变化的直接响应。 A.钙离子 B.质子 C.钠离子 D.钾离子 8. 肌质网上的钙离子泵属于 A.V型离子泵 B.P型离子泵 C.F型离子泵 9. 钠钾泵 A.通过自磷酸化发生构象改变 B.每消耗一个ATP，转出2个钠离子，转进3个钾离子 C.参与形成膜静息电位 D.参与维持细胞离子平衡 10. 以下哪些可作为细胞主动运输的直接能量来源 A.离子梯度 B.NADH C.A TP D.光 11. 以下哪一种蛋白质不属于配体门通道
3A Chapter 5 练习3 笔试部分： Part1. Write the correct sentences. (连词成句，加上标点符号). 1.may/have/ I/two /tickets/ , please ? 2. marbles/these/ smooth/and/round/are/. 3. feel/ can /i/ them/? 4. please/armchair/in /this/sit. 5 .the headmaster/the farewell party/for//when’s ? Part2 ：选择合适的单词完成对话。 1. is the crayon? It’s three dollars. 2. _______do you like summer best? Because I can swim in summer. 3. _______is Speech Day? It’s on the third of December. 4. _______do you like doing at school? I like playing tennis. 5. _______is your English teacher? My English teacher is Miss Wu. 6. _______sports do you like best? I like running best. Part 3. 用it, them填空。 1.These marbles are smooth. I like them . 2.This chair is hard. I don’t like_______. 3.This armchair is soft. I like ________. 4.These stones are rough. I don’t like________.
《朗文英语第一册》内容提要 Chapter 5 I. Personal names （可爱的同学们，通过这个章节的学习，你们认识了下而的人名，那你能达到听 懂，准确读出叫？再来读一读吧，争取一次通过吖??） fe Personal names Peggy, Howard, Gloria, Captain Crook, Vanessa, Hilda, Larry, Ralph, IL Words, expressions and grammars （现在是PK 时间，相信不甘落后的你，一定不会认输的，那么对下面的单词、 词组与语法，你能完成如卜要求，相信你会在PK 中胜出呦，那么赶紧來按照耍 求行动吧：耍求会读，听得懂，会拼写并在口、笔头练习中运用） Words and expressions ? Words: married 已婚的，single 未婚的/单身的，handsome 英俊的 rich 富有的， poor 贫穷的 ? Expressions: tell sb. about sth.告诉某人关于。。。 have a good time 玩得开心、 [lb Grammar To be: yes/no questions with or and short answers —Am I thin or heavy? ---You’re heavy. ---Is he/she/it young or old? ---He/She/It is young. ---Are we/you/they rich or poor? — We/You/They 9re rich. ugly 丑的， large 巨人的 expensive 贵的，cheap 便宜的 loud/noisy 吵闹的 difficult 难的， be on vacation 在度假 have a terrible time 玩得糟糕
第五章 线性微分方程组 5.1 存在唯一性定理 5.1.1 记号和定义 考察形如 (5.1) 其中已知函数a ij(t)(i,j,=1,2,…,n)和f i(t)(i=1,2,…,n)在区间atb上是连续的,方程组关于x1,x2,…,x n及x1,x2,…,x n是线性的. 引进记号 则原方程(5.1)可写成形式x=A(t)x+f(t). 概念 一个矩阵(或向量)在区间atb上称为连续的,如果它的每一个元都是区间atb上的连续函数. 一个nn矩阵B(t)或一个n维列向量u(t) 在区间atb上称为可微的,如果它的每一个元都在区间atb上可微,且 性质 (1)[A(t)+B(t)]=A(t)+B(t); (2)[u(t)+v(t)]=u(t)+v(t); (3)[A(t)B(t)]=A(t)B(t)+A(t)B(t); (4)[A(t)u(t)]=A(t)u(t)+A(t)u(t). 类似地, 矩阵B(t)或一个n维列向量u(t)在区间atb上称为可积的,如果它的每一个元都在区间atb上可积,且 定义1设A(t)是区间atb上的连续nn矩阵,f(t)是同一区间上的连续n维向量.方程组x=A(t)x+f(t)(5.4) 在某区间t ([, ][a, b])的解就是向量u(t), 它的导数u(t) 在区间atb上连续且满足u(t)=A(t)u(t)+f(t), t. 定义2初值问题x=A(t)x+f(t) x(t0)= (5.5) 的解就是方程组(5.4)在包含t0的区间t 上的解, 使得u(t0)=． 例１ 试列出下图中经过L1及L2电路的电流I1及I2应满足的微分方程．
3A Chapter 5 练习 笔试部分： Part1. Write the correct sentences. (连词成句，加上标点符号). 1.Stella/the stones/feels/her hands/with . 2. think/I/ they’re /tissues /. 3. would/ like /you/ what/to do/now/? 4. She/Mary/on Saturday/visits . 5. You/listen to/music/some/can. Part2 ：选择划线单词的中文意思. 1. ( ) She visits Mary on Saturday. A．拜访 B. 回家 C. 看见 2. ( ) I can show them to Stella. A. 卖出去 B. 给…看 C. 收回来 3. ( ) Stella smiles. She likes them very much. A. 闹 B. 哭 C. 微笑 4. ( )Mary gets some pretty stones. A.开心的 B. 漂亮的 C. 很大的 Part 3：选出不同类的单词，把序号写在前面的括号里。 1. ( ) A. rainy B. happy C. foggy D. warm
2.( )A. spring B. water C. summer D. winter 3.( )A. sand B. hard C. rough D. smooth 4.( )A. six B. second C. fifth D. first 5.( )A. Open Day B. Sports Day C. cards D. Speech Day 6.( )A. purse B. camera C. barbecue D. shoes 7.( ) A. May B. April C. concert D. October 8. ( ) A. cushion B. marble C. soft D. armchair Part 4. Read the following passage and choose the right answers.读短文，回答问题。 1.Riddles （谜语） Who am I? I have a long neck. I can eat leaves on tall trees. I also have long legs. I am very tall. Who am I? I am a ________________. Who am I? I am small. I am afraid of cats. I like to eat cheese. Who am I? I am a ________________. 2. Pictures I love to draw pictures. Drawing pictures makes me happy. I like to draw on a white piece of paper. Sometimes, I draw colourful butterflies in the park. Other times, I draw pictures of people in my family. Next week, I will draw a picture of my grandmother. I will give the picture to her for
Fundamentals of Management, 8e (Robbins et al.) Chapter 5 Basic Organizational Structure and Design I True or false Organizational design is the process in which managers change or develop an organization's structure. There are four basic elements in organizational structure. The original ideas about organizational design formulated by Fayol and Weber are now largely obsolete. When work specialization originally began to be implemented early in the twentieth century, employee productivity initially rose. Today, most managers see work specialization as a source of ever-increasing productivity. The advantage of work specialization is that it tends to result in high employee motivation and high productivity. Departmentalization is how jobs are grouped. Staff authority is the ability to direct the work of any employee who does not have a higher rank in the organization. Grouping jobs on the basis of major product areas is termed customer departmentalization. Line authority can be exerted only after a manager checks with his or her superior. Unity of command prevents an employee from trying to follow two conflicting commands at once. Power is a right that a manager has when he or she has a higher rank in an organization. When decisions tend to be made at lower levels in an organization, the organization is said to be centralized. Traditional organizations are structured in a pyramid, with the power and authority located in the pyramid's broad base. The two prevalent organization structure models in today's world are the organic organization and the inorganic organization. A mechanistic organization is bureaucratic and hierarchical. An organic organization tends to be flexible and have few formal rules. Innovators need the efficiency, stability, and tight controls of a mechanistic structure rather than an organic structure. The relationship between organizational size and structure tends to be linear. Joan Woodward attempted to view organizational structure from a technological perspective. Woodward concluded that mass production worked best with an organic organization structure. The stability of a mechanistic structure seems to work best in today's dynamic and uncertain business environment. The strength of a simple structure is that everything depends on a single person. A strength of a functional structure is that it avoids duplication. A weakness of the divisional structure is that duplication tends to occur. In a team structure, team members are not held responsible for their decisions. In a team structure, there is a clear line of managerial authority from top to bottom. Employees in an organization with a matrix design can have two bosses for the same job. A significant advantage of the matrix structure is the clear chain of command from top to bottom of the organization. When employees in a matrix structure finish a project, they go back to their functional department. When employees in a project structure finish a project, they go back to their original department. Vertical boundaries separate employees by their rank in an organization. Horizontal boundaries separate employees by the amount of power they have in an organization. A virtual organization relies on freelancers who have no permanent status or position in the