工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译
Risk Analysis of the International Construction Project
ABSTRACT
This analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ?s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.
KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .
The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .
At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ?s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .
After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants? lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .
The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.
Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely to
be sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .
Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization?s business risks. This wi ll increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .
Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no …best practice? standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .
According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant?s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require a
multi-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .
It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .
The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.
The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.
Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.
CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.
The AE can review the CM?s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM?s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.
The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .
A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.
There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.
A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.
There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.
It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appear
justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.
In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers? or contractors? knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .
This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.
国际建设工程风险分析
摘要
此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部（SAZ）的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。特别是，它审查了建设专业队伍发挥的事先作用。分析显示，津巴布韦标准协会总部的传统建筑工程普遍具有高风险的特点。一个明显失败的迹象，是由原告所声称的承包商和建筑师们在预防和/或缓解可能发生的建设问题上是失败的。推断在部分屋顶坍塌之前两者之间的缺陷应该及早发现并及时纠正是合理。原告有理由对承包者和建筑师双方带来的疏忽索赔看来是合乎情理的。风险分析，通过多方位方法分析建设问题的决定性查问，使有效风险管理策略对失败建设问题的鉴定容易。越强调服务的重点，委托方的要求越来越高，挑剔越来越多，并不太愿意接受没有赔偿的风险。委托方不想要惊喜，并且当事情出现问题更可能去诉讼。
关键词：仲裁，索赔，建设，合同，诉讼，工程和风险
加强的混凝土构件的结构设计由KP咨询工程师设计。工料测量服务由HLB 提供。该合同授予非洲中心建筑公司（CABCO），该公司也负责提供采用专利的“四人帮钉”屋架屋顶结构。建筑建设完工后，于1991年9月12日移交给业主。津巴布韦标准协会总部实际接受了对没有占有证书的总部房屋的占有。另外，不合格责任期只有3个月。
屋顶结构在1999年12月局部坍塌前已经用了10年。该房屋并不在保险范围内，哈拉雷城市，一个政府自治区, 10年之后下发了占有证书,并且是在部分屋顶坍塌之后。
起初津巴布韦标准协会总部决定去仲裁, 但未能产生一个即时的解决办法。津巴布韦标准协会总部然后决定在法庭上进行对簿，并且因为非洲中心建筑公司的疏忽向非洲中心建筑公司索赔。准备为仲裁再次诉讼。津巴布韦标准协会总部的量化损失大约为600万津巴布韦币（折合120万美元）。
所有当事人都已检查了这个事实，并且在他们证明之前，很明显有一个很大的可能那就是法院也许裁定建筑师和施工方都有责任。正是在这个阶段，被告的律师请求将这个问题达成庭外和解。原告同意了这项建议，并同意对和解的条款保密。
此项重要分析的目的是围绕住房标准分析津巴布韦协会总部房屋的部分屋顶坍塌问题。此项分析调查了工程管理的作用和建设专业人士在预防/缓解潜在的建设问题中发挥的重要作用。它进一步对雇主/承包方和当事人在建设合同下弥补损害赔偿进行了评估。这种重要的分析的主要目的是确定一种未来建设工程风险管理的有效策略。这项研究的重要性在于它多方面的审查方式。
经验表明，一个工程的参与者以自己的经验为基础也能够很好的识别出风险。仅采用建立在过去的经验和判断的基础上的风险管理方法，可以很好地并合理地在稳定的低风险环境中工作。在有变化的地方这是不可能有效的。这是因为需要改变以往的经验推断，这可能会产生误导。所有建设工程都在一定程度上暗示原型和改变。建筑行业本身的变化表明，过去的经验是不可能自行足够的。一个结构化的方法是必需的。这种结构不能，并且绝对不能取代参与者的经验和专业知识。相反，它带来额外的好处，帮助澄清了目标，确定了不确定性的性质，介绍了有效的沟通制度，提高了决策，介绍了有效的风险控制措施，保障了项目目标和提供了风险教训知识。
建筑专业人员需要知道如何用他们具体的合同，财务，业务和组织需求平衡不可预见的风险。许多建筑专业人士鼠目寸光的看个人的风险，并且没有意识到其他相关的风险可能对他们的业务产生潜在影响。用全面的风险管理方法，能使一个公司确定该组织的业务的所有风险。用总风险排除的最大目标，会增加减轻风险的概率。
为未来的建筑工程推荐的关键建设风险策略已经被考虑，并且它们的解释如下。Hinchey J.W.声称在一个高利润的工程中不可能存在风险分配问题的最佳实践标准，任何工程都是这样的。他说，相反的，成功的风险管理是一种心态也是一个过程。根据Hinchey，对一个特定的项目，理想的心态的当事人及其代表者，首先在有意的关于工程项目风险识别中，然后是在发展系统和理解的过程中，通过合同避免，缓解，管理和最终分配这些风险的最佳方式。据说这个过程需要以一种科学形式开始并且以一种艺术形式结束。
根据D. Atkinson，无论承包商还是顾问，正确的团队需要集合有关的多学科经验的项目特殊类型和位置。这被认为是必要的，不仅仅允许其他反应加以探讨。而且，以确保正确的问题被问和主要风险被鉴定。能源危机首长据说对项目
的部分参与者提供一个方便的结构化风险识别的方法。有效的风险管理据说还需要多学科的方法。不可避免的风险管理需要工程，法律和相关保险检查。
据指出，以统计方法为基础的分析技术应广泛应用在决策制定上。这些技术被认为与许多风险事件的后果的估计有关，而不是如何实现风险的分担。此外，在风险管理的发展阶段，阿特金森（Atkinson）声称制定重大决策而不能仅仅基于数学分析的状态。建设工程的复杂性意味着，无论在物理形态还是组织结构上将项目定义为仅考虑相对较小数目的风险。据说这则一般的结构化方法，可以适用于任何建设工程，以增加参与者的认识。
新的、简化的建筑设计和建设管理办法（CDM条例），已于2007年4月在英国生效，修订和汇集了CDM1994规范和建设健康安全和福利（CHSW）1996规范，而成为单一规范包。
新的建筑设计和建设管理办法提供了一个健康和安全性能的逐步改变的机会，被用于再次强调健康，安全和良好的管理和协调以达到建设健康和安全管理更广泛的商业利益的方法。我相信，这些技能的发展对业主提供最有效的便利服务是必要，使发展最佳价值的项目成为可能。
建设风险管理（简称CM at Risk），与建立工程承包私营部门的方法类似，很受公共部门的欢迎。这是一个过程，允许业主选择一个建立在资格基础上的建设管理者（简称CM）；建立一个合作工程团队；在建筑合同下集中工程责任；取得最高价格保证；产生更多可管理，可预测的工程；节省时间和金钱，并减少对业主，建筑师和建设管理者的风险。
建设风险管理，对建设更专业的方法，正在随着设计建造，桥的设计和投标建造为项目执行过程中建立的方法的改变而改变传统的地位。
工程师可以浏览项目管理者的工作方法，并提供有益的建议。在完成合同文件之间允许项目管理者让分包商投标或提供建议，最高保证价格（GMP），从而降低了建设管理者的风险，并提供有益的投入设计。该过程对所有相关者更有条理，易于管理，可预测和减少风险。
这使得工程采购也更加务实。每个行业的承包商没有竞标购物的恐惧，公平目标是成为低投标人。每个人都必须提供最好地项目。社会的竞争是比较公平的：所有分包商有一个公平的工作目标。
不可预见费包含在最高保证价中，涵盖了意想不到的但是合乎情理的费用，在最高保证价以上的不可预见费允许为业主改变。只要分包商在最高保证价内它们就被偿还给建设管理者，因此建设管理者代表业主和分包商谈判变更事项。
在项目里每一方单独投保存在类似的问题。因为这个原因，工程保险是被推荐的。传统的方法增加了反对的态度，甚至提供给人们忽略或者隐瞒风险的动机，以企图避免或者转移责任。
许多项目中的业主不理解他们在促进合作与协调中担当的重要性角色；没有与设计师、制造商、供应商、承包商进行讨论设计就已经完成了。这意味着，设计师不能利用供应商或承包商的房建能力或维护要求以及影响可持续性、总成本,或健康和安全知识。
推断它们之间的缺陷应该在部分屋顶坍塌之前及早发现并及时纠正是合理的。因此原告对承包者和建筑师疏忽的索赔是理所当然的。
这种风险分析能够更容易，通过它的多方位方法对建设问题做重要的检查，为未来建设项目做一个有效的风险管理策略的鉴定。这项工作还有助于强调一点，就是业主的要求越来越高，挑剔越来越多，并不太愿意接受没有赔偿的风险。他们不想要惊喜，而且更可能在出问题时进行诉讼。
出自：https://www.doczj.com/doc/cb5637637.html,/p-74562770176.html
红外数据通信技术外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) Infrared Remote Control System Abstract Red outside data correspondence the technique be currently within the scope of world drive extensive usage of a kind of wireless conjunction technique, drive numerous hardware and software platform support. Red outside the transceiver product have cost low, small scaled turn, the baud rate be quick, point to point SSL, be free from electromagnetism thousand Raos
etc. characteristics, can realization information at dissimilarity of the product fast, convenience, safely exchange and transmission, at short distance wireless deliver aspect to own very obvious of advantage. Along with red outside the data deliver a technique more and more mature, the cost descend, red outside the transceiver necessarily will get at the short distance communication realm more extensive of application. The purpose that design this system is transmit customer’s operation information with infrared rays for transmit media, then demodulate original signal with receive circuit. It use coding chip to modulate signal and use decoding chip to demodulate signal. The coding chip is PT2262 and decoding chip is PT2272. Both chips are made in Taiwan. Main work principle is that we provide to input the information for the PT2262 with coding keyboard. The input information was coded by PT2262 and loading to high frequent load wave whose frequent is 38 kHz, then modulate infrared transmit dioxide and radiate space outside when it attian enough power. The receive circuit receive the signal and demodulate original information. The original signal was decoded by PT2272, so as to drive some circuit to accomplish customer’s operation demand. Keywords: Infrared dray；Code；Decoding；LM386；Red outside transceiver 1 Introduction 1.1 research the background and significance Infrared Data Communication Technology is the world wide use of a wireless connection technology, by the many hardware and software platforms supported. Is a data through electrical pulses and infrared optical pulse switch between the wireless data transceiver technology.
工程造价专业毕业论文参考题目 1.国内外工程造价构成研究 2.浅谈定额计价与清单计价的异同 3.探讨低价中标在建筑工程中的合理应用 4.如何编制一份高质量的工程量清单 5.项目决策阶段影响工程造价的主要因素研究 6.建设项目投资估算方法研究 7.建设项目设计阶段工程造价的计价与控制研究 8.浅谈建设项目施工招投标 9.工程进度款的支付研究 10.建筑工程项目的施工质量管理研究 11.建设工程索赔研究 12.建设工程项目施工成本控制研究 13.建设工程项目进度控制研究 14.浅谈建设工程合同与合同管理 15.建设工程项目信息管理研究 16.浅谈工程项目风险管理 17.项目资金筹措的渠道与方式研究 18.项目融资的主要方式研究 19.工程量清单计价下施工过程中风险分担研究 20.浅谈工程地质对工程造价的影响 21.施工组织设计技术经济分析
22.浅谈建筑工程合同价款的确定与调整 23.浅谈用价值工程原理控制工程成本 24.建设工程纠纷的处理研究 25.建设工程违约责任分析 26.实行工程量清单计价办法后如何进行工程报价 27.工程量清单计价与传统报价模式比较研究 28.浅谈投标报价策略及报价技巧 29．建筑施工企业如何加强工程造价管理 30.工程设计对工程造价的影响 31.注重工程结算提高索赔意识 32.经评审的最低价中标制度的认识 33.编制预结算过程中几个疑难问题之我见34．运用预算电算化软件的一些体会 35.工程量清单与无标底招标的一些思考 36.浅谈工程项目内部成本控制及措施 37.对施工企业加强工程项目管理的几点思考 38.建筑工程项目承包管理方式的探讨 39．如何进行项目成本管理 40.施工项目管理与项目成本控制 41．项目管理对工程质量的影响和对策 42．工程项目承包管理特点初探 43．建设工程招标投标的发展趋势
外文翻译 Construction projects, private and public alike, have a long history of cost escalation. Transportation projects, which typically have long lead times between planning and construction, are historically underestimated, as shown through a review of the cost growth experienced with the Holland Tunnel. Approximately 50% of the active large transportation projects in the United States have overrun their initial budgets. A large number of studies and research projects have identified individual factors that lead to increased project cost. Although the factors identified can influence privately funded projects the effects are particularly detrimental to publicly funded projects. The public funds available for a pool of projects are limited and there is a backlog of critical infrastructure needs. Therefore, if any project exceeds its budget other projects are dropped from the program or the scope is reduced to provide the funds necessary to cover the cost growth. Such actions exacerbate the deterioration of a state’s transportation infrastructure. This study is an anthology and categorization of individual cost increase factors that were identified through an in-depth literature review. This categorization of 18 primary factors which impact the cost of all types of construction projects was verified by interviews with over 20 state highway agencies. These factors represent documented causes behind cost escalation problems. Engineers who address these escalation factors when assessing future project cost and who seek to mitigate the influence of these factors can improve the accuracy of their cost estimates and program budgets Historically large construction projects have been plagued by cost and schedule overruns Flyvbjerg et al. 2002. In too many cases, the final project cost has been higher than the cost estimates prepared and released during initial planning, preliminary engineering, final design, or even at the start of construction “Mega projects need more study up front to avoid cost overruns.” The ramifica tions of differences between early project cost estimates and bid prices or the final cost of a project can be significant. Over the time span between project initiation concept development and the completion of construction many factors may influence the final project costs. This time span is normally several years in duration but for the highly
外文文献： Project Cost Control: The Way it Works By R. Max Wideman In a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of thewholesystem of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up adescription ofhow it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory. First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyzethe findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end resultsare not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycleat suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have tochange the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the referencebaselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway. But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projectsthat fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might aswell start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire projectlife span. And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significantdocuments. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution),Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget orCost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability toeffectively control project costs. Footnote I am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting mywork on this topic. The Business Case and Application for (execution) Funding It is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive managementresponsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. Thismeans that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points
用于多跳认知无线电网络的分布式网络编码控制信道 Alfred Asterjadhi等著 1 前言 大多数电磁频谱由政府机构长期指定给公司或机构专门用于区域或国家地区。由于这种资源的静态分配，许可频谱的许多部分在许多时间和/或位置未使用或未被充分利用。另一方面，几种最近的无线技术在诸如IEEE802.11，蓝牙，Zigbee之类的非许可频段中运行，并且在一定程度上对WiMAX进行操作;这些技术已经看到这样的成功和扩散，他们正在访问的频谱- 主要是2.4 GHz ISM频段- 已经过度拥挤。为了为这些现有技术提供更多的频谱资源，并且允许替代和创新技术的潜在开发，最近已经提出允许被许可的设备（称为次要用户）访问那些许可的频谱资源，主要用户未被使用或零星地使用。这种方法通常被称为动态频谱接入（DSA），无线电设备发现和机会性利用未使用或未充分利用的频谱带的能力通常称为认知无线电（CR）技术。 DSA和CR最近都引起了无线通信和网络界的极大关注。通常设想两种主要应用。第一个是认知无线接入（CW A），根据该认知接入点，认知接入点负责识别未使用的许可频谱，并使用它来提供对次用户的接入。第二个应用是我们在这个技术中研究的应用，它是认知自组织网络（CAN），也就是使用 用于二级用户本身之间通信的无许可频谱，用于诸如点对点内容分发，环境监控，安全性等目的，灾难恢复情景通信，军事通信等等。 设计CAN系统比CW A有更多困难，主要有两个原因。第一是识别未使用的频谱。在CW A中，接入点的作用是连接到互联网，因此可以使用简单的策略来推断频谱可用性，例如查询频谱调节器在其地理位置的频谱可用性或直接与主用户协商频谱可用性或一些中间频谱经纪人另一方面，在CAN中，与频谱调节器或主要用户的缺乏直接通信需要二级用户能够使用检测技术自己识别未使用的频谱。第二个困难是辅助用户协调媒体访问目的。在CW A中存在接入点和通常所有二级用户直接与之通信（即，网络是单跳）的事实使得直接使用集中式媒体接入控制（MAC）解决方案，如时分多址（TDMA）或正交频分多址（OFDMA）。相反，预计CAN将跨越多跳，缺少集中控制器;而对于传统的单通道多跳自组织网络而言，这个问题的几个解决方案是已知的，因为假设我们处理允许设备访问的具有成
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises By: R. Max Wideman Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system. Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control. 1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of
工程造价毕业论文内部编号：（YUUT-TBBY-MMUT-URRUY-UOOY-DBUYI-0128）
四川电大毕业设计 如何合理有效的控制建设项目工程造价 作者王俊 市级电大资阳广播电视大学 专业工程造价 年级 2015春季 学号 指导教师 四川电大毕业设计（论文） 诚信承诺书 本人慎重承诺和声明：所撰写的《如何合理有效的控制建设项目工程造价》是在指导老师的指导下自主完成，文中所有引文或引用数据、图表均已注解说明来源，本人愿意为此由引起的后果承担责任 设计（论文）的研究成果归属学校所有 学生（签名）： 年月日
摘要 工程造价控制对于工程建设行业的整体发展具有极强的推动与促进作用,而建筑业是社会主义市场经济的主要行业之一,也是政府宏观调控的重点行业。工程造价控制工作的强化,必将引导建筑业的健康发展,同时也增强了政府宏观调控能力。现代工程造价控制的深远意义,主要表现为：有利于营造公平的市场竞争环境，加深工程造价在全球人们心目中的地位。根据目前发布的工程造价控制数据显示，我国造价市场显然已开始出现复苏的势头。我国工程造价行业飞速发展，令业内外人士欢欣鼓舞，前景非常看好，但仍存在不可忽视的问题，如竞争力不强，石油价格不断上涨，本文对我国工程造价的控制前景做出了一些预测。 关键词：造价控制控制措施项目管理限额设计
目录 第1章控制建设项目工程造价的意义 建设项目的造价控制贯穿于项目的全过程，即项目决策阶段、项目设计阶段、项目实施阶段和竣工阶段都关系到建设项目的造价控制。统计资料显示，在项目决策阶段及设计阶段，影响建设项目造价的可能性为30%-75%，而在实施阶段影响建设项目造价的可能性仅为5%-25%。显而易见，控制工程造价的关键就在于项目实施之前的项目决策和设计阶段，项目决策是决定因素，而设计则是关键因素。控制工程造价不仅仅是防止投资突破限额，更积极的意义是要促进建设单位,施工单位，设计单位加强管理，使人力、物力、财力有限的资源得到充分的利用，取得最佳
毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业：工程管理 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14
科技文献翻译 题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 研究建设项目的工程造价 摘要 在工程建设中，中国是拥有世界最大投资金额和具有最多建设项目的国家。它是一 项在建设项目管理上可以为广泛的工程管理人员进行有效的工程造价管理，并合理 确定和保证施工质量和工期的条件控制施工成本的重要课题。 在失去了中国建筑的投资和技术经济工程，分离的控制现状的基础上，通过建设成 本控制的基本理论为指导，探讨控制方法和施工成本的应用，阐述了存在的问题在 施工成本控制和对决心和施工成本的控制这些问题的影响，提出了建设成本控制应 体现在施工前期，整个施工过程中的成本控制，然后介绍了一些程序和应用价值工 程造价的方法在控制建设项目的所有阶段。 关键词：建设成本，成本控制，项目 1.研究的意义 在中国，现有的工程造价管理体系是20世纪50年代制定的，并在1980s.Traditional 施工成本管理方法改进是根据国家统一的配额，从原苏联引进的一种方法。它的特 点是建设成本的计划经济的管理方法，这决定了它无法适应当前市场经济的要求。 在中国传统建筑成本管理方法主要包括两个方面，即建设成本和施工成本控制方法 的测定方法。工程造价的确定传统的主要做法生搬硬套国家或地方统一的配额数量 来确定一个建设项目的成本。虽然这种方法已经历了20多年的改革，到现在为止，计划经济管理模式的影响仍然有已经存在在许多地区。我们传统的工程造价控制的
The significance of control construction costs manages on entire process First, The necessary of control construction costs manages on entire process Talk about the management and the control on construction costs, that the field we are just accustomed to is thought of is a project advance in final account. Indeed , right away at present system and reality,what the job of that the management and the control on construction costs is advance in final account. Be that in advance, the people who work on final account according that already be ascertaied of the working drawing to calculate project amounts，apply a quota mechanically, the meter mechanically fetching cost, or designing that according to the drawing sheet and construction organization after construction is over as well as the scene construction visa takes notes weaves the final account being completed. This is necessary , useful no doubt. But we must see that when pre-final accounts personnel weave working drawing budget or the final account being completed, the construction plan and the design paper already determined. But construction being to take according to picture as principle, so then in advance, job done by final account personnel is only the change secretly scheming against cost produced by design alteration and prevents upvaluation from calculating boldly. But suppose the project is unreasonable on economy, there is a fault in decision-making; suppose designing a scheme feasible or be not optimum on the technology; the final account
5G无线通信网络中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
翻译： 5G无线通信网络的蜂窝结构和关键技术 摘要 第四代无线通信系统已经或者即将在许多国家部署。然而，随着无线移动设备和服务的激增，仍然有一些挑战尤其是4G所不能容纳的，例如像频谱危机和高能量消耗。无线系统设计师们面临着满足新型无线应用对高数据速率和机动性要求的持续性增长的需求，因此他们已经开始研究被期望于2020年后就能部署的第五代无线系统。在这篇文章里面，我们提出一个有内门和外门情景之分的潜在的蜂窝结构，并且讨论了多种可行性关于5G无线通信系统的技术，比如大量的MIMO技术，节能通信，认知的广播网络和可见光通信。面临潜在技术的未知挑战也被讨论了。 介绍 信息通信技术（ICT）创新合理的使用对世界经济的提高变得越来越重要。无线通信网络在全球ICT战略中也许是最挑剔的元素，并且支撑着很多其他的行业，它是世界上成长最快最有活力的行业之一。欧洲移动天文台（EMO）报道2010年移动通信业总计税收1740亿欧元,从而超过了航空航天业和制药业。无线技术的发展大大提高了人们在商业运作和社交功能方面通信和生活的能力无线移动通信的显著成就表现在技术创新的快速步伐。从1991年二代移动通信系统(2G)的初次登场到2001年三代系统（3G）的首次起飞，无线移动网络已经实现了从一个纯粹的技术系统到一个能承载大量多媒体内容网络的转变。4G无线系统被设计出来用来满足IMT-A技术使用IP面向所有服务的需求。在4G系统中，先进的无线接口被用于正交频分复用技术（OFDM），多输入多输出系统（MIMO）和链路自适应技术。4G无线网络可支持数据速率可达1Gb/s的低流度，比如流动局域无线访问，还有速率高达100M/s的高流速，例如像移动访问。LTE系统和它的延伸系统LTE-A，作为实用的4G系统已经在全球于最近期或不久的将来部署。 然而，每年仍然有戏剧性增长数量的用户支持移动宽频带系统。越来越多的
中英文资料对照外文翻译 Design phase of the project cost management Abstract Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives. Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy, Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.
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工程造价专业外文文献翻译中英文对照 Document serial number【KK89K-LLS98YT-SS8CB-SSUT-SST108】
外文文献： Project Cost Control: The Way it Works By R. Max Wideman In a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory. First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway. But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span. And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs. Footnote I am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic. The Business Case and Application for (execution) Funding It is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points