一、Directions: Please define the following terms.
1.minimal pair test
words that differ in only one sound
They differ in meaning, they differ only in one sound segment, the different sounds occur in the same environment
Example: beat, bit They form a minimal pair
So /ea/ and /i/ are different sounds in English
They are different phonemes
2.the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
linguistic determinism (语言决定论) -Language determines thought.
《
and linguistic relativity (语言相对论)-There is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.
3.Behaviorism
Behaviorism in linguistics holds the view that Children learn language through a chain of stimulus-response-reinforcement (刺激—反应—强化), and adults’ use of language is also a process of stimulus-response.
4.discovery procedures
A grammar is discovered through the performing of certain operations on a corpus of data
5.Universal Grammar
UG consists of a set of innate grammatical principles.
Each principle is associated with a number of parameters.
6.<
7.Systemic Grammar
It aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential.
8.Ideational Metafunction
The Ideational Function (Experiential and Logical) is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. It is a meaning potential.
It mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”. This function not only specifies the available options in meaning but also determines the nature of their structural realisations. For example, “John built a new house” can be analysed as a configurat ion of the functions (功能配置):
Actor: John
Process: Material: Creation: built
Goal: Affected: a new house
9.Interpersonal Metafunction
:
The INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation
and performs a speech act.
10.basic speech roles
The most fundamental types of speech role are just two: (i) giving, and (ii) demanding.
Cutting across this basic distinction between giving and demanding is another distinction that relates to the nature of the commodity being exchanged. This may be either (a) goods-&-services or (b) information.
11.finite verbal operators
Finiteness is thus expressed by means of a verbal operator which is either temporal or modal.
12.Textual Metafunction
—
The textual metafunction enables the realization of the relation between language and context, making the language user produce a text which matches the situation.
It refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into coherent and unified texts and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.
It is realized by thematic structure, information structure and cohesion.
13.theme and rheme
The Theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of the message.
The remainder of the message, the part in which the Theme is developed, is called the Rheme.
As a message structure, a clause consists of a Theme accompanied by a Rheme.
The Theme is the first constituent of the clause. All the rest of the clause is simply labelled the Rheme
14.$
15.experientialism
Experientialism assumes that the external reality is constrained by our uniquely human experience.
The parts of this external reality to which we have access are largely constrained by the ecological niche we have adapted to and the nature of our embodiment. In other words, language does not directly re?ect the world. Rather, it re?ects our unique human construal of the wo rld: our ‘world view’ as it appears to us through the lens of our embodiment.
This view of reality has been termed experientialism or experiential realism by cognitive linguists George Lako? and Mark Johnson. Experiential realism acknowledges that there is an external reality that is re?ected by concepts and by language. However, this reality is mediated by our uniquely human experience which constrains the nature of this reality ‘for us’.
16.image schemata
An image schema is a recurring structure within our cognitive processes which establishes patterns of understanding and reasoning. Image schemas are formed from our bodily interactions, from linguistic experience, and from historical context.
17.prototype theory
Prototype theory is a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool. Prototype theory has also been applied in linguistics, as part of the mapping from phonological structure to semantics.
￥
二、Directions: Please answer the following questions.
1.Why is Saussure called “one of the founders of structural linguistics and “father of
modern linguistics”
He helped to set the study of human behavior on a new footing (basis).
He helped to promote semiology.
He clarified the formal strategies of Modernist thoughts.
He attached importance to the study of the intimate relation between language and human mind.
2.What are the similaritie s and differences between Saussure’s langue and parole and
Chomsky’s competence and performance
The similarities (1) language and competence mainly concerns the user’s underlying knowledge; parole and performance concerns the actual phenomena (2) language and competence are abstract; parole and performance are concrete.
The differences (1) according to Saussure, language is a mere systematic inventory of items; according to Chomsky, competence should refer to the underlying competence as a system of generative processes (2)According to Saussure, language mainly base on sociology, in separating language from parole, we separate social from individual; according to Chomsky, competence was restricted to a knowledge of grammar.
-
3.What is the conflict between descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy
A nd what is Chomsky’s solution to this conflict
a theory of grammar: descriptively adequate should adequately describe the
grammatical dada of a language.
should not just focus on a fragment of a language.
a theory of grammar: explanatorily adequate
should explain the general form of language.
should choose among alternative descriptively-adequate grammars.
should essentially be about how a child acquires a grammar.
&
A theory of grammar should be both descriptively and explanatorily adequate.
But there is a conflict:
To achieve DA, the grammar must be very detailed.
To achieve EA, the grammar must be very simple. (think why)
because the child can learn a language very easily on very little language exposure.
Chomsky’s solution:
construct a simple UG
let individual grammars be derivable from UG
~
4.What are Chomsky’s contribution s to the linguistic revolution
Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic revolution is that he showed the world a totally new way of looking at language and at human nature, particularly the human mind. Chomsky challenged behaviorism and empiricism because he believes that language is innate.
Rationalism (vs. empiricism in philosophy)
Empiricist evidence is often unreliable.
Innateness (vs. behaviorism in psychology)
Children can acquire a complicated language on the basis of very limited exposure to speech.
This indicates that UG is innate faculty.
5.How to compare and contrast Generative Linguistics and Systemic-Functional
Linguistics from perspectives of epistemology, theoretical basis, research tasks and methodology
"
6.How many process types are there in the transitivity system Please illustrate each
type by a proper example.
Six. Material Processes, Mental Processes, Relational Processes, Behavioural Processes, Verbal Processes, Existential Processes
The typical types of outer experience are actions, goings-on and events: actions happen, people act on other people or things, or make things happen. This type of process is called Material Processes.
The inner experience is that in our consciousness or imagination. You may react on it, think about it, or perceive it. This type of process is called Mental Processes.
Then there is a third type of process: we learn to generalize, to relate one fragment of experience to another. It does this by classifying or identifying. This kind of process is called Relational Processes.
!
These three processes are called major processes. Related to them are three minor processes: each one lies at the boundary between two processes of the three. Not so clearly set apart, they share some features of each, and finally acquire the character of their own.
On the borderline between material and mental are the Behavioural Processes:
those that represent outer manifestations of inner workings, the acting out of processes of consciousness and physiological states.
On the borderline of mental and relational is the category of Verbal Processes: symbolic relationships constructed in human consciousness and enacted in the form of language.
Then on the borderline between the relational process and the material process are Existential Processes, by which phenomena of all kinds are recognized to be or to exist.
7.What is a multiple Theme to be contrasted with a simple Theme What is a marked
Theme to be contrasted with an unmarked Theme Please illustrate them with
proper examples.
Conjunctions in Theme
Conjunctive and modal Adjuncts in Theme
Textual, interpersonal and experiential elements in Theme
Interrogatives as multiple Themes
?
8.What are the similarities and differences between conceptual metaphor and
conceptual metonymy
？
Metaphor and metonymy are viewed as phenomena fundamental to the structure of the conceptual system rather than superficial linguistic ‘devices’.
Conceptual metaphor (概念隐喻) maps structure from one conceptual domain onto another, while metonomy highlights an entity by referring to another entity within the same domain.
隐喻就是把一个领域的概念投射到另一个领域，或者说从一个认知域（来源域）投射到另一个认知域（目标域）。
转喻是发生在同一认知域中的映射，如整体和部分等。
The basic premise of Conceptual Metaphor Theory is that metaphor is not simply a stylistic feature of language, but that thought itself is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.
According to this view, conceptual structure is organised according to cross domain mappings or correspondences between conceptual domains. Some of these
mappings are due to pre-conceptual embodied experiences while others build on these experiences in order to form more complex conceptual structures.
Here are three examples of Conceptual Metaphor in English:
LOVE IS A JOURNEY.
ARGUMENT IS WAR.
QUANTITY IS VERTICAL ELEVATION.
9.What are the similarities and differences between conceptual metaphor theory and
conceptual blending theory
Conceptual Blending Theory derives from two traditions within cognitive semantics: Conceptual Metaphor Theory and Mental Spaces Theory.
The crucial insight of Blending Theory is that meaning construction typically involves integration of structure that gives rise to more than the sum of its parts.
Blending theorists argue that this process of conceptual integration or blending is a general and basic cognitive operation which is central to the way we think. For
example, the category PET FISH is not simply the intersection of the categories PET and FISH. Instead, the category PET FISH selectively integrates aspects of each of the source categories in order to produce a new category with its own distinct internal structure. This is achieved by conceptual blending.
Not all blends are metaphorical
Blending does not involve unidirectional mappings
Spaces versus domains
The many-space model
Dynamic versus conventional
Di?erence in methodological emphasis
Emergent structure
第三章 三、名词解释 1、问诊：是医师通过对患者或有关人员的系统询问而获取病史资料的过程，又称为病史采集。 2、主诉：为患者感受最主要的痛苦或最明显的症状或体征，也就是本次就诊最主要的原因 3、现病史：是病史的主体部分，它记述患者患病后的全过程，即发生、发展、演变和诊治经过。 四、简答题 1、问诊包括哪些容： 问诊包括一般项目、主诉、现病史、既往史、系统回顾、个人史、婚姻史、月经史、家族史。 2、试述问诊的基本方法和注意事项： ⑴．从礼节性的交谈开始。 ⑵．问诊一般由主诉开始，逐步深入进行有目的、有层次、有顺序的询问。 ⑶．避免暗示性提问和逼问。 ⑷．避免重复提问。 ⑸．避免使用有特定意义的医学术语。 ⑹．注意及时核实患者述中不确切或有疑问的情况。 第二篇体格检查 第一章基本检查法 三、名词解释 1、视诊：是以视觉来观察患者全身或局部表现的诊断方法。 2、触诊：是应用触觉来判断某一器官特征的一种诊法。 3、叩诊:是用手指来叩击身体表面某部表面使之震动而产生音响，经传导至其下的组织器官，然后反射回来，被检查者的触觉和听觉所接收，根据振动和音响的特点可判断被检查部位的脏器有无异常。 4、听诊：是以听觉听取发自机体各部的声音并判断其正常与否的一种诊断技术。 5、嗅诊：是以嗅觉来判断发自患者的异常气味与疾病之间关系的方法。 6、清音：是音响较强，振动持续时间较长的音响。是正常肺部的叩诊音。揭示肺组织的弹性，含气量，致密度正常。 7、过清音：是介于鼓音与清音之间的一种音响、音调较清音低，音响较清音强，极易听及。 8、鼓音：其音响较清音强，振动持续时间亦较长，在叩击含有大量气体的空腔器官时出现。 四、简答题 1、简述触诊的正确方法及临床意义。 触诊分浅部触诊法和深部触诊法，浅部触诊法适用于体表浅在病变、关节、软组织以及浅部的动脉、静脉、神经、阴囊和精索等。深部触诊法用于诊察腹脏器大小和腹部异常包块等病变。
Morphology 形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则 如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词 Morpheme, 语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。如boys,由boy和-s构成 Morph 语素的具体形态 Allomorph 语素变体 英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。 Free morphemes 能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。如work,boy Bound morphemes 不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素 Bound roots 不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现 如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sist Content morphemes 包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。如work Function morphemes 通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素 如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,but Inflectional 曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式 -s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-s Derivational 派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义 Cat,caty Compounding合成 如Girlfriend Reduplication 重复 Abbreviation or shortening 简写 Blending 混合 Motor+hotel=motel Breakfast+lunch=brunch Alternation Man men Suppletion不规则 Go went Syntax句法
语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.doczj.com/doc/ca9179260.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.doczj.com/doc/ca9179260.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.
一、Directions: Please define the following terms. 1.minimal pair test words that differ in only one sound They differ in meaning, they differ only in one sound segment, the different sounds occur in the same environment Example: beat, bit They form a minimal pair So /ea/ and /i/ are different sounds in English They are different phonemes 2.the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis linguistic determinism (语言决定论) -Language determines thought. and linguistic relativity (语言相对论)-There is no limit to the structural diversity of languages. 3.Behaviorism Behaviorism in linguistics holds the view that Children learn language through a chain of stimulus-response-reinforcement (刺激—反应—强化), and adults’ use of language is also a process of stimulus-response. 4.discovery procedures A grammar is discovered through the performing of certain operations on a corpus of data 5.Universal Grammar UG consists of a set of innate grammatical principles. Each principle is associated with a number of parameters. 6.Systemic Grammar It aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. 7.Ideational Metafunction The Ideational Function (Experiential and Logical) is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. It is a meaning potential. It mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”. This function not only specifies the available options in meaning but also determines the nature of their structural realisations. For example, “John built a new house” can be analysed as a configuration of the functions (功能配置): Actor: John Process: Material: Creation: built Goal: Affected: a new house 8.Interpersonal Metafunction The INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act.
名词解释和问答题1
四名词解释： 1.原语：它是由若干条机器指令所构成，用以完成特定功能的一段程序，为保证其操作的正确性，它应当是原子操作，即原语是一个不可分割的操作。 2.设备独立性：指用户设备独立于所使用的具体物理设备。即在用户程序中要执行I/O操作时，只需用逻辑设备名提出I/O请求，而不必局限于某特定的物理设备。 3.文件的逻辑结构：又称为文件逻辑组织，是指从用户观点看到的文件组织形式。它可分为两类：记录式文件结构，由若干相关的记录构成；流式文件结构，由字符流构成。 4.树形结构目录：利用树形结构的形式，描述各目录之间的关系。上级目录与相邻下级目录的关系是1对n。树形结构目录能够较好地满足用户和系统的要求。 5.操作系统：操作系统是控制和管理计算机硬件和软件资源，合理地组织计算机的工作流程，以及方便用户的程序的集合。其主要功能是实现处理机管理、内存管理、I/O设备管理、文件管理和用户接口。 6.位示图：它是利用一个向量来描述自由块使用情况的一张表。表中的每个元素表示一个盘块的使用情况，0表示该块为空闲块，1表示已分配。 7.置换策略：虚拟式存储管理中的一种策略。用于确定应选择内存中的哪一页(段) 换出到磁盘对换区，以便腾出内存。通常采用的置换算法都是基于把那些在最近的将来，最少可能被访问的页(段)从内存换出到盘上。 8.用户接口：操作系统提供给用户和编程人员的界面和接口。包括程序接口、命令行方式和图形用户界面。 9.死锁：指多个进程因竞争资源二造成的一种僵局，若无外力的作用，这些进程将永远不能再向前推进。 10.文件系统:OS中负责管理和存取文件信息的软件机构。负责文件的建立，撤消，存入，续写，修 改和复制，还负责完成对文件的按名存取和进行存取控制。 11.进程:进程是程序在一个数据集合上的运行过程，是系统进行资源分配和调度的一个独立的基本 单位。 12.wait(s)原语 wait(s) ：Begin Lock out interrupts; s = s – 1; If s < 0 then Begin Status(q) = blocked; Insert(WL, q); Unlock interrupts; Scheduler;
序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发
名词解释 第一章总论 □语言学 以语言为研究对象的一门独立的学科。 □语文学 一门研究古文献和书面语的学问。 □历史语言学 主要用历史的方法研究某种语言和短期的和长期的变化规律，对比语言学主要用比较的方法对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们的相异之处或共同规律（研究语言在不同时期所经历的变化）。 □历史比较语言学 运用比较的方法来发现几种语言在历史演变中的对应规律从而确定语言的亲属关系，构拟产生这些亲属语言的原始母语。 □描写语言学 是和历史语言学相对，即截取某一历史阶段的语言，对其语音、词汇、语法等结构要素进行观察、描写、分析、研究。 □历时语言学 研究语言在不同时期所经历的变化。 □共时语言学 研究语言某一段时期情况的语言学，如现代汉语、古代汉语等。 □个别语言学 其研究的对象是一种语言，如汉语、英语等。 □普通语言学 研究的对象是人类语言，着重从理论上探讨语言的共同特点和一般规律，也叫一般语言学。 □语言的语言学 语言的语言学是以“语言”为唯一对象的语言学，指音义结合的词汇语法系统。是一种静态、同质的纯语言学。 □言语的语言学 言语的语言学是一种动态的、异质的、涉及方方面面的语言学。 □内部语言学（微观语言学） 只对语言系统内部各结构要素进行研究，如：语音学、语义学、词汇学、语法学等。 □外部语言学（宏观语言学） 指与语言相关的边缘学科，如社会语言学、心理语言学、心理语言学、人类语言学等。 □对比语言学 就要用比较的方法对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们的相异之处或共同规律。 □微观语言学（内部语言学） 只对语言系统内部各结构要素进行研究，如：语音学、语义学、词汇学、语法学等。 □宏观语言学（外部语言学） 指与语言相关的边缘学科，如社会语言学、心理语言学、心理语言学、人类语言学等。 □理论语言学 理论语言侧重研究语言的一般理论，狭义的理论语言学就是普通语言学，广义的理论语言学也可以包括个别语言学的理论部分。 □应用语言学 侧重语言在各个领域中实际应用的学科。狭义应用语言学指语言教学的理论和方法研
1.兴奋性：机体或组织对刺激发生反应受到刺激时产生动作电位的能力或特性，称为兴奋性。 2.阈强度：在刺激的持续时间以及刺激强度对时间的变化率不变的情况下，刚能引起细胞兴奋或产生动作电位的最小刺激强度，称为阈强度。 3.正反馈:从受控部分发出的信息不是制约控制部分的活动，而是反过来促进与加强控制部分的活动，称为正反馈。 4.体液:人体内的液体总称为体液，在成人，体液约占体重的60%，由细胞内液、细胞外液(组织液.血浆.淋巴液等)组成。 5.负反馈（negative feedback）：负反馈是指受控部分发出的信息反过来减弱控制部分活动的调节方式。 6.内环境:内环境是指体内细胞直接生存的环境，即细胞外液. 7.反馈（feedback）:由受控部分发出的信息反过来影响控制部分的活动过程，称为反馈。 1.阈电位：在一段膜上能够诱发去极化和Na+通道开放之间出现再生性循环的膜内去极化的临界值，称为阈电位；是用膜本身去极化的临界值来描述动作电位产生条件的一个重要概念。 2.等长收缩：肌肉收缩时只有张力的增加而无长度的缩短，称为等长收缩。 3.前负荷(preload):肌肉收缩前所承受的负荷,称为前负荷，它决定收缩前的初长度。 4.终板电位:（在乙酰胆碱作用下，终板膜静息电位绝对值减小，这一去极化的电位变化，称为终板电位) 当ACh分子通过接头间隙到达终板膜表面时，立即与终板膜上的N2型乙酰胆碱受体结合，使通道开放，允许Na+、K+等通过，以Na+的内流为主，引起终板膜静息电位减小，向零值靠近，产生终板膜的去极化，这一电位变化称为终板电位。 5.去极化(depolarization):当静息时膜内外电位差的数值向膜内负值减小的方向变化时，称为膜的去极化或除极化。（静息电位的减少称为去极化） 6.复极化（repolarization ）：细胞先发生去极化，然后再向正常安静时膜内所处的负值恢复，称复极化。（细胞膜去极化后再向静息电位方向的恢复，称为复极化） 7.峰电位（spike potential）:在神经纤维上，其主要部分一般在0.5~2.0ms内完成，（因此，动作电位的曲线呈尖峰状）表现为一次短促而尖锐的脉冲样变化，（故）称为峰电位。 8.电化学驱动力：离子跨膜扩散的驱动力有两个：浓度差和电位差。两个驱动力的代数和称为电化学驱动力。 9.原发性主动转运：原发性主动转运是指离子泵利用分解ATP产生的能量将离子逆浓度梯度和（或）电位梯度进行跨膜转运的过程。 10.微终板电位：在静息状态下，接头前膜也会发生约每秒钟1次的乙酰胆碱（ACH）量子的自发释放，并引起终板膜电位的微小变化。这种由一个ACH量子引起的终板膜电位变化称为微终板电位。 11.运动单位(motor unit)：一个脊髓α-运动神经元或脑干运动神经元和受其支配的全部肌纤维所组成的肌肉收缩的最基本的单位称为运动单位。 1.晶体渗透压（crystal osmotic pressure）：(血浆)晶体渗透压指血浆中的晶体物质（主要是NaCl）形成的渗透压。 2.血沉（erythrocyte sedimentation rate）：红细胞沉降率是指将血液加抗凝剂混匀，静置于一分血计中，红细胞在一小时末下降的距离（mm），简称血沉。 1.血-脑屏障:指血液和脑组织之间的屏障，可限制物质在血液和脑组织之间的自由交换（故对保持脑组织周围稳定的化学环境和防止血液中有害物质进入脑内有重要意义）其形态学基础可能是毛细血管的内皮、基膜和星状胶质细胞的血管周足等结构。 2.正常起搏点（normal pacemaker):P细胞为窦房结中的起搏细胞，是一种特殊分化的心肌细胞，具有很高的自动节律性，是控制心脏兴奋活动的正常起搏点。
LINGUISTICS A COURSE BOOK Define the following terms: 1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc. 2. function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions inclucle informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function. 3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone. 5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use. 9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 11. duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary. level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 12. displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication. 13. phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language. 14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies. 15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc. 16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. 17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation. 18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. 19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances). 20. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 21. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. 22. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating
绪论、第一章、第二章 一、名词解释 1．语言学 2．语言 5．文言文 6．符号 7．符号形式 8．符号的任意性 9．语言符号 10．组合关系 11．聚合关系 二、填空 1．__________、________ 、________________ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2．__________ 是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为__________。 3．__________ 、__________ 、__________ 是我国传统的语文学。 4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究 __________、____________ 、__________ 三个部分。 5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为________、________ 、_________ 、__________ 、__________ 五个阶段。 6．语言是人类社会的______________，而且也是思维的______________。 7．在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。例如汉民族点头表示____________，摇头表示____________，送别时挥手表示 ______________，____________表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示_____________，手舞足蹈表示____________。 8．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性____________。 9．汉语的“哥哥”、“弟弟”，英语用________________表示，汉语的“舅舅、姨父、姑父、叔叔、伯伯”，英语用______________表示。 10．英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个 _____。 11．儿童最早的智力活动就是学习_________。 12．任何符号，都是由和两个方面构成的。 13．一个符号，如果没有_______，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有_______，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 14．语言符号是_________和_________的统一体，声音是语言符号的______。
三、名词解释（每小题3分） 1．经济变量 2．解释变量3．被解释变量4．内生变量 5．外生变量 6．滞后变量 7．前定变量 8．控制变量9．计量经济模型10．函数关系 11．相关关系 12．最小二乘法 13．高斯－马尔可夫定理 14．总变量（总离差平方和）15．回归变差（回归平方和） 16．剩余变差（残差平方和） 17．估计标准误差 18．样本决定系数 19．点预测 20．拟合优度 21．残差 22．显著性检验23.回归变差 24.剩余变差 25.多重决定系数 26.调整后的决定系数 27.偏相关系数 28.异方差性 29.格德菲尔特-匡特检验 30.怀特检验 31.戈里瑟检验和帕克检验 32.序列相关性 33.虚假序列相关 34.差分法 35.广义差分法 36.自回归模型 37.广义最小二乘法38.DW 检验 39.科克伦-奥克特跌代法 40.Durbin 两步法 41.相关系数 42.多重共线性 43.方差膨胀因子 44．虚拟变量 45．模型设定误差 46．工具变量 47．工具变量法 48．变参数模型 49．分段线性回归模型 50．分布滞后模型 51．有限分布滞后模型52．无限分布滞后模型 53．几何分布滞后模型 54．联立方程模型 55．结构式模型 56．简化式模型 57．结构式参数 58．简化式参数 59．识别 60．不可识别 61．识别的阶条件 62．识别的秩条件 63．间接最小二乘法 四、简答题（每小题5分） 1．简述计量经济学与经济学、统计学、数理统计学学科间的关系。2．计量经济模型有哪些应用？ 3．简述建立与应用计量经济模型的主要步骤。 4．对计量经济模型的检验应从几个方面入手？ 5．计量经济学应用的数据是怎样进行分类的？ 6．在计量经济模型中，为什么会存在随机误差项？ 7．古典线性回归模型的基本假定是什么？ 8．总体回归模型与样本回归模型的区别与联系。 9．试述回归分析与相关分析的联系和区别。 10．在满足古典假定条件下，一元线性回归模型的普通最小二乘估计量有哪些统计性质？ 11．简述BLUE 的含义。 12．对于多元线性回归模型，为什么在进行了总体显著性F 检验之后，还要对每个回归系数进行是否为0的t 检验？ 13.给定二元回归模型：01122t t t t y b b x b x u =+++，请叙述模型的古典假定。 14.在多元线性回归分析中，为什么用修正的决定系数衡量估计模型对样本观测值的拟合优度？ 15.修正的决定系数2R 及其作用。 16.常见的非线性回归模型有几种情况？ 17.观察下列方程并判断其变量是否呈线性，系数是否呈线性，或都是或都不是。 ①t t t u x b b y ++=3 10 ②t t t u x b b y ++=log 10 ③ t t t u x b b y ++=log log 10 ④t t t u x b b y +=)/(10 18. 观察下列方程并判断其变量是否呈线性，系数是否呈线性，或都是或都不是。 ①t t t u x b b y ++=log 10 ②t t t u x b b b y ++=)(210 ③ t t t u x b b y +=)/(10 ④t b t t u x b y +-+=)1(110 19.什么是异方差性？试举例说明经济现象中的异方差性。 20.产生异方差性的原因及异方差性对模型的OLS 估计有何影响。 21.检验异方差性的方法有哪些？ 22.异方差性的解决方法有哪些？ 23.什么是加权最小二乘法？它的基本思想是什么？ 24.样本分段法（即戈德菲尔特——匡特检验）检验异方差性的基本原理及其使用条件。 25．简述DW 检验的局限性。 26．序列相关性的后果。 27．简述序列相关性的几种检验方法。 28．广义最小二乘法（GLS ）的基本思想是什么？ 29．解决序列相关性的问题主要有哪几种方法？ 30．差分法的基本思想是什么？ 31．差分法和广义差分法主要区别是什么？ 32．请简述什么是虚假序列相关。 33．序列相关和自相关的概念和范畴是否是一个意思？ 34．DW 值与一阶自相关系数的关系是什么？ 35．什么是多重共线性？产生多重共线性的原因是什么？ 36．什么是完全多重共线性？什么是不完全多重共线性？ 37．完全多重共线性对OLS 估计量的影响有哪些？ 38．不完全多重共线性对OLS 估计量的影响有哪些？ 39．从哪些症状中可以判断可能存在多重共线性？ 40．什么是方差膨胀因子检验法？ 41．模型中引入虚拟变量的作用是什么？ 42．虚拟变量引入的原则是什么？ 43．虚拟变量引入的方式及每种方式的作用是什么？ 44．判断计量经济模型优劣的基本原则是什么？ 45．模型设定误差的类型有那些？
语言学：It studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出