翻译理论知识概要
第一部分：翻译术语
1. Definitions of translation
Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language. Being a very complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe. Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives.
(1). Linguistic Views on Translation
Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts.
Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language). (Catford, 1965: 20).
Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber,1969:12).
Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory. (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5).
(2). Cultural Views on Translation
In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i.e. translation is an "intercultural communication"; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", "acculturation", and "transculturation".
Translation is a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages {Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:35).
A translator who uses a cultural approach is simply recognizing that each language contains elements which are derived from its culture (such as greetings, fixed
expressions and REALIA), that every text is anchored in a specific culture, and that conventions of text production and reception vary from culture to culture (Shuttleworth & Cowie1997:35).
For truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function. (Nida, 2001:82).
翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化, 还要深入了解自己民族的文化。不仅如此, 还要不断地把两种文化加以比较, 因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言; 确实如此, 但是不了解语言当中的社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。
(3).Literary Views on Translation
Translators who hold this view believe that translation is an artistic recreation or a recreated art. Some modern Western scholars from the literary school take literary translation to be "the manipulation or rewriting of the source texts".
文学翻译的任务是要把原作中包含的一定社会生活的映象完好无损地从一种语言移注到另一种语言中, 在翻译过程中追求语言的艺术美, 再现原作的艺术性。用茅盾的话说, 是"使读者在读译文的时候能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受"。
语言是塑造文学形象的工具, 因而文学的形象性特征必然要在语言上表现出来。文学语言的特征, 诸如形象、生动、鲜明、含蓄、凝练、准确、风趣、幽默、辛辣、滑稽、悦耳、民族特点、地方色彩, 还有行业习语、民间的俚语、谚语等等, 都是作家根据塑造形象的需要, 从现实生活中提炼创造出来的。文学作品的艺术形式与思想内容是辩证统一的, 翻译要保存原作风格特点, 因此要求译文生动形象、形神毕肖、雅俗等同、简洁精美、词情并茂(《译学辞典》2004: 291)。
(4). Semantic Views on Translation
This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):"Translating means translating meaning". Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5).
Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22).
In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author's original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text
in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151).
(5).Functional Views on Translation
Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society.Translators should take into account the needs of the client, the reader as wellas the purpose or use of the translation:
It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator's,
i.e.client's needs (Baker,2001:236).
(6).Communicative Views on Translation
This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a social context.
Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the target language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22).
Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient. A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text's original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21).
The above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation. Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity.
2. Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous Translators or Translation Theorists
Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation.
(1). 严复(1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation
信(faithfulness): 忠实准确
达(expressiveness}: 通顺流畅
雅(elegance): 文字古雅
Yan Fu put forward this "Three-character Guide” in his preface to the tr anslation of T.H. Huxley's book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演论》译例言1898): 译事三难信达雅。求其信己大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉...... 易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文，行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法，则为达易。用近世利俗文字，则求达难。往往抑义就词，毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间，夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。......
Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant. It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.……
The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness. Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language. He adds that if one's language lacks grace, it won't go far. These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance. I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer's ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today. Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding. Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different ……
Yan Fu’s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of "elegance" has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve "elegance". Yan Fu's criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles. Despite this, Yan’s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed. Nowadays to many translators, "elegance" implies "the safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original”(黄龙, 1988:90) or "运用读者所最乐于接受的文体, 使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响"(劳陇，《翻译通讯》1983年第10期).
(2). 鲁迅信（faithfulness)
顺（smoothness)
翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，
一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换他的衣裳，却不该削低他的鼻子，剜掉他的眼睛(《鲁迅全集》第6卷，48页)。
(3). 林语堂忠实{faithfulness)
通顺(smoothness)
美(beautifulness)
翻译的标准问题，大概包括三方面。我们可依三方面的次序讨论。第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的"译事三难"，大体上是正相比符的。……我们并须记得这所包括的就是：第一、译者对原文方面的问题，第二、译者对中文方面的问题，第三、是翻译与艺术文的问题。以译者所负的责任言，第一是译者对原著者的责任，第二是译者对中国读者的责任，第三是译者对艺术的责任。三样的责任全备，然后可以谓具有真正译家的资格。(《论翻译》,林语堂名著全集,1995:306)
(4). 傅雷:神似(resemblance in spirit)
以效果而论，(文学)翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老头》重译本序，1951)
(5). 钱钟书：化境(reaching the acme of perfection)
文学翻译的最高境界是"化"，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风昧，那就算得入于"化境"。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的"投胎转世"(the transmigration of soul), 躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。(《林纾的翻译》，1964)
(6). 刘重德：信（faithhlness）
达（expressiveness）
切（closeness)
信于内容(to be faithful to the content of the original);
达如其分(to be as expressive as the original);
切合风格(to be as close to the original style as possible).
(《浑金璞玉集》，1994: 9)
(7). 许渊冲：三重标准(three levels of criteria) (《翻译的艺术》，1984: 26)
标准低标准中标准高标准
内容忠实(信) 明确准确精确
(三似) 意似形似神似
(三化) 浅化等化深化
形式通顺(达) 易懂通顺扬长(雅,或传神)
(8). Alexander Fraser TytIer (泰特勒): Three Principles of Translation
Alexander F.Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical
criteria in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790):
1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work (译作应该完全传达原作的思想)；
2) The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the original (译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致)；
3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition(译作应当和原作一样流畅).
Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their significance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second .
(9). Eugene A. Nida (奈达): Functional Equivalence (功能对等)
Eugene A.Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his Language and Culture: Context in Translating(2001:87):
1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度).
2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did. (最高限度合乎理想的功能对等定义：译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文).
3. Classification of translation
(1). Jakobson (1896-1982)
1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.
2) Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.
3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems.
e.g.
1) 原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎!”
译文一: 孔子说:“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐
吗!别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？” (徐志刚译)
译文二: The Master said，"To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt，Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (Waley 译)
[点评] 原文同译文一之间的转换属于语内翻译(intralingual translation), 即用同一语盲的其他语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述(rewording)。原文同译文二之间的转换属于语际翻译(interlingual translation)，即两个不同语言之间所进行的转换。
2) 原文：A: What does your watch say?
B: It says “five past three”.
[点评] 在这一对话中，B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotic translation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。当A询问B几点钟的时候，B只能看钟或者看手表，而钟或者手表并不能说话，B只能根据钟表的时针和分针来确定具体儿点钟了。而B所言实际上是言语传达一个非言语信息(non-linguistic message)。将非言语信息用言语传达出来是翻译的一种方式，这不是从一种语言到另一种语言的转换过程，而是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的过程。非语言交际系统和语言交际系统的共同特征是两者都属于"符号系统"(即用于交际的系统)。雅可布逊Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的转换过程称为符际翻译是恰当的。其实，我们每个人每一天、每一刻都在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。从这个意义上说，我们每个人都是某种意义上的译者(Hervey et.al 1995:8-9).
(2). Peter Newmark (纽马克): Communicative and Semantic Translation (交际翻译与语义翻译)
Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of communicative and semantic translation in his Approaches to Translation (1982/1988:39):
1) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果).
2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义).
(3). Christiane Nord
“译文的功能并非由分析原文自动得出，而是由跨文化传意的目的决定的”。（Nord,1991:9）而译文可以按照其传意功能分为两种类型，一种是能在目标文化的新情景中独立地起传意作用的工具；另一种是纪录作者与原文接受者如何在来源文化里传意的文献。换言之，翻译有两种方法：工具性翻译和文献性翻译。a) 工具性翻译(instrumental translation)有三种：
1）等功能翻译：对目标读者发挥原文功能，例如，使用说明书；
2）异功能翻译：发挥相似功能，例如把《格列佛游记》翻译给儿童阅读；
3）相应翻译：在目标文学语境中再现原文在来源文学语境中的功能，以发挥与原文相应的效果，常见于诗歌翻译。
b) 文献性翻译(documental translation)
1）逐字翻译：再现原语系统；
2）字面翻译：再现原文形式；
3）语文学翻译：结合字面翻译和文外阐释，再现原文的形式和内容；
4）异化翻译：保留原文的文化背景，给译文接受者营造异国情调（Nord,1997:47-52；1991：73）
4. Nature and Scope of Translation
What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.
Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word "translation", for the very word "translation" itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent "'fanyi" sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, "fanyi" may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself.
If the word "translation" refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators.
Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc. , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc. , and translation of practical writing (as official documents,
contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation（全文翻译）, abridged translation（摘译）or adapted translation（编译）.
5. Principles or Criteria of Translation
The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing. The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s "three-character guide", which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of "信、达、雅"(faithfulness expressiveness and elegance ).
In the past decades Mr. Yan's principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead.
Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character "雅". According to them, "雅" means far more than the English word "elegance". Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor. The second group, however, argues that the word "雅" is out of place in translation. While adopting the first two characters of Mr. Yan Fu's principle, it discards the character "雅" and tries to find some other new criteria instead. Noticeably, there are revisions such as "信、达、切" (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness), "信、达、贴" (faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness), and so on. The third group of people, by casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own. Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimated adaptation (化境). The former, proposed by Fu Lei emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian Zhongshu, focuses on the translator's smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader.
Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy（忠实、准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of translation in general. By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic
expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries.
6. Literal Translation and Free Translation
The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression. Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension. However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation and free translation are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations.
The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means "not to alter the original words and sentences"; strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile's tears, armed to the teeth, chain reaction, gentlemen's agreement, and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎(paper tiger), 一国两制(one country, two systems ), and so on.
Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation. For example:
?Adam's apple喉结
?at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟
?It rains cats and dogs. 大雨滂沱
?Don't cross the bridge till you get to it. 不必担心过早。(不必自寻烦恼)
?Do you see any green in my eye? 你以为我是幼稚可欺的吗?
The above illustrations can not be translated literally，otherwise，the Chinese rendition would make nonsense at all，let alone the original meaning.
Literal translation and free translation, however, are relative concepts. In other words, there is no absolute “literal”，nor entirely "free" version in the practice of translation, and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences. Let's
scrutinize the following two practical cases.
Original English 1
I love tiger cat, … British movies on public television，fluffy blouses, the nuclear family, (Helen Snow，My China Years)
Chinese Version A:
我爱虎猫, …… (爱)电视上放映的英国影片，有绒毛的短衫，核心家庭，……Chinese Version B:
我喜欢豹猫, …… 喜欢公共电视台播放的英国电影，喜欢蓬松、柔软的棉毛衫，喜欢一夫一妻制的家庭，……
Comment:
Apparently, these two Chinese versions are far from being perfect. Other things aside, the rendering of the phrase nuclear family poses a serious problem of representation. Version A renders "the nuclear family" as "核心家庭" by means of literal translation. However, this version is too stiff, therefore it fails to convey the original meaning to the Chinese reader—for most Chinese, they have hardly any idea what "核心家庭" really means. Version B adopts the approach of free translation and puts it into "一夫一妻制"；evidently it goes too far and distorts the author's original intention, and in doing so, the translator abuses the practice of free translation. In fact, the nuclear family has nothing to do with either of the versions. A close examination of its definition in an English-English dictionary sheds light on this phrase: nuclear family, a family group that consists only of father, mother and children. Therefore, the proper rendering of the phrase should be words to this effect: a cozy small family, namely, the Chinese equivalent "小家庭".
Original English 2 :
Mao Tse-tung was well bred, but inside he was made of steel, of hard resistance, of tough tissue—the kind of tissue the Boxers thought they had by magic, and bared their solar plexuses to foreign bullets.(ibid. )
Chinese Version A:
毛泽东有很好的教养，内部是钢，有坚强的抗力，是坚韧的材料制成的。这是义和团设想的由于神力具有的，可以把腹部袒胸给外国人的子弹的那种材料。Chinese Version B:
毛泽东教养有素，精神支柱铁铸钢打，不怕高压，是由坚韧的组织构成的。这种组织，就是义和拳认为他们通过魔法得到的那种组织袒胸露体，刀枪不入。
Comment:
The word "tissue" can hardly be rendered into Chinese either in literal translation or free translation，nor could the metaphor "inside he was made of steel" be properly rendered without grasping the essence of the whole sentence. However，since there is no corresponding expressions in Chinese, the translators tackle them according to
their own understanding. Inversion A，"tissue" is freely rendered as "材料" (material)，while version B literally as"组织"(organic tissue)—both fail to convey the original meaning and attitude of the writer. By adopting translation skills such as amplification, omission，conversion and restructuring，we may translate the original English sentence as follows:
Revised Version:
毛泽东外表温文尔雅，但内心深处却钢铸铁打，既坚韧，又抗压—在他的身上可以看到当年义和团自信所具有的那种神力，面对洋枪洋炮也敢袒胸露怀。
From the above analysis, we come to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free translation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other. The key point for a translator to grasp is to comprehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese. In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes. In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication. Whatever the circumstances, we may alternate or combine these two approaches when it is necessary.
7. Omission
Omission is a technique opposite to amplification. True, a translator has no right to subtract any meaning from the original work. But it does not follow that he should refrain from omitting any words at all in translation. In fact, one of the marked differences in syntax between English and Chinese is the disparity in wording. What is regarded as a natural or indispensable element in one language may be regarded as superfluous or even "a stumbling block" in the other. Take the following English sentence and its Chinese version for example:
Original English: The time-keeping devices of electronic watches are much more accurate than those of mechanical ones.
Chinese Version: 电子表比机械表准确得多。
A comparison between the Chinese version with the English original shows that many of the "redundant" English words have been omitted in the Chinese translation, otherwise, the Chinese sentence would sound wordy and unnatural. Therefore, a manipulation of the technique "omission" is always called for in English-Chinese translation. On the other hand, some Chinese sentences, when translated into English, also need to be rid of redundant wording so as to conform to idiomatic English expressions.
8. Conversion
Conversion, one of the commonly adopted translation techniques, means the change of parts of speech in translation. Owing to the syntactical differences between
English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for a translator to keep to the original part of speech in the process of translation. For example:
Original English: This watch never varies more than a second in a month.
Chinese Version: 这块表一个月的误差从不超过一秒钟。
The English verb "varied" can hardly be rendered into Chinese by the same part of speech without spoiling the original meaning. As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain part of speech in one language sometimes has to be converted into a different part of speech, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence.
9. Restructuring
Restructuring, as one of the translation techniques, means the necessary or inevitable change of word order in a sentence according to the usage of the language to be translated into. It is also called rearrangement or inversion.
10. Hypotactic vs. Paratactic (形合与意合)
Hypotaxis (形合法) is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don't come. English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis.
Parataxis(意合法)is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives Showing the relation between them, for example, The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis.
11. Foreignizing Translation and Domesticating Translation
(1). Foreignizing Translation
Foreignizing translation lays great emphasis on retaining the cultural flavors of the source language and enables the reader to have an alien reading experience, thus developing the reader's awareness of cultural differences. To promote cultural exchange and mutual understanding between peoples of different languages and cultures, foreignizing translation is a far better choice than domesticating translation. In this way we can better understand the source-language culture and enrich Chinese modes of expression. The weakness of foreignization is that the culture-specific expressions thus translated may not be familiar to our readers or smooth enough for us to read with ease. In this case, a semantic translation or an explanatory note may be added. However, what is unfamiliar at present may gradually become familiar as more and more intercultural communications take place, or as people read more and more such translated expressions. Here we are reminded of a much quoted saying by Lu Xun:
翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存，却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换它的衣裳，却不该削低它的鼻子，剜掉它的眼睛。（《鲁迅全集》第6卷，348页）
and also a quotation from Mao Zedong:
要从外国语言中吸收我们所需要的成分。我们不是硬搬或滥用外国语言，是要吸收外国语言中的好东西，于我们适用的东西。因为中国原有语汇不够用，现在我们的语汇中就有很多是从外国吸收来的。例如今天开的干部大会，这“干部”两个字，就是从外国学来的。我们还要多多吸收外国的新鲜东西，不但要吸收他们的进步道理，而且要吸收他们的新鲜用语。（《反对党八股》）
It should be noted that skilful foreignizing translation, which may involve the techniques of necessary addition or omission, does not mean word-for-word or mechanical translation which disregards the original implication, the constraints of Chinese usage (linguistic and cultural), and the acceptability of our readers. Examples:
1). arm to the teeth
武装到牙齿(cf. 全副武装)
2). crocodile tears
鳄鱼的眼泪(cf. 猫哭老鼠假慈悲)
3). Beauty lies in the lover's eyes.
情人眼里出美人(cf. 情人眼里出西施)
4). In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is King.
盲人国里，独眼人称王(cf. 蜀中无大将，廖化作先锋)
5). as gay (cheerful) as a lark
像云雀那样快活(cf.兴高采烈)
e.g. Ha, ha! We should be as gay as larks, Mr. Richard — why not? (C. Dickens: The Old Curiosity Shop)
6)．Sour grapes
酸葡萄(cf.把得不到的东西说成是不好的)
e.g. But because we cannot satisfy the desires of our hearts - why should we cry "sour grapes" at them? (H. Wells: Christina Alberta's Father)
7). Pandora's box
潘多拉的盒子(cf. 灾难和罪恶的来源)
8). Judas kiss
犹大之吻(cf.虚伪的好意)
9). teach a pig to play on a flute
教猪吹笛(cf. 对牛弹琴)
10). flog a dead horse 鞭打死马(cf.做无用功；白费口舌)
11). a dark horse 黑马(cf. 出人意料的获胜者)
12). as easy as ABC 像ABC 字母一样简单(cf. 非常容易)
13). ivory tower 象牙塔(cf. 人们避免现实生活中烦恼的小天地)
14). Beauty is but skin-deep.
(谚语) 美貌只是一层皮(cf. 不可以貌取人)
15). Can the leopard change his spots?
(谚语)美洲豹岂能改变身上的花纹(cf. 本性难移)
16). Trojan horse
(谚语) 特洛伊木马(cf. 诡计；隐患；从内部进行颠覆破坏的人)
17). Never offer to teach fish to swim.
(谚语) 不要教鱼游泳(cf. 不要班门弄斧)
18). look for a needle in a haystack
在草堆里找针(cf. 海底捞针)
19). a stick-and-carrot policy
大棒加胡萝卜政策(cf.软硬兼施；恩威并用)
20). domino effect
多米诺骨牌效应(cf.连锁反应)
21). John is her office Romeo.
约翰是她办公室里的罗迷欧(cf. 办公室里的男情人)
22). sandwich man
三明治式广告宣传员(cf. 身前身后挂着标语牌的广告宣传员)
In foreignizing translation, a paraphrase or an explanation, if necessary, may be added to the unfamiliar expression or a footnote may be placed at the end of the translation, so as to make the English culture-loaded expression comprehensible to our readers:
e.g. It was another one of those Catch-22 situations, you're damned if you do and you're damned if you don't.
这真是又一个如同军规第二十二条的尴尬局面：做也倒霉，不做也倒霉，令人左右为难。
注:：Catch-22 situation 源自美国小说家Joseph Heller 于1961 年出版的小说《第二十二条军规》（Catch-22)。该条军规规定：飞行员如果觉得自己神经不正常，可以获准不执行飞行任务，但必须提出申请并得到批准。但同时该军规又规定：如果飞行员因此提出申请，则充分证明该飞行员能意识到面临着无法克服的困难，头脑清醒，神经正常，因此不得豁免飞行任务。这是一条自相矛盾、无法执行的规定。
(2). Domesticating Translation
Domesticating translation minimizes the foreignness of the source-language text by changing heterogeneous elements into what is familiar to the target-language reader. This method of "substitution" means replacing the English culture-loaded expression by its Chinese equivalent, which may be similar in form and same in meaning (形似意同) or different in form but same in meaning (形异意同), to minimize the strangeness of the English expression by adopting a fluent, natural-sounding Chinese style for our readers' preferences. Domestication is usually employed when the translator believes that the original cultural flavor is widely different from Chinese culture and therefore too difficult for our readers to understand.
Both at present and in history, the domesticating strategy seems to have been dominant in China, for reviewers and publishers tend to lay great emphasis on
readability of the translated text, which coincides with the taste of the general reader. The weakness of domestication is that the original cultural flavors are not communicated to our readers and the translation becomes a "regrettable art".
It should be emphasized that many English and Chinese expressions may seem similar in form, but they are actually different in meaning or in shades of implication. Translators should guard against these "false friends" and the resulting mistakes (see the "CAUTION" below).
Examples:
1). Give him an inch and he will take a mile.
2). like a cat on hot bricks
3). spring (shoot) up like mushrooms
4). The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak.
5). have one foot in the grave
6). carry coals to Newcastle
7). lion in the way (来自《圣经》) 拦路虎
8). Seeing is believing.
9). What's done is done. (Shakespeare)
10). When Greek meets Greek then comes the tug of war. (谚语) 两雄相遇，其斗必烈。
12. Semantic Translation
Semantic translation means reproducing the precise contextual meaning of the English culture-loaded expression within the syntactic and semantic constraints of the Chinese language. Wemay employ the method of concretization" (具体法) or "abstraction" (抽象法) to paraphrase the expression. Semantic translation is employed often after the failure of "foreignizing translation" or "domesticating translation". In many cases we find it difficult to translate them unless we refer to contexts or consult dictionaries.
Examples:
1). apple of discord
(来自希腊神话) 不和的种子；争吵的根源
2). escape by (with) the skin of one's teeth
(来自《圣经》) 死里逃生；幸免于难
3). hole-and-corner
(来自《圣经》) 偷偷摸摸；鬼鬼祟祟
4). as poor as Job
(来自《圣经》) 一贫如洗（穷得象约伯一样）
5). By George!
天啊！好家伙！糟糕！(used as an exclamation of surprise or approval.)
e.g. It couldn't be, by George, that she was deceiving him. (Th. Dreiser: Sister Carrie)
6). Mickey Mouse (= small and unimportant; not to be taken seriously, LDCE 1998: 952)
e.g. ?A "Mickey Mou se course" meansa snap course. (American Speech)
? He calls himself the managing director but his company is just a Mickey Mouse operation that he runs from his own home. (LDCE 1998: 952)
7). in for a penny, in for a pound
(= if something has been started it should be finished, whatever the cost may be, LDCE 1998: 1108)
e.g. Now gentlemen, I am not a man who does things by halves, being in for a penny,
I am ready, as the saying is, in for a pound. (The Curiosity Shop)
8). bite off more than one can chew
(= attempt more than one can deal with or succeed in finishing, LDCE 1998: 130)
e.g. I told him he would be biting off more than he could chew if he tried to rebuild the house himself, (ibid)
9). be in good company
(= be able to take comfort from the fact that many other [skilled or clever] people are the same as yourself, esp. in not being able to do something, Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, 1979)
e.g. —"Why are we going to France? I can't speak a word of French."
—"Don't worry, you're in good company— neither can I!" (LDCE 1998: 294)
10). a square peg in a round hole
(= someone who is not suited to the job they hold, the group they belong to, LDCE 1998: 1489)
e.g. Horace hated his work in the office as he had always worked out of doors; he was a square peg in a round hole.
13. Affixation
Affixation is an important means of coining new English words and technical terms, with prefix and suffix as inseparable elements, of the words being coined. The advantage of affixation is evident: it is the most flexible means of forming new words and its potential of creation is almost boundless, therefore it is extensively used in the formation of technical terms. Besides prefix and suffix of English origin, there are some foreign borrowings, noticeably the Latin ones, e.g. bio-(生命、生物), thermo-（热）, electro-(电), aero-(空气) carbo-(碳), hydro-(水), -ite(矿物), -mania(热，狂), etc. If we are familiar with these prefixes and suffixes, many technical terms of such formation can be translated appropriately. The following are some typical examples. ? miniultrasonicprober = mini + ultra +sonic +prober 微型超声波金属探测仪
? macrospacetransship = macro +space + trans + ship 巨型空间转运飞船
? teletypesetter = tele + type + setter 电传排字机
? bathythermograph = bathy +thermo + graph 海水测温仪
? barothermograph = baro + thermo + graph 气压温度记录器
? deoxyribonucleic = de + oxy + ribo + nucleic 脱氧核糖核
? photomorphogenesis = photo +morpho + genesis 光形态发生
14. Compounding
Two or more words combined to form a new word is called compounding. English technical terms formed by compounding generally take three forms: combining with a hyphen (e. g. salt-former 卤素, dew-point 露点, pulse-scaler 脉冲定标器) or
without it (e.g. fallout 放射性尘埃, waterlock 水闸, thunderstorm 雷暴) or two or more separate words forming a word combination (e. g. verbal translator 逐字翻译机, hover craft 气垫船, satellite antimissile observation system 卫星反导弹观察系统).
Most of such compound words may be translated literally, i.e. put the Chinese equivalents of the separate elements together and we get the Chinese equivalents of the compound words. Sometimes, however, there are exceptions. For example, bull's eye, cat-and-mouse, dog house etc.—literal translation in tackling such terms may lead astray. Therefore whenever we are confronted with unfamiliar terms and are not sure of their meaning, we should frequently consult dictionaries of relevant specialties. In many cases some additional explanations are needed to make the original meaning clear and accurate.
15. Blending
This is a variant of compounding, omitting the latter part of the first word and clipping off the first part of the second word. Sometimes, however, either the first part or the second part of the overlapped word may be a full word. Generally speaking, this blending of words possesses the combined meaning of both, therefore, literal translation is used in translating such terms, with one element modifying the other.
?smog = smoke + fog
?telex = teleprinter + exchange
?gravisphere = gravity + sphere
?medicare = medical + care
?biorhythm == biological +rhythm
?copy tron == copy + electron
16. Acronym
An acronym is a word made up from the first letters of the name of something. Since it is very convenient to use this brief form, acronym is widely adopted in English technical terms. With the rapid development of science and technology, more and more acronyms are extensively used in various fields, therefore, it is up to the translator to discern their actual meaning in different context.
? ADP automatic data processing
? AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
? EDPM e lectronic data processing machine
? GSV guided space vehicle
? Laser light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
? RAM random access memory
Sometimes, an acronym happens to be a significant English word, or it may possess more than one meaning. In this case, special attention is necessary to pick out the proper one.
MOUSE minimum orbital unmanned satellite of the earth
SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
SNAP subsystem for nuclear auxiliary power
space nuclear auxiliary power systems for nuclear auxiliary power AS air scoop
air seasoned
air speed
air station
American Standard atmosphere and space automatic sprinkler
automatic synchronizer
英语翻译重点词汇词组 fellow countrymen 同胞 militarist军阀 Chinese Communist Party 党组织 the Grand Canal （京杭）大运河Industrial Revolution 工业革命dawn to dark从早到晚 especially English 具有英国特征的cottage industry 农村手工业 Indian summer 最后的余辉 stock-raising 畜牧业 Homestead Act 宅地法 wild west 西部荒原 the gold rush 淘金热 basic occupation 基础产业Department of Agriculture 农业部门the Nile Delta 尼罗河三角洲 coastal erosion 水土流失Mediterranean climate 地中海型气候surveyor general 测量总监sovereign nation 主权国家aggregate output 总产量 coastal area 沿海地区 telephone connections 电话用户economic well-being 生活水平 two way trade 双向贸易 lucrative export market 出口市场
foreign exchange 外汇 sum total 总数 per capita 人均 GNP 国民生产总值 joint ventures 合资企业 net income 净收入 world investment system世界投资体系 the stock of foreign investment 外资存量 英语翻译重点词汇（２） major economy 经济大国 the stimulus, the technology and the funding 动力、技术和资金international trade and investment 国际贸易和投资 popular science 科普读物Arctic seas 北冰洋 vegetable oil 植物油 mineral oil煤油 internal combustion engine内燃机 warfare on land and sea 陆战和海战 minute sea creatures and plants 微小的海洋动植物 crude oil 原油 sedimentary rocks 沉积岩 pitch lake 沥青湖 superhighway 高速公路 living organism 生物体 applied entomology 应用昆虫学 environmental Law环保法 wildlife 野生生物
PCB 专业术语中英文翻译 很多PCB 的书上使用的是英文，但是大多数的人又看不懂英文， 这时候怎么办呢，我们需要翻译，但是如果每看到一个不会的词 儿就去翻译，那么就太耗费时间了，所以我们捷多邦总结了一些 常用的专业术语的中英文对照，希望能对大家有用。 1.印制电路：printed circuit 2.印制线路：printed wiring 3.印制板：printed board 4.印制板电路：printed circuit board (pcb) 5.印制线路板：printed wiring board(pwb) 6.印制元件：printed component 7.印制接点：printed contact 8.印制板装配：printed board assembly 9.板：board 1 10.表面层合电路板：surface laminar circuit (slc) 11.埋入凸块连印制板：b2it printed board 12.多层膜基板：multi-layered film substrate(mfs) 13.层间全内导通多层印制板：alivh multilayer printed board 14.载芯片板：chip on board (cob) 15.埋电阻板：buried resistance board 16.母板：mother board 17.单面印制板：single-sided printed board(ssb) 、管路敷设技术通过管线不仅可以解决吊顶层配置不规范高中资料试卷问题，而且可保障各类管路习题到位。在管路敷设过程中，要加强看护关于管路高中资料试卷连接管口处理高中资料试卷弯扁度固定盒位置保护层防腐跨接地线弯曲半径标等，要求技术交底。管线敷设技术中包含线槽、管架等多项方式，为解决高中语文电气课件中管壁薄、接口不严等问题，合理利用管线敷设技术。线缆敷设原则：在分线盒处，当不同电压回路交叉时，应采用金属隔板进行隔开处理；同一线槽内强电回路须同时切断习题电源，线缆敷设完毕，要进行检查和检测处理。、电气课件中调试对全部高中资料试卷电气设备，在安装过程中以及安装结束后进行 高中资料试卷调整试验；通电检查所有设备高中资料试卷相互作用与相互关系，根据生产工艺高中资料试卷要求，对电气设备进行空载与带负荷下高中资料试卷调控试验；对设备进行调整使其在正常工况下与过度工作下都可以正常工作；对于继电保护进行整核对定值，审核与校对图纸，编写复杂设备与装置高中资料试卷调试方案，编写重要设备高中资料试卷试验方案以及系统启动方案；对整套启动过程中高中资料试卷电气设备进行调试工作并且进行过关运行高中资料试卷技术指导。对于调试过程中高中资料试卷技术问题，作为调试人员，需要在事前掌握图纸资料、设备制造厂家出具高中资料试卷试验报告与相关技术资料，并且了解现场设备高中资料试卷布置情况与有关高中资料试卷电气系统接线等情况 ，然后根据规范与规程规定，制定设备调试高中资料试、电气设备调试高中资料试卷技术电力保护装置调试技术，电力保护高中资料试卷配置技术是指机组在进行继电保护高中资料试卷总体配置时，需要在最大限度内来确保机组高中资料试卷安全，并且尽可能地缩小故障高中资料试卷破坏范围，或者对某些异常高中资料试卷工况进行自动处理，尤其要避免错误高中资料试卷保护装置动作，并且拒绝动作，来避免不必要高中资料试卷突然停机。因此，电力高中资料试卷保护装置调试技术，要求电力保护装置做到准确灵活。对于差动保护装置高中资料试卷调试技术是指发电机一变压器组在发生内部故障时，需要进行外部电源高中资料试卷切除从而采用高中资料试卷主要保护装置。
1)It is+形容词+that It is conceivable that knowledge plays an important role in our life. 可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演着一个重要的角色。 2)It is+形容词+to do/ doing She had said what it was necessary to say. 她已经说了一切有必要说的话。 3)祈使句/名词+and/ or Work hard, and you will finally be able to reach your destination. 努力工作，你就能实现自己的目标。 4)as+many/ much+名词+as It is said that visitors spend only half as much money in a day in Leeds as in Lon-don. 据说，游客每天在利兹的花销仅为在伦敦的一半。 5)倍数词+as+形容词+as The reservoir is three times as big as it was ten years ago. 这个水库的面积是十年前三倍。 6) 倍数词+ more +名词/形容词十than Smoking is so harmful to personal health that it kills seven times more people each year than automobile accidents. 吸烟对人体健康的危害极大，每年死于吸烟的人比死于车祸的人多七倍。 7)(not)as/ so...as(和……(不)一样)
翻译的英语单词 翻译是在准确、通顺的基础上，把一种语言信息转变成另一种语言信息的行为。翻译是将一种相对陌生的表达方式，转换成相对熟悉的表达方式的过程。那么你知道翻译的英语单词是什么吗?下面来学习一下吧。 翻译英语单词1： translate 翻译英语单词2： interpreter 翻译的英语例句： 女孩们等待埃施先生作翻译。 The girls waited for Mr Esch to translate. 人们很难翻译幽默或笑话。 You really can 't translate humor or jokes. 逐字翻译不一定最接近原义。 A literal translation is not always the closest to the original meaning. 我认为她对这篇文章的翻译要比他强的多。 I think her translation of the article is much better than his. 你能把这句话翻译成英语吗?
Can you translate the sentence into English? 我不太满意他对这个句子的翻译。 I'm not satisfied with his interpretation of this sentence. 我正在逐字的翻译。 I am making a verbal translation. 我给你当翻译。 I'll act as interpreter for you. 要不要我来帮你翻译? Would you like me to interpret for you? 被翻译成英语的爱尔兰童话故事 Irish fairytales that had been translated into English 在你们的合同中已订定有可能要翻译这本书。 The possibility of the book being translated is provided for in your contract. 受控语言加机器翻译就是受控翻译。 Machine translation plus controlled language is called controlled translation. 这部书已经翻译成多种语言。 This book has been translated into several languages. 翻译诗歌在许多情况下都是困难的。 It's often difficult to translate poems.
database数据库? (1) 根据为一个或多个应用程序提供服务的方案存储的相关数据（带有冗余控制）的集合。(2) 存储在系统中的所有数据文件。(3) 存储在一起并由数据库管理系统管理的数据集。 database management system （DBMS）数据库管理系统? 通过为有效访问、完整性、恢复、并行控制、隐私和安全性提供集中控制、数据独立和复杂物理结构等服务来管理数据的计算机程序。 datatype数据类型? 缺乏标识并且操作不带有副作用的一组值的描述符。数据类型包括初始预定义类型和用户可定义类型。预定义类型包括数字、字符串和时间。用户可定义类型可包括各种枚举。 DBA? 数据库管理员 DBCS? 双字节字符集 DBMS? 数据库管理系统 DCE? 分布式计算环境 DCOM? 分布式对象模型 (Microsoft) deadlock死锁? 两个独立控制线程彼此阻塞，相互等待对方采取操作，这种状态称为死锁。死锁常常是由于添加了避免竞争状态的同步机制而引起的。 decision rule决策规则?
指一组人员同意就某一议题给出集体决策的规则或技术，例如多数票决、一致通过、自发协议等。 defect缺陷? 缺陷是已交付产品中的异常情况或瑕疵。缺陷可以是在生命周期的初期发现的遗漏和缺点，也可以是已准备测试或运行的较成熟软件中存在的故障征兆。缺陷可以是您要跟踪并解决的任何种类的问题。另请参见变更请求。 defect checklist缺陷检查表? 某类指定的工件中常见缺陷的列表。 defect density缺陷密度? 每一个单位数量（每页代码或每千行代码）的被评审工作产品中所发现的缺陷的数量。 defect log缺陷日志? 见"问题日志"。 defining model定义模型? 储存库所基于的模型。任意数量的存储库都可以具有相同的定义模型。 delegation委托? 作为对于一个消息的响应，一个对象可以向另一对象发出消息的能力。委托可用作继承的备选方案。对比：(继承 inheritance)。 deliverable可交付工件? 过程中生成的、要交付给客户或其他涉众的具有值、材料或其他信息的输出。 de-marshal串行化? 为使对象可编写为字节流而对对象进行的解构。是串行化 (flatten) 和串行化(serialize) 的同义词。 demilitarized zone （DMZ）隔离带?
1.point and click (鼠标）点击 2.integrated circuit 集成电路 3.online transactions 网上交易 https://www.doczj.com/doc/c516842538.html,puter monitor 电脑显示器 5. projector 投影仪 6. screen saver 电脑保护系统 7. virtual currency 虚拟货币 8. computerized system 计算机系统 9. internet distance learning 网络远程教育 10. anti-virus programs 杀毒软件 11. bar code 条形码 12. cordless telephone 无线电话 13. cyberspace 网络空间 14. desktop 桌面，台式机 15. digital television 数字电视 16. video camera 摄像机 17. electronic hearing aid 电子助听器 18. fiber optic technology 光纤技术 19. firewall 防火墙 20. genetic engineering 基因工程 21. hacker 黑客 22. intelligent system 智能系统 23. it-industry 信息产业 24. minicomputer 小型计算机 25. multimedia learning system 多媒体学习系统 26. palmtop 掌上电脑 27. password 密码，口令 28. software package 软件包 29. solar collector 太阳能集热器 30. terminal 终端 文化教育词汇 1. educational background 教育背景 2. educational history 学历 3. curriculum 课程 4. major 主修 5. minor 未成年的；次要的；较小的未成年人副修 6. educational highlights 课程重点部分 7. specialized courses 专业课 8. social practice 社会实践 9. part-time jobs 兼职 10. extracurricular activities 课外活动 11. recreational activities 娱乐活动 12. academic activities 学术活动
软件开发技术常用术语 A.I. 人工智能 A2A integration A2A整合 abstract 抽象的 abstract base class (ABC)抽象基类 abstract class 抽象类 abstraction 抽象、抽象物、抽象性 access 存取、访问 access function 访问函数 access level访问级别 account 账户 action 动作 activate 激活 active 活动的 actual parameter 实参 adapter 适配器 add-in 插件 address 地址 address space 地址空间 address-of operator 取地址操作符 ADL (argument-dependent lookup) ADO(ActiveX Data Object)ActiveX数据对象 advanced 高级的 aggregation 聚合、聚集 algorithm 算法 alias 别名 align 排列、对齐 allocate 分配、配置 allocator分配器、配置器 angle bracket 尖括号 annotation 注解、评注 API (Application Programming Interface) 应用(程序)编程接口 app domain (application domain)应用域 appearance 外观 append 附加 application 应用、应用程序 application framework 应用程序框架 Approximate String Matching 模糊匹配 Arbitrary Precision Arithmetic 高精度计算 architecture 架构、体系结构 archive file 归档文件、存档文件
翻译中常见的句型 1．否定句型 1）部分否定。其否定意义只局限于整体中的一部分。其形式：“概括词all, every等+not+谓语动词”。常用于该句型词：all, both, everybody, everywhere, always, altogether, entirely, wholly等。 All is not gold that glitters. I do not wholly agree. 2) 完全否定。其形式：no, none 等否定词+肯定式谓语。常用于该句型词：no, none, nobody, nothing, nowhere, never, neither, nowhere, nowise, 等。还有一种句型：all等概括词+肯定式谓语+否定意义的词。 No words can describe the scene. 任何言词均不能描绘那景色。 All his plan came to nothing. 3)双重否定 a.主语+cannot+ help/refrain/keep + from + v-ing He could not help showing his pleasure.他不由得喜形于色。 b.主语+cannot+ but/choose but/ help but +do They can not choose but admit that they are wrong. c.(there be) not +主语+but+谓语 (There is )Nobody but has his faults. 人人都有缺点。 2．判断句型 1）强调判断句 a.主语+be+ no/none +other than/but +表语（强调内容） The tall figure that I saw was none other than our commander. b.主语+be+ nothing+(else)but/ else than/ less than+ 表语 Genius is nothing but labor and diligence.天才只不过是劳动加勤奋而已。 c.it is/was +强调部分+that/ who +从句 It is I who am to blame. 2) 正反判断句 a.主语+be +not+表语a, but +表语b What I admire in Columbus is not his discovered a world, but his having gone to search for it on the faith of an opinion. b.(it is) not… that(who) …, but…that (who) Not that we are afraid of them, but that they are afraid of us. 3)比较判断句： a.主语+be less+表语a +than表语b / more+表语b+表语a Experience shows that success is due less to abilities than to zeal. b.主语+be+表语b+ rather than+表语a He is an artist rather than a philosopher. c.主语+be+ not so much +表语a+ as+表语b It is so much advice as approval that he seeks. 他寻求的与其说是忠告，不如说是忠告。3．倍数表示句型： a.主语+be+倍数+that of 被比较对象/ as +形容词+as+被比较对象
中国国情词汇翻译 总需求 aggregate demand 总供给 aggregate supply 企业文化 corporate/entrepreneurial culture 企业形象 corporate image (Cl); enterprise image 跨国公司 cross-national corporation 创业精神 enterprising spirit; pioneering spirit 外资企业 foreign-funded enterprise 猎头公司head-hunter 假日经济 holiday economy 人力资本human capital 航空和航天工业aerospace industry 飞机制造工业aircraft industry 电子工业 electronic industry 汽车制造工业 car industry 娱乐业 entertainment industry 信息产业 information industry 知识密集型产业 knowledge-intensive industry 国有大中型企业 large and medium-sized state-owned enterprises 轻工业 light industry 博彩业 lottery industry 制造业 manufacturing industry 垄断行业 monopoly industries 市场多元化 market diversification 市场经济 market economy 市场监管 market supervision 购买力 purchasing power 熊市 bear market 牛市 bull market 城镇化 urbanization 房地产 real estate 首付 down-payment 业主 home owner 个人购房贷款 individual housing loan
专利翻译常用术语和 词汇
专利翻译常用术语和词汇 在进行专利翻译时，有很多专利常用的专业术语是我们不熟悉的。今天，乐译通就为大家总结了专利翻译常用的术语和词汇，希望对那些从事专利翻译的小伙伴能够有所帮助。 一、专利翻译常用术语 apparatus 装置 claim n.权利要求, vt, 主张/要求 claims the benefit of .. 要求……的权益 figure 附图/图 embodiment 实施例 implementation实现，别跟embodiement弄混； description 说明书 inventor 发明人 application 申请 (专利申请) means 装置/方式/手段 feature 特征 solution 方案，而非“解决方案”，有时可译作“技术方案（technical solution）”； and/or 和/或 prior art 现有技术 subject matter主题
term 术语priority 优先权 (relevant) skilled in the art 所属领域技术人员 Provisional Application 临时申请 Commonly assigned 共同受让的 二、专利翻译常用词汇 one or more，考虑翻译为“一个或多个”，而不是“一个或更多”; various 翻译成“多种”可能比“各种”要好； 有些词的含义比较相似，但在翻译的时候，最好将其区分出来，以尽可能体现原文的信息量，这种区分在词义上可能意义不大，但在语义上还是有意义的，例如： 1、apparatus, means, device, equipment, facility, tool，对于这些词，可以选择下列的对应译文：器械，装置，设备，装备，机构，工具 2、memory, storage 存储器/存储设备 3、process, procedure,function, method 过程/进程，过程，函数/功能/方法，方法 4、time, interval, time interval, period, duration, cycle，如果这些词同时出现，在译文中需要体现出差别 5、estimate“估计”可能是比“估算”更好的 6、location, position, coordinate, place 地点，位置，坐标，地方 7、execute, perform, run, process 执行，表演/表现，运行，处理 8、power, energy, power source 功率，能量，功率源 9、direction, orentation 方向，朝向
英语翻译常考句型详解 1.It is not that…but that… 这不是说…，而是说… 「例文」It is not that the scales in the one case, and the balance in the other, differ in the principles of their construction or manner of working; but that the latter is much finer apparatus and of couse much more accurate in its measurement than the former. 「译文」这并不是说在一种情况下所使用的磅秤和在另一种情况下所使用的天平在构造原理上或工作方式上存在差别，而是说与前者相比，后者是一种更精密得多的装置，因而在计量上必然更加准确。 2.nothing else than 完全是，实在是 「例文」What the man said was nothing else than nonsense. 「译文」那个人讲的话完全是一派胡言。 3.as引导的特殊状语从句，翻译时做定语从句处理。 「例文」We hope the measures to control prices, as they have been taken by the government, will succeed. 「译文」我们希望，政府已经采取的控制物价的措施将取得成功。 4.名词+or+名词结构中，or后的名词是同位语，应译为即…；或者称…. 「例文」Moreover， technology includes techniques , or ways to do things , as well as the manchines that may or may not be necessary to apply them. 「译文」再者，除机器外技术还包括技艺，即制作方法，而运用这些记忆并不一定都需要机器。 5.more…than…结构有三种译法：than连接肯定形式的从句时，该从句译为否定句；在比较的基础上表示选择关系时，可译为与其说…不如说；进行同类比较时，译成比…更. 「例文」The complexity of the human situation and injustice of the social order demand far more fundamental changes in the basic structure of society itself than some politicians are willing to admit in their speeches. 「译文」人类社会形势的复杂性和社会制度的不公正性要求对社会基本结构进行彻底变革，而一些政客口头上是很不愿意承认这一点的。 「分析」这是一个主从复合句，连词than前为主句，than后为从句。虽然本句是进行程度上的比较，但从句意义是否定的， 故译成否定句。 6.no more …than 与not… any more than no more …than 与not… any more than同义，不可简单地看成是more …than的否定形式。具体地说，这一结构可能是带有一定的感情色彩的否定形式，也可能是一种较特殊的类比形式。其翻译方法有二；表示同类否定比较时，可译为不比…更或都…同样不；表示比喻关系时，可译为正如…不，…也不. 「例文」The food on the ship was no better than on any other ship on which Billy had sailed. 「译文」这条船上(供应的)食品并不如比利工作过的其他船上的(食品)好。(括号里的词是可以省略的。) 「分析」这是一个主从复合句、主句是The food …no better , than on any other ship 是省略了比较对象的比较状语从句，从句on which引导的定语从句修饰先行词ship.本句中no more… than用于同类否定的比较，可译为不如…. 7.not so much as与其说…不如说… 「例文」Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools. 「译文」新学派科学家说，科学的发展与其说源于天才伟人的真知灼见，不如说源于改进了的技术和工具等等更为普遍的东西。 「分析」这是一个主从复合句。插入语they say是主句，Science moves forward,……and tools是宾语从句。not so much……as 连接的是状语，as引导的状语从句中，由于上下文清楚，主谓语都省略了，即as(sciencemoves forward.)because of……not so much……as也可译为与其说……不如说……，它所表达的逻辑关系和more than有相似之处，也是在比较的基础上进行判断和选择，被比较的事物也同属一个范畴。所不同的是，more……than表示前重后轻的逻辑关系，而not so much… as和less than表示前轻后重的逻辑关系，这两个结构中信息重心落在句尾，因此不必倒过来译，只须按原文的词序顺译即可。
术语翻译贡献者 Absolute Translation 绝对翻译 古阿德克（ Gouadec） Abstract Translation 摘要翻译 古阿德克（ Gouadec） Abusive translation 滥译 路易斯（ Lewis ） Acceptability 可接受性 托利（ Toury ） Accuracy 准确Adaptation 改编Adequacy 充分性Adjustment 调整 Analogical Form 类同形式 霍尔姆斯（ Holmes） Analysis 分析 奈达（ Nida ）和泰伯（ Taber ） Applied Translation Studies 应用翻译研究霍尔姆斯（ Holmes） Architranseme (ATR) 元译素范·路文兹瓦特（ van Leuven- Zwart ） Autonomy Spectrum 自立幅度罗斯（ Rose） Autotranslation 自译 波波维奇（ Popovic ） Back Translation 回译 Bilateral interpreting 双边传译凯斯（ Keith ）Class Shift 词类转换韩礼德（ Halliday ）Close Translation 贴近翻译纽马克（ Newmark） Communicative Translation 传意翻译；交际翻 译纽马克（ Newmark） Community interpreting 社群传译 Compensation 补偿赫维（ Hervey ）Competence 能力托利（ Toury ）Componential Analysis 语义成分分析奈达（ Nida ）Comprehensive theory 综合理论
英语翻译重点词汇 fellow countrymen 同胞 militarist军阀 Chinese Communist Party 党组织 the Grand Canal （京杭）大运河Industrial Revolution 工业革命dawn to dark从早到晚 especially English 具有英国特征的cottage industry 农村手工业 Indian summer 最后的余辉 stock-raising 畜牧业 Homestead Act 宅地法 wild west 西部荒原 the gold rush 淘金热 basic occupation 基础产业Department of Agriculture 农业部门the Nile Delta 尼罗河三角洲coastal erosion 水土流失Mediterranean climate 地中海型气候surveyor general 测量总监sovereign nation 主权国家aggregate output 总产量 coastal area 沿海地区 telephone connections 电话用户economic well-being 生活水平 two way trade 双向贸易 lucrative export market 出口市场foreign exchange 外汇 sum total 总数per capita 人均 GNP 国民生产总值 joint ventures 合资企业 net income 净收入 world investment system世界投资体系the stock of foreign investment 外资存量 英语翻译重点词汇（２） major economy 经济大国 the stimulus, the technology and the funding 动力、技术和资金 international trade and investment 国际贸易和投资 popular science 科普读物Arctic seas 北冰洋 vegetable oil 植物油 mineral oil煤油 internal combustion engine内燃机warfare on land and sea 陆战和海战minute sea creatures and plants 微小的海洋动植物 crude oil 原油 sedimentary rocks 沉积岩 pitch lake 沥青湖 superhighway 高速公路 living organism 生物体 applied entomology 应用昆虫学environmental Law环保法
专心翻译 做到极致 常用计算机术语翻译－－本地化 软件本地化行业有很多经常使用的行业术语，非行业人士或刚刚进入该行业的新人，常常对这些术语感到困惑。另外，软件本地化行业属于信息行业，随着信息技术的迅速发展，不断产生新的术语，所以，即使有多年本地化行业经验的专业人士，也需要跟踪和学习这些新的术语。 本文列举最常用的本地化术语，其中一些也大量用在普通信息技术行业。对这些常用的术语，进行简明的解释，给出对应的英文。 加速键或快捷键(accelerate key)。常应用在Windows 应用程序中，同时按下一系列组合键，完成一个特定的功能。例如，Ctrl + P ，是打印的快捷键。 带重音的字符(accented character)。例如在拉丁字符的上面或下面，添加重音标示符号。对于汉字没有此问题。 校准(alignment)。通过比较源语言文档和翻译过的文档，创建翻译数据库的过程。使用翻译记忆工具可以半自动化地完成此过程。 双向语言(bi-directional language)。对于希伯莱语言或者阿拉伯语言，文字是从右向左显示，而其中的英文单词或商标符号从左向右显示。对于中文，都是从左向右显示。 编译版本(build)。软件开发过程中编译的用于测试的内部版本。一个大型的软件项目通常需要执行多个内部版本的测试，因此需要按计划编译出多个版本用于测试。 版本环境(build environment)。用于编译软件应用程序的一些列文件的集合。
版本健康检查(build sanity check)。由软件编译者对刚刚编译的版本快速执行基本功能检查的活动，通过检查后，再由测试者进行正规详细测试。 级连样式表(cascading style sheet -CSS)。定义html等标示文件显示样式的外部文档。 字符集(character set)。从书写系统到二进制代码集的字符映射。例如，ANSI字符集使用8位长度对单个字符编码。而Unicode，使用16位长度标示一个字符。 简体中文，日文，韩文，繁体中文(CJKT)。也可以表示为SC/JP/KO/TC或 CHS/JPN/KOR/CHT，是英文Simplified Chinese, Janpanese, Korean, Traditional Chinese的简写。 代码页(code page)。字符集和字符编码方案。对每一种语言字符，都用唯一的数字索引表示。 附属条目(collateral)。软件本地化项目中相对较小的条目。例如，快速参考卡，磁盘标签，产品包装盒，市场宣传资料等。 计算机辅助翻译(Computer Aided Translation-CAT)。计算机辅助翻译。采用计算机技术从一种自然语言到另一种语言自动或支持翻译的技术术语。 串联(Concatenation)。添加文字或字符串组成较长字符传的方式。 控制语言(Controlled language)。自然语言的子集，常用于技术文档的写作，采用更加 专心翻译做到极致
?高中英语常用50句句型翻译 1、你没有必要提前预定音乐会的票（need n.） There is no need for you to book the ticket for the concert in advance. 2、在专家面前班门弄斧是没有好处的(good n. show) It is no good showing off in the presence of so many experts. 3、如果你不能集中精神学习，熬夜是没有用的(use) It is no use staying up late if you can’t focus your attention on your study. 4、抱怨交通状况是浪费时间(waste) It’s a waste of time making complaints about the transportation system. 5、我觉得你有必要在应聘之前接受一些训练(it) I find it necessary for you to have some training before you apply for a new job. 6、我突然想起来我忘记提醒班长集合的时间了(occur) It suddenly occurred to me that i forgot to remind the monitor of the gathering time. 7、似乎John对於赢得胜利没有什麽信心，你最好对他说些鼓励的话 It seems that John is not very’d better say a few encouraging words to him. 8、第一眼见到她，我就忍不住爱上她了(the first time) The first time i saw her, i couldn’t help falling in love with her. 9、你在阅读上花时间越多，取得进步越大 The more time you spend in reading, the more rapid progress you will make. 10、他获得成功的原因是他从不丧失信心，从不半途而废(halfway) The reason why he achieved success was that he never lost heart and gave up halfway. 11、重要的不是你说些什麽而是你如何演讲(matter) What matters is not what’s in your speech but how you deliver your speech. 12、再努力一下，你就能成功(effort) Make another effort, and you’ll succeed. 13、尽管教学经验不足，他总是全力以赴的满足学生的需求(spare) In spite of the fact that he lacks teaching experience, he spares no effort to meet the demand of his student. 14、不可否认，他的勇气和坚持为他赢得了很高的声誉(deny)
这里汇聚了中西医学行业的大部分英语词汇和详细解说，如果要查询相关词汇，你可以点此word 文档工具栏的“编辑”，找到“查找”，然后点开输入你要查询的词汇就可以查询了。 西医篇： 1、医院部门及科室名称 2、医务人员名称 3、诊断和治疗常用词汇 4、常见疾病名称 5、常见手术名称 6、常用药物名称 7、常用护理术语 8、常用临床医学术语 9、医疗器材 10、医学英语快速记忆－后缀 11、主要人体系统名称 12、医院类型名称 13、医学词汇 14、医学常用字首与字根 1.医院部门及科室名称 out-patient department 门诊部 In-patient department 住院部 Nursing department 护理部 Admission office 住院处 Discharge office 出院处 Registration office 挂号处 Reception room, waiting room 侯诊室 Consultation room 诊察室 Isolation room 隔离室 Delivery room 分娩室 Emergency room 急诊室 Ward 病房室 Department of internal medicine 内科 Department of surgery 外科 Department of pediatrics 儿科 Department of obstetrics and gynecology 妇科 Department of neurology 神经科 Department of ophtalmology 眼科 E.N.T.department 耳鼻喉科 Department of stomatology 口腔科 Department of urology 泌尿科 Department of orthopedic 骨科 Department of traumatology 创伤科 Department of endocrinology 内分泌科