外文翻译

引言概述：在现代高等教育中，毕业设计（或称为毕业论文、学士论文等）是学生完成学业的重要环节。

而对于一些特定的专业，例如翻译专业，有时候还需要完成外文翻译这一项任务。

本文将探讨毕设外文翻译的意义和目的，以及为什么对翻译专业的学生而言这一任务极其重要。

正文内容：1.提高翻译能力和技巧外文翻译是一项对翻译专业学生而言十分重要的任务，通过进行外文翻译，学生们可以通过实践提高自己的翻译能力和技巧。

在这个过程中，他们可以学习如何处理不同类型的外文文本，熟悉不同领域的专业术语，并掌握一些常用的翻译技巧和策略。

2.扩展语言和文化知识毕设外文翻译要求学生们对翻译语言的相关知识和背景有一定的了解。

在进行翻译时，学生们需要遵循目标语言的语法规则，并确保所翻译的内容准确、清晰地传达源语言的意义。

通过这一过程，学生们可以进一步扩展自己的语言和文化知识，提高自己的跨文化沟通能力。

3.提供实践机会毕设外文翻译为学生们提供了一个实践的机会，让他们能够将在课堂上所学到的理论知识应用于实际操作中。

通过实践，学生们可以对所学知识的理解更加深入，同时也可以发现并解决实际翻译过程中的问题和挑战。

这对于学生们将来从事翻译工作时具备更好的实践能力和经验具有重要意义。

4.培养翻译专业素养毕设外文翻译要求学生们具备良好的翻译专业素养。

在进行翻译过程中，学生们需要保持专业的态度和责任心，严谨地对待每一个翻译任务。

他们需要学会如何进行翻译质量的评估和控制，以确保最终翻译稿的准确性和流畅性。

这一系列的要求和实践，可以帮助学生们培养出色的翻译专业素养。

5.提升自我学习和研究能力毕设外文翻译要求学生们进行广泛的文献阅读和研究，以便更好地理解所翻译的内容，并找到适当的翻译方法和策略。

在这个过程中，学生们需要培养自己的自主学习和研究能力，提高对学术和专业领域的敏感性，并能够独立思考和解决问题。

这将对学生们未来的学术研究和进一步的职业发展产生积极的影响。

总结：引言概述:毕业设计外文翻译（Thesis Translation）是指在毕业设计过程中，对相关外文文献进行翻译，并将其应用于研究中，以提供理论支持和参考。

外文文献原稿和译文原稿DATABASEA database may be defined as a collection interrelated data store together with as little redundancy as possible to serve one or more applications in an optimal fashion .the data are stored so that they are independent of programs which use the data .A common and controlled approach is used in adding new data and in modifying and retrieving existing data within the data base .One system is said to contain a collection of database if they are entirely separate in structure .A database may be designed for batch processing , real-time processing ,or in-line processing .A data base system involves application program, DBMS, and database.THE INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSThe term database is often to describe a collection of related files that is organized into an integrated structure that provides different people varied access to the same data. In many cases this resource is located in different files in different departments throughout the organization, often known only to the individuals who work with their specific portion of the total information. In these cases, the potential value of the information goes unrealized because a person in other departments who may need it does not know it or it cannot be accessed efficiently. In an attempt to organize their information resources and provide for timely and efficient access, many companies have implemented databases.A database is a collection of related data. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning. For example, the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of all the people you know. You may have recorded this data in an indexed address book, or you may have stored it on a diskette using a personalcomputer and software such as DBASE Ⅲor Lotus 1-2-3. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a database.The above definition of database is quite general. For example, we may consider the collection of words that made up this page of text to be usually more restricted. A database has the following implicit properties:● A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning. A random assortment of data cannot be referred to as a database.● A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose. It has an intended group of user and some preconceived applications in which these users are interested.● A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the miniworld. Changes to the miniworld are reflected in the database.In other words, a database has some source from which data are derived, some degree of interaction with events in the real world, and an audience that is actively interested in the contents of the database.A database management system (DBMS) is composed of three major parts: (1) a storage subsystem that stores and retrieves data in files; (2)a modeling and manipulation subsystem that provides the means with which to organize the data and to add, delete, maintain, and update the data; and (3) an interface between the DBMS and its users. Several major trends are emerging that enhance the value and usefulness of database management systems.●Managers who require more up-to-date information to make effective decisions.●Customers who demand increasingly sophisticated information services and more current information about the status of their orders, invoices, and accounts.●Users who find that they can develop custom applications with database systems in a fraction of the time it takes to use traditional programming languages.●Organizations that discover information has a strategic value; they utilize their database systems to gain an edge over their competitors.A DBMS can organize, process, and present selected data elements from the database. This capability enables decision makers to search, probe, and query database contents in order to extract answers to nonrecurring and unplanned questions that aren’t available in regular reports. These questions might initially be vague and/or p oorly defined, but people can “browse” through the database until they have the needed information. In short, the DBMS will “mange” the stored data items and assemble the needed items from the common database in response to the queries of those who aren’t programmers. In a file-oriented system, user needing special information may communicate their needs to a programmer, who, when time permits, will write one or more programs to extract the data and prepare the information. The availability of a DBMS, however, offers users a much faster alternative communications path.DATABASE QUERYIf the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database ,as well as interrogate it ,this capability allows for managing personal database. However, it does not automatically leave an audit trail of actions and does not provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization .There controls are only available when a set of application programs is customized for each data entry and updating function.Software for personal computers that perform some of the DBMS functions has been very popular .Individuals for personal information storage and processing intended personal computers for us .Small enterprises, professionals like doctors, architects, engineers, lawyers and so on have also used these machines extensively. By the nature of intended usage ,database system on there machines are except from several of the requirements of full-fledged database systems. Since data sharing is not intended, concurrent operations even less so ,the software can be less complex .Security and integrity maintenance are de-emphasized or absent .as data volumes will be small, performance efficiency is also less important .In fact, the only aspect of a database system that is important is data independence. Data independence ,as stated earlier ,means that application programs and user queries need not recognize physical organization of data on secondary storage. The importance of this aspect , particularly for the personal computer user ,is that this greatly simplifies database usage . The user can store ,access and manipulate data at ahigh level (close to the application)and be totally shielded from the low level (close to the machine )details of data organization.DBMS STRUCTURING TECHNIQUESSpatial data management has been an active area of research in the database field for two decades ,with much of the research being focused on developing data structures for storing and indexing spatial data .however, no commercial database system provides facilities for directly de fining and storing spatial data ,and formulating queries based on research conditions on spatial data.There are two components to data management: history data management and version management .Both have been the subjects of research for over a decade. The troublesome aspect of temporal data management is that the boundary between applications and database systems has not been clearly drawn. Specifically, it is not clear how much of the typical semantics and facilities of temporal data management can and should be directly incorporated in a database system, and how much should be left to applications and users. In this section, we will provide a list of short-term research issues that should be examined to shed light on this fundamental question.The focus of research into history data management has been on defining the semantics of time and time interval, and issues related to understanding the semantics of queries and updates against history data stored in an attribute of a record. Typically, in the context of relational databases ,a temporal attribute is defined to hold a sequence of history data for the attribute. A history data consists of a data item and a time interval for which the data item is valid. A query may then be issued to retrieve history data for a specified time interval for the temporal attribute. The mechanism for supporting temporal attributes is to that for supporting set-valued attributes in a database system, such as UniSQL.In the absence of a support for temporal attributes, application developers who need to model and history data have simply simulated temporal attributes by creating attribute for the time interval ,along with the “temporal” attribute. This of course may result in duplication of records in a table, and more complicated search predicates in queries. The one necessary topic of research in history data management is to quantitatively establish the performance (and even productivity) differences betweenusing a database system that directly supports attributes and using a conventional database system that does not support either the set-valued attributes or temporal attributes.Data security, integrity, and independenceData security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database of the database, called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.Data integrity refers to the accuracy, correctness, or validity of the data in the database. In a database system, data integrity means safeguarding the data against invalid alteration or destruction. In large on-line database system, data integrity becomes a more severe problem and two additional complications arise. The first has to do with many users accessing the database concurrently. For example, if thousands of travel agents book the same seat on the same flight, the first agent’s booking will be lost. In such cases the technique of locking the record or field provides the means for preventing one user from accessing a record while another user is updating the same record.The second complication relates to hardware, software or human error during the course of processing and involves database transaction which is a group of database modifications treated as a single unit. For example, an agent booking an airline reservation involves several database updates (i.e., adding the passenger’s name and address and updating the seats-available field), which comprise a single transaction. The database transaction is not considered to be completed until all updates have been completed; otherwise, none of the updates will be allowed to take place.An important point about database systems is that the database should exist independently of any of the specific applications. Traditional data processing applications are data dependent.When a DMBS is used, the detailed knowledge of the physical organization of the data does not have to be built into every application program. The application program asks the DBMS for data by field name, for example, a coded representationof “give me customer name and balance due” would be sent to the DBMS. Without a DBMS the programmer must reserve space for the full structure of the record in the program. Any change in data structure requires changes in all the applications programs.Data Base Management System (DBMS)The system software package that handles the difficult tasks associated with creating ,accessing and maintaining data base records is called a data base management system (DBMS). A DBMS will usually be handing multiple data calls concurrently.It must organize its system buffers so that different data operations can be in process together .It provides a data definition language to specify the conceptual schema and most likely ,some of the details regarding the implementation of the conceptual schema by the physical schema.The data definition language is a high-level language, enabling one to describe the conceptual schema in terms of a “data model “.At the present time ,there are four underling structures for database management systems. They are :List structures.Relational structures.Hierarchical (tree) structures.Network structures.Management Information System(MIS)An MIS can be defined as a network of computer-based data processing procedures developed in an organization and integrated as necessary with manual and other procedures for the purpose of providing timely and effective information to support decision making and other necessary management functions.One of the most difficult tasks of the MIS designer is to develop the information flow needed to support decision making .Generally speaking ,much of the information needed by managers who occupy different levels and who have different levels and have different responsibilities is obtained from a collection of exiting information system (or subsystems)Structure Query Language (SQL)SQL is a data base processing language endorsed by the American NationalStandards Institute. It is rapidly becoming the standard query language for accessing data on relational databases .With its simple ,powerful syntax ,SQL represents a great progress in database access for all levels of management and computing professionals.SQL falls into two forms : interactive SQL and embedded SQL. Embedded SQL usage is near to traditional programming in third generation languages .It is the interactive use of SQL that makes it most applicable for the rapid answering of ad hoc queries .With an interactive SQL query you just type in a few lines of SQL and you get the database response immediately on the screen.译文数据库数据库可以被定义为一个相互联系的数据库存储的集合。

Transformative green marketing:Impediments and opportunitiesMichael Jay Polonsky ⁎School of Management and Marketing,Deakin University,70Elgar Road,Burwood VIC 3125,Australiaa b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Accepted 22January 2011Available online 18February 2011Keywords:Green marketingMarketing and society Sustainability Systems thinkingTransformative marketingGreen marketing is not achieving its potential for improving the quality of life of consumers,while improving the natural ecosystem.The failure is the result of the inability of consumers,firms and governments to adopt systems thinking,in which macro-marketing perspectives are integrated into their respective micro-decisions,that is,the anthropocentric view of the natural world is disregarded.The paper discusses why the three groups above have had dif ficulties in embracing environmental issues,thus impeding real transformative green marketing from occurring.To address the dif ficulties three proposed actions need to be undertaken:(1)Marketers need to look for new ways of calculating and communicating value that integrates environmental value,thereby moving away from financial measures which have no real environmental meaning.(2)Change the discourse regarding the environment,highlighting the importance of action and inaction,which needs to be based on increased education about the human –environment interface.(3)Marketing needs to refocus its emphasis on want satisfaction,shifting away from the acquisition of goods,thereby enhancing how marketers create value.Making these changes will allow marketers to operationalize transformative green marketing so the human condition and the natural system that humans operate within are both improved and bring about transformative green marketing.©2011Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionMarketing academics'and practitioners'interest in how environmental issues impact marketing activities continue to grow (Chamorro et al.,2009),but is certainly not new (Fisk,1974;Henion and Kinnear,1976).A range of marketing contexts examines the interface between the natural environment and;consumer behavior (i.e.,Diamantopoulos et al.,2003),marketing strategy (i.e.,Menon and Menon,1997),public policy initiatives (i.e.,Press and Arnould,2009)and macromarketing (i.e.,Kilbourne and Carlson,2008).Fisk (1974)suggests marketing is at least partly to blame for most of the world's environmental ills that often arise from consumption and over-consumption.Other authors suggest that marketing can assist in addressing environmental and other social problems (Sheth and Sisodia,2006).Unfortunately,much of the existing research fails to embed environmental issues as a core tenet of marketing thinking.Thus,marketing strategists often incorporate environmental considerations as an extra feature to be leveraged for competitive advantage (Ginsberg and Bloom,2004),rather than using the environment to shape strategy-improving market conditions and social welfare.Scholars de fine green marketing using a range of terms (e.g.,green marketing,ecological marketing,environmental marketing,and even responsible marketing).These de finitions have a common focus on theexchange process (i.e.,choices and decisions),with a proviso that exchange considers and minimizes environmental harm (where all parities are assumed to be aware of all potential environmental harm).Whether or not these de finitions (and associated practices)seek to improve the quality of life of the world's citizens,or improve the natural environment,remains unclear.An effective de finition of green marketing,therefore,must integrate transformative change that creates value for individuals and society,as well as for the natural environment (i.e.,environmental restoration and improvement).Thus,transforma-tive green marketing is very different from a marketing perspective that focuses on not producing societal harm,as,at present,most marketers focus on meeting human needs rather than enhancing mankind's quality of life and improving the natural environment.Marketers and society rely on nature and natural resources;nature does not rely on humanity,even though society can negatively impact on it.Therefore,mankind (and,thus,marketing)and the natural environment are interdependent.While some might debate the extent of mankind's contribution to environmental problems,if the doomsayers are correct,failure to act in the medium term will result in the inability of the ecosystem to support present day consumption,potentially eliminating marketing as presently practiced (and possibly mankind).Therefore,it is surprising that the practice of marketing (and business strategy more generally)does not explicitly integrate and address environmental issues and how they impact society (Smart,2010).In the not-so-distant past,businesses were quick to respond to less signi ficant marketing-related problems.For example,firms,consumers and governments reportedly spent hundreds of billions,if not trillions,of dollars dealing with theJournal of Business Research 64(2011)1311–1319⁎Tel.:+61392446968,+61392517083(International).E-mail address:Michael.Polonsky@.au.0148-2963/$–see front matter ©2011Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.01.016Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of Business Researchmillennium bug,or Y2K problem,as programmers feared that at 12.01AM on January12000,computers would incorrectly believe the year was1900which would cause systems to crash.The process of greening marketing seems to be viewed with significantly less urgency on the part of most consumers,organizations and governments,even though the potential costs of inaction are much more serious and pervasive(Smart,2010;Varey,2010).Whether or not the marketing discipline(both academics and practitioners)truly understands and embraces the profound significance of environmental issues remains unclear.A number of marketing academics call for a change in thinking about marketing,in which transformative green marketing would be included. For example,early in the discipline's history Kotler and Levy(1969) suggested that there needs to be a broadening of the marketing concept. More recently,others are questioning whether marketing needs to be reformed(Sheth and Sisodia,2006).In the consumer behaviorfield, there is growing chorus of transformative consumer researchers(TCR) calling for marketing to make a positive social impact(Mick et al., forthcoming).The integration of environmental issues into marketing would extend the TCR view.For example,the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing has a forthcoming special issue focusing on TCR,and the Journal of Macromarketing recently published a special issue on sustainability,examining how marketing can assist in addressing the environmental ills faced today(Kilbourne,2010).Transformative green marketing extends this perspective incorporating environmental issues into core marketing activity,in the same way mankind is part of the natural system and not separated from the natural environment(Fisk, 1974;Smart,2010).2.The core problem:micronization of environmental issuesThe natural environment is a complex,all-encompassing system that integrates the atmosphere(air),geosphere(land),hydrosphere(water) and biosphere(all living species)(Neace,1995).Marketers understand the importance of business systems and use systems and network thinking extensively to address exchange issues,particularly in the business-to-business context(e.g.,Håkansson et al.,2009).Marketers, however,frequently ignore such broader system approaches to understand or integrate the natural environment into strategy formulation.The consideration of marketing's impact on the natural environment is often classified as macro-marketing,that is,how micro-marketing impacts society,society's influence on the broader macro-system and how systems interact(Fisk,1982).Unfortunately,academics and practitioners sometimes perceive a disconnection exists between macro-marketing and micro-marketing,which lies at the core of green marketing's inability to become transformational.The traditional micro-formation of marketing(Sheth et al.,1988)cannot easily capture environmental issues because classical micro-economics suggests that consumers(or individuals more generally)seek to maximize their own welfare(Russell and Russell,2010).Potentially,the welfare of society and the natural world is excluded unless they are embedded in individuals'values,that is,people integrate environmental issues in their decision-making because the environment is important to them. As will be described below,this perspective assumes that mankind controls their environment,which is clearly not the case.The fact that sustainability and environmental issues are generally macro-focused is at the core of the dilemma that transformational green marketing faces(van Dam and Apeldoorn,1996).How do marketers and society encourage micro-focused individuals and organizations to integrate broader macro issues and systems into their individual thinking?One might argue that this disconnection is one of the reasons why governments are forced to regulate activities to prevent distortions in the market from being exploited(Harris and Carman,1984).The lack of a macro-focus may also be why social marketers need to encourage consumers to change their behavior to create fewer negative personal impacts(Rothschild,1999),as short-term self-interest appears to outweigh the longer term benefits.For example,the classic tragedy of the commons suggests that because no-one owns the shared communal space(i.e.,the commons)no individual has an incentive to protect the shared space.Thus,the aggregation of self-interested,individualist behavior destroys the value(i.e.,the shared space)for all(Libecap,2009).As a result,some regulation of individual behavior is needed so that the commons are available in perpetuity for all users.When considering environmental issues,the tragedy of the commons is a metaphor that can be translated to consumer behavior in markets,firms within countries,or even countries within regions, as in each case,the broader ecosystem is used by all but truly controlled by none.Are humans like the elephants in Africa?When unfettered by mankind,the elephants roamed the African plains with nature keeping their numbers in check.However,when they are artificially constrained on game reserves,culling is needed to ensure they do not eat themselves into starvation(van Aarde and Jackson, 2007).The barriers relating to transformational green marketing arise from this fundamental conflict between benefits for the individual(person,firm,or nation)and benefits for society,more broadly defined as including the natural environment.The next section discusses how these economic actors'(i.e.,consumers,firms and governments)lack of a macro-focus lies at the heart of the green marketing dilemma.Then the article offers suggestions as to how marketers can possibly assist in using transformational green marketing to address the issue,and ends with some concluding remarks.3.Barriers associating with consumers,firms and governments3.1.Adopting transformative green marketingA network or stakeholder approach argues that within green marketing all economic actors are interconnected(Polonsky,1995), and the actors have the ability to facilitate or impede green marketing from becoming transformational.Marketers usually discuss the role of three main stakeholders–consumers,firms and governments–in enabling or regulating exchange processes(Fry and Polonsky,2004). The following three sub-sections seek to explain how existing(i.e., traditional)marketing perspectives inhibit the effective integration of the natural environment into marketing theory and processes,as well as identifying issues that need to be addressed for transformative green marketing to occur.3.2.ConsumersThe early green marketing research sought to better understand how to motivate consumers to behave in more responsible ways.Early authors initially placed an emphasis on motivating consumers to integrate environmental issues into their decision-making,for example, motivating people to recycle(Henion and Kinnear,1976).While macro-marketers suggested such changes in consumer orfirm behavior would lead to wider benefits to society,micro-marketers focused on whether such environmental values could be leveraged to better target new segments of consumers(Ginsberg and Bloom,2004),thereby increasing loyalty(Shrum et al.,1995),reducing price sensitivity(D'Souza et al., 2007),or improving communication(Polonsky et al.,1997).Classical economic and consumer behavior theory suggests individuals make consumption decisions that maximize their own welfare.This,however,is done within a framework in which consumers usually think of themselves as the central actor in the exchange system. In such a view,the natural environment is a resource to facilitate this satisfaction(Varey,2010)rather than a stakeholder to whom consumers are responsible(Starik,1995).Such a human-centered1312M.J.Polonsky/Journal of Business Research64(2011)1311–1319perspective(i.e.,anthropocentric)possibly arises from the religious foundations of Western society:…Be fruitful,and multiply,and replenish the earth,and subdue it: and have dominion over thefish of the sea,and over the fowl of the air,and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.(Genesis1:28,italics added)Seeing nature as subservient to human needs inhibits consumers from taking a systems view,as man(and woman)is only one part of the natural system and,clearly,not the focal actor.As a result,leading authors such as Kilbourne and his numerous co-authors(e.g.,Kilbourne et al.,2002;Kilbourne and Carlson,2008)highlight that the core problem with consumption is the anthropocentric value system underlying the Western dominant social paradigm(DSP).This view suggests that micro-changes to consumption will be doomed to fail(or at least have a significant uphill battle)if the anthropocentric view within the DSP is not changed(Kilbourne and Polonsky,2005).Even if environmental concern could be integrated as a cornerstone of the consumer psyche,the problem may still not be solved.Consumers will act in an environmentally-responsible fashion only if they believe such actions are in their best interest.Of course,some consumer segments do already seek to act in a way that considers their impact on the natural environment.For example,increasing numbers of consumers exist who“have freely chosen a frugal,anti-consumer life-style that features low resource use and environmental impact,i.e.,they are voluntary simplifiers”(McDonald et al.,2006,p.515).Such consumers believe that value accrues to them from behaving responsibly.However,why this realization has arisen in some consumers and not others is unclear.The degree to which consumers believe environmental issues are or will become problematic,is possibly related to the disagreement regarding the causes,responses and timeframes in which remedial action must be taken.In the case of the Y2K bug,a clear deadline for the potential disaster existed–12:01AM on1January2000,and the potential disaster was prominently discussed in the business and popular media(Tewksbury et al.,2004).For environmental issues,no fixed deadlines exist and there is no media promotion(or even discussion)of the impending environmental Armageddon.In most cases,consumers believe environmental problems are somewhere in the future and,thus,are not something to worry about today.Even when consumers agree that environmental problems exist,there is no guarantee appropriate responses will occur.For example,the scientific community generally agrees that society will run out of key natural resources in the foreseeable future,such as oil.This concept has been referred to as Peak Oil and will occur when world resources of oil decline below the level needed to meet world demand(Gardi,2009).However, this has not resulted in wholesale changes in today's consumer behavior, and,in fact,dwindling oil reserves are not an issue that receives wide publicity in the press or policy debates.Consumers generally have difficulty with integrating future outcomes and consequences in their decision-making.For example, the fact that millions of people continue to take up smoking is surprising given the unequivocal evidence that smoking is bad for one's health,but consumers simply discount the future health consequences(Rindfleisch and Crockett,1999).Unfortunately for environmental marketing, researchers have found that consumers discount future environmental problems more so than other types of risk(Hendrickx and Nicolaij, 2004).Can marketers assist in making environmental problems more current and urgent in consumers'minds,thus stimulating action and providing real transformative solutions?The tragedy of the commons where all members of a community are interconnected is another issue impacting individual behavior,as consumers frequently see systems thinking(i.e.,connections amongst activities)as a barrier to behavior–How does my individual behavior impact on the wider natural system which is all encompassing?On the flip-side,a problem occurs when individuals ask–How can my individual behavior make a difference?The perceived inability to make a difference in terms of environmental problems was an early impediment to a range of environmental behaviors,including increasing recycling behavior(Scholder-Ellen et al.,1991).While attempts can be made to change the way people think about environmental issues or to enable less environmentally-harmful behavior to occur,more success might be achieved using market mechanisms that increase the pressure for individual action(i.e.,change).For example,Linderhof et al.(2001)find that when the cost of home-based waste removal is calculated on volume or weight,people reduce their waste and increase their recycling behavior.Thus,forcing increases in prices through regulation might bring about desired outcomes better than getting consumers to identify that waste is an environmental problem.While this may or may not result in an increase in underlying environmental awareness and concern,raising consumer costs may bring about the same environmental benefit(i.e.,reduced waste).Finally,one of the core tenets of consumer marketing is that marketers frequently promote ownership as a way to achieve satisfaction,but increased consumption often results in environmental problems.The perceived need to consume is further exacerbated in some sectors where technological advances mean products are considered obsolete in18months or less(e.g.,in the computer and mobile phone sectors).Marketing assumes that value is created in buyer–seller exchanges,but wanting satisfaction and the ownership of goods are not necessarily the same.Consumers can meet their needs in a variety of ways(i.e.,alternatives exist)or even modify the wants that they have,for instance by practicing voluntary simplicity(Craig-Lees and Hill,2002). Therefore,consumers do not necessarily have to own the want-satisfying goods to extract want-satisfying value.Research even suggests that one's quality of life(as measured by happiness)and increased consumption can impede sustainable development(Zidansek,2007).The increased economic importance given to the service sector is an example of how wants can be met without ownership.Opportunities exist to expand this sector beyond renting homes,furniture or appliances,to renting all types of value creation.The potential hindrance is that,in some cases,goods have an inherent value that can appreciate over time in addition to satisfying wants(i.e.,some items may become ‘rare’and collectable,and thus have value outside want satisfaction). Other goods may continue to have,primarily,a functional value(e.g.,the newest plasma television)which is not necessarily maintained through ownership of the good.Consumers'preoccupation with goods rather than the underlying want-satisfaction means increased production is required to address consumers'desire to have ready access to want-satisfying goods that they may use infrequently(i.e.,a handyman might want to own all the tools he might ever need,rather than renting or collectively sharing those used infrequently).3.3.FirmsAt the most basic level,firms are collectives of individuals that,in many ways,suffer from the aggregation of individual problems at the corporate level.Taking a neoclassical economic perspective meansfirms have a responsibility to create value for the shareholders,although many argue that broader types of performance are also important(Hillman and Keim,2001).The core issue revolves around defining the value of what is created.Marketing and management theorists propose that multi-dimensional measures of value can be developed,and this would include things such as the triple bottom line(TBL)that includes social and environmental value,in addition tofinancial value(Robins,2006).Unfortunately,afirm'sfinancial performance is still the main focus. For example,research comparing the performance of traditional and responsiblefirms still uses traditionalfinancial measures,not multi-dimensional TBL-type measures(Johnson,2003).The focus,therefore,is on how to increase thefinancial bottom line,which explains why researchers are more interested in targeting green consumers and1313M.J.Polonsky/Journal of Business Research64(2011)1311–1319extracting more value from them,than focusing solely on the societal impact of marketing.In the alternative view,green marketing becomes transformational and contributes to consumers,society and the environment.Unfortunately,profit,sales and otherfinancial/marketing measures have no relevance to the environment.Mother Nature does not have a checkbook,financial balance sheet or a demand for traditional goods and,thus,unfortunately is not represented on corporate management boards nor is nature considered in most corporate decisions.The question of how to define corporate value in a meaningful way that integratesfirms'environmental impact is less frequently discussed in research.However,some academic areas such as social accounting seek to quantify the social value offirms(Knirsch and Székely,2005). But,again,these alternatives often revert to dollar assessments that may not capture the importance of environmental issues.Other areas,such as research into stakeholder theory,have partly begun to address these multi-faceted measures as well(Hillman and Keim,2001),but they too often fall back ontofinancial measures of performance(Berman et al., 1999).Greening can be seen to createfinancial value in a number of ways,and extensive research examines how reducing harm can cut costs,reduce risk and,thus,increase the bottom line(Porter and Reinhardt,2007).Such approaches still use human-focused metrics to try and assign value to the environment(or,in reality,the costs of not looking after the environment).Marketing,as a change agent in the wider economic system,is not usually the focus of corporate or consumer activities.However, marketing innovations are bringing about significant cultural changes (good and bad).For example,birth control advances change the dynamic between males and females in society,and the Internet is changing how information is created and communicated.Thus, embracing transformative environmental marketing can serve as an organizational stimulus for innovation,thereby improving value more widely,including citizens'quality of life.Although some of the problems identified earlier,such as a lack of perceived urgency,or the fact that not all environmental costs are assigned to producers,mean corporations are not pressured to address their negative environmental impacts.Shocks to the economic system can clearly have an impact on businesses.Take,for example,the rapid innovations to increase the fuel efficiency of automobiles.The innovations have resulted in lighter automobiles;more efficient engines,alternative types of engines and fuels,systems to capture the pollution created,and even the development of alternative modes of transportation.Thus,somefirms within the transportation sector have been quick to exploit aspects of the environmental debate,although changing corporate direction needs to be a long-term strategy(Menon and Menon,1997).Unfortunately, the most recent turmoil in the US car market suggests that USfirms failed to embrace the impending environmental changes.Even when manufacturers have acted,they have not sought to redefine personal travel and the need to travel,but rather they still focus on the individual automobile to address travel options(Kadirov and Varey,2010).Of course,some would argue thatfirms are making incremental attempts to redefine the need for cars through video conferencing that allows people to meet without travel,and purchasing goods and services on the Internet,requiring fewer shopping trips.Increased public transportation alternatives also mean fewer cars are needed.Corporate and industry innovations can be more proactive and bring about environmental improvements.For example,the US-based Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design referred to as LEED building certification(US Green Building Council,2010)is designed to produce buildings that have smaller environmental footprints and lower operating costs(Muse and Plaut,2008).While still more expensive to build,as its adoption increases,economies of scale will mean that costs will drop,further increasing the benefits.All these actions are positive steps,firms still appear to be more focused on innovation and change that reduce costs,while complying with regulation or creating market value.Firms tend to be less focused on the environmental issues because of an underlying lack of value placed on responsible behavior,although examples exist of where these values are espoused(Hillman and Keim,2001).Given that businesses want to stay in business,they are more driven by economic forces than are their consumers.Unfortunately,without well-defined performance measures that incorporate non-financial benefits to the environment, businesses will be unlikely to redefine their activities,as such action would not create measurable value(even using theflawedfinancial measures available).In afirm's quest for profits,a potential problem can arise regarding the extent to which new products deliver substantive additional value to consumers,after taking into consideration the environmental impact associated with production,use and consumption.Marketers have long been criticized for producing goods that have built-in obsolescence (Guiltinan,2009)or trivial differentiation.This problem has been exacerbated by the decline in innovation cycles and rapid advancements in technology(Guiltinan,2009).For example,Moore's law suggests that computer capacity doubles every18months(Schaller,1997).While continuous product change can deliver incremental value to consumers,the question is at what environmental cost?Arefirms seeking to generate value through churn(i.e.,new purchases)or adding significant consumer value?If the latter,firms might look at how products can be designed so they can be upgraded rather than replaced.Upgradable products would,in fact,deliver additional consumer value,as consumers would be able to extract additional value from existing investments rather than purchasing extra value by buying new products.Of course, consumers would need to value upgradability rather than owning the newest product.Marketers also tend not to think about the environmental costs of replacing goods.For example,why don't all retailers of mobile phones or computers automatically incorporate trade-ins through which they can then facilitate recycling or,at the very least,provide a reverse logistics system where extraction of the value from waste products can more easily occur?Somefirms seeking to recycle components of their products have found them to be a highly valuable income stream that also reduces the environmental costs associated with producing remanufac-tured components(McConocha and Speh,1993).In some countries, governments have imposed requirements onfirms to take back unused goods or packaging from the consumers(Livingstone and Sparks,1994). However,firms seem not to have knowledge about the full life-cycle environmental impacts of their actions.In some instances(i.e.,reverse logistics)managing the life-cycle could generate income streams and,in this area,the lack of corporate systems thinking about value and environmental impacts is highlighted(i.e.,failing to recognize the interdependence of mankind,production,consumption,and the environ-mental system).Thefinal corporate issue revolves around the question of growth. Businesses want to expand their markets and profitability,but can growth occur in an environmentally sustainable fashion(van Marrewijk,2003)? This comes back to the very nature of the Western economic system. Investors want a reasonable return on their investments and,because of the competition amongstfirms for assets,those that increase their return attract more resources,and expectations for further growth are increased. Unfortunately,a value concept that is based onfinancial returns and discounts the natural environment will see the environment as a resource to exploit rather than a partner in existence.Just as service-dominant logic has emerged as a new perspective(Vargo and Lusch,2004),a need exists for an environmental dominant logic in which corporate and environmental values are intertwined.Unless the environment is given value,either as a resource or a cost to be minimized,the environment will continue to be under-considered in corporate decision-making.The impending introduction of regulated carbon abetment schemes will see this potential loophole partlyfilled because the environment(or rather pollution of the environment)will have a cost that must be addressed byfirms.However,such costs will not necessarily reflect the true value of the environment.Carbon pricing will stimulate innovation to reduce this cost,although,if carbon is1314M.J.Polonsky/Journal of Business Research64(2011)1311–1319。

外文翻译1.1 Earthquake BackgroundEarthquake is a high risk natural disaster which costs injuries and casualties as well as the damages to the infrastructures. It has an ability to deform the earth surfaces thus causing destructions to buildings on it1.2 Earthquake PhenomenonEarthquake happens when there is an earth crust movement due to folding crust. When the earthquake occurs, the soil and crust move randomly to directions. Earthquake happens actually numerous times in a day but the earthquake that affects the most and has great magnitude is seldom to occur, nevertheless once in several years.According to the tectonic plate theory, the earth surface is divided into several rigid crusts. They move in such ways, colliding or apart from each other. When the crusts collide, one of them will subdue under one another and the sliding crusts will generate energy. This movement will take years and peoples on it will never aware of this activity and it actually takes only several centimeters in a year. Each time the couple crusts move and slip with each other, it increase and accumulate the energy in the substances around it like rocks. Finally the energy itself will exceed the rock strength, thus make the rocks to move or explode. The exploding rocks will later cause the earthquake means once the earthquake occurs, the forces are subsided.The earthquake magnitude is measured in Richter Scale. A great earthquake is categorized as an earthquake with magnitude of 5.0 and above which surely causes damage to structures.The point where the earthquake origins is called focus or hypocenter which determined by seismic assessment. Earthquake starts with a small shaking followed by a sudden increase of shaking intensity. The small shake is called foreshock, while the great shaking is called mainshock and the rest is called aftershock. A great earthquake usually not done with only one shake, the shakings will remain to happen but there will only the magnitude is decreasing. The starting is called mainshock but the rest is called aftershock.1.3 Earthquake WavesThe earthquake is a result of an elastic waves. There are 3 types of earthquake waves. Two of them are moving within the rock, while another one moving through earth surface. The P-wave is the fastest wave among the three. It is corresponded as a motion of push and pull and can travel through solid rock or water of the ocean.The S-wave is slower than the P-wave. It shears the rock sideways to the travel direction. It can not travel through the water ocean. While the third wave is the Surface Wave. Surface wave is divided into two types of minor waves. The first is the Love Wave while the second is Rayleigh Wave. It is similar to the S-wave but with no vertical movement. It moves in horizontal plane with an angle to he travel direction. While the Rayleigh Wave is a wave that travels in both horizontal and vertical direction.1.4 Effects of EarthquakeEarthquake can cause properties damage and casualties as well as earth deformations and damaging structures that get in its way. Earthquakes that occur below sea level and have large vertical displacements can give rise to tsunamis, either as a direct result of the deformation of the sea bed due to the earthquake or as a result of submarine landslides directly or indirectly triggered by the quake (Bolt, 1978).Earthquake force is acting like a pull and push action resulting the building to receive random excitation. The excitation will transfer force from the foundation to the tip of the building. The sway of the building increases as the height increases. The top section of the building will experience the most swinging force rather than the bottom part1.5 Problem StatementIn an earthquake event, the most affected things will be the civil structure and buildings. The lost will cost millions in monies as well as casualties. In Malaysia, there are no such things that had been done to overcome the unexpected disaster. In the current building practice, no earthquake load factor taken into account into the design consideration. Earthquake impact, this study is imperative as a precaution and to prove how important an earthquake design code implemented in Malaysia’s building and civil structure practices.1.6 ObjectivesThe objectives of this study are:1. To study the design capacity of the bridge.2. To determine the bridge responses (deformation, shear and moment) under various intensity of earthquake.3. To identify the Damage Index of the bridge.4. To identify the most critical part of the bridge while transmitting earthquake loading.5. To model the bridge structure as close as possible to its actual state so that its behavior can be studied.6. To identify the safer structural design practice to be implemented in bridge structure, in the future.2.1 AnalysisThe evolution of seismic analyses in earthquake engineering has followed closely the developments in dynamic structural analysis as a whole. Numerous kind of research done by research team, academic institutes and distinguished researchers regarding to the earthquake induced structure. All the studies are concern toward finding the best solution to reduce the impact and damage to the structure.Malaysia is a region which free from the seismic activity and has been regarded as a stable area. But there are numbers of major faults have been recognized in thePeninsular.2.2 Concrete FailureConcrete failure always associated with the air and moisture factor. They can lead the concrete to deteriorate in problems like:i.Cracksii.Spalling and scaling of concrete due to expansion of steel rebar which transmits tension to concrete.iii.Abrasion of the steel rebar caused by concrete inadequacies surrounding the section and exposureto crack attack.iv.Inadequate concrete strength.2.3Natural Disaster ProblemThe unexpected natural disaster can cause the bridge structure to fail and collapse. The disaster can lead to problems like below (Kirillov et al., 1962):i.Settling of the soils surround the structure.ii.Slope failure.teral crack on superstructure’s surface.iv.Cracks of retaining wall and settlement of the support.Numerous actions can be taken to overcome this problem. There are four actions to be considered according to Parry, 1976. Those are:e more and bigger bolts to carry the load.ii.Increase the retaining wall strength.iii.Emplace shear or concrete blocks between the girder sections.iv.Increase concrete strength which located in the end of the bridge span.2.4 Analysis stepsThere are many techniques used in structural dynamic analysis. One of the essential parts to be focused in is the analysis and the design of the structure to withstand the ground acceleration from the earthquake.Non-linear analysis is used in this study. IDARC 2D is chosen as the non-linear dynamic program to be used to analyze dynamic characteristic of the structure when it failed. While the SAP2000 will analyze the bridge by Response Spectrum analysis, comparing its shear and moment under earthquake loading with the actual design capacity.In this study, the inelastic analysis is considering a bridge where an identified box girder bridge will be accounted and analyze with increasing intensity seismic accelerations, to the extent when the bridglastic characteristice shows the ine.2.5 Time History AnalysisThe Time History analysis will be carried out by the IDARC program analysis. Time History is a set of graphical data that shows the intensity of the earthquake and contains the acceleration, g of the earthquake event to the period of the event.2.6 IDARC 2D – A Program for Inelastic Structural Analysis.Developed at the State University of New York at Buffalo, IDARC was first introduced inservice for the traffic until now。

外文文献的翻译方法和技巧在科学研究领域，阅读和理解外文文献是非常重要的，因为这些文献包含了世界各地研究者的最新成果和观点。

然而，由于语言障碍，许多人可能觉得翻译外文文献是一项困难的任务。

本文将介绍一些有效的翻译方法和技巧，帮助读者更好地理解和翻译外文文献。

选择合适的翻译工具在翻译外文文献时，选择合适的工具是非常重要的。

一些常见的翻译工具包括在线翻译网站和翻译App。

这些工具可以帮助读者快速翻译文献，但需要注意的是，这些工具可能存在一定的翻译误差，因此在使用时要注意核对翻译结果。

保持原文的风格和语气在翻译外文文献时，要尽可能保持原文的风格和语气。

这样可以更好地传达原作者的意图和思想。

在翻译过程中，读者可以使用词典等工具帮助理解原文中的专业术语和文化背景，以确保翻译的准确性和通顺性。

注意语法和语法结构另一个翻译外文文献的重要方面是注意语法和语法结构。

外文文献往往使用复杂的句子结构和语法规则，因此在翻译时要保持句子的逻辑和结构。

正确理解原文中的句子结构和语法规则，可以帮助读者更好地翻译文献并消除歧义。

查找背景知识和参考资料翻译外文文献时，有时可能会遇到一些专业术语和概念，读者不熟悉。

在这种情况下，建议读者查找相关背景知识和参考资料，帮助理解原文中的内容。

这样不仅可以提高翻译的准确性，还可以扩展读者的知识面。

结语总的来说，翻译外文文献是一项需要一定技巧和耐心的工作。

通过选择合适的翻译工具、保持原文的风格和语气、注意语法和语法结构、查找背景知识和参考资料，读者可以更好地理解和翻译外文文献。

希望本文介绍的方法和技巧对读者有所帮助。

毕业论文外文翻译要求
外国文献翻译是撰写毕业论文的重要环节之一，下面是一份要求700字的毕业论文外文翻译要求：
1. 翻译时间: 需在规定时间内完成翻译任务，以确保毕业论文
后续工作的顺利进行。

2. 原文准确性: 翻译必须准确无误，不得对原文进行任何删节、增补或变动。

3. 语言流畅度: 翻译应当具有良好的语言流畅度，不得过于生
硬或呆板。

4. 专业术语准确性: 翻译时要确保专业术语的准确性，避免词
义的混淆。

5. 语法错误及标点符号: 翻译应符合英文的语法规范，避免语
法错误和标点符号的错误使用。

6. 翻译风格: 翻译应当符合学术论文的要求，措辞恰当，语气
客观中立。

7. 格式要求: 翻译部分应与论文正文的格式一致，包括字体、
字号、行间距等。

8. 校对: 完成翻译后，需要进行一次仔细的校对工作，确保翻
译的正确性。

9. 原文附录: 翻译部分要同时附上原文，以便审查人员对翻译的准确性进行核对。

10. 翻译文档: 翻译文档要以电子文档的形式提交，确保方便审查人员查看。

以上要求旨在保证翻译的质量和准确性，对于撰写毕业论文非常重要。

翻译过程中，建议使用专业的翻译工具，如翻译记忆软件、专业词典等，以提高翻译的效率和准确性。

同时，积极与导师和专业领域的人进行交流和讨论，以解决翻译中的问题和困惑。

Stability of hybrid system limit cycles: application to the compass gait biped RobotIan A. Hiskens'Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana IL 61801 USAAbstractLimit cycles are common in hybrid systems. However the non-smooth dynamics of such systems makes stability analysis difficult. This paper uses recent extensions of trajectory sensitivity analysis to obtain the characteristic multipliers of non-smooth limit cycles. The stability of a limit cycle is determined by its characteristic multipliers. The concepts are illustrated using a compass gait biped robot example.1 IntroductionHybrid system are characterized by interactions between continuous (smooth) dynamics and discrete events. Such systems are common across a diverse range of application areas. Examples include power systems [l], robotics [2, 3], manufacturing [4] and air-traffic control [5]. In fact, any system where saturation limits are routinely encountered can be thought of as a hybrid system. The limits introduce discrete events which (often) have a significant influence on overall behaviour.Many hybrid systems exhibit periodic behaviour. Discrete events, such as saturation limits, can act to trap the evolving system state within a constrained region of state space. Therefore even when the underlying continuous dynamics are unstable, discrete events may induce a stable limit set. Limit cycles (periodic behaviour) are often created in this way. Other systems, such as robot motion, are naturally periodic.Limit cycles can be stable (attracting), unstable (repelling) or non-stable (saddle). The stability of periodic behaviour is determined by characteristic (or Floquet) multipliers. A periodic solution corresponds to a fixed point of a Poincare map. Stability of the periodic solution is equivalent to stability of the fixed point. The characteristic multipliers are the eigenvalues of the Poincare map linearized about the fixed point. Section 4 reviews the connection between this linearized map and trajectory sensitivities.Poincare maps have been used to analyse the stability of limit cycles in various forms of hybrid systems. However calculation of the underlying trajectory sensitivities has relied upon particular system structures, see for example [7, 8], or numerical differencing, for example [6]. This paper uses a recent generalization of trajectory sensitivity analysis [9] to efficiently detemine the stability of limit cycles in hybrid systems.A hybrid system model is given in Section 2. Section 3 develops the associated variational equations. This is followed in Section 4 by a review of stability analysis of limit cycles. Conclusions and extensions are presented in Section 5.2 ModelDeterministic hybrid systems can be represented by a model that is adapted from a differential-algebraic (DAE) structure. Events are incorporated via impulsive action and switching of algebraic equations, giving the Impulsive Switched (DAIS) modelwheren x R ∈ are dynamic states and my R ∈ are algebraic states;(.)δ is the Dirac delta;(.)u is the unit-step function;,:n mnj f h RR +→；(0)(),:i n mng gR R ±+→; some elements of each(.)gwill usually be identicallyzero, but no elements of the composite g should be identically zero; the()i g± aredefined with the same form as g in (2), resulting in a recursive structure for g;,dey yare selected elements of y that trigger algebraic switching and state reset(impulsive) events respectively;dyandeymay share common elements.The impulse and unit-step terms of the DAIS model can be expressed in alternative forms:Each impulse term of the summation in (1) can be expressed in the state reset formwhere the notation x+denotes the value of x just after the reset event, whilstx-andy-refer to the values of x and y just prior to the event.The contribution of each()i g± in (2) can be expressed aswith (2) becomingThis form is often more intuitive than (2).It can be convenient to establish the partitionswherex -are the continuous dynamic states, for example generator angles, velocities andfluxes;z are discrete dynamic states, such as transformer tap positions and protection relay logic states;λ are parameters such as generator reactances, controller gains and switching times. The partitioning of the differential equations f ensures that away from events,x -evolves according to .(,)x y f x --=, whilst z and λ remain constant. Similarly,the partitioning of the reset equationsjhensures thatx -and λ remain constantat reset events, but the dynamic states z are reset to new values given by(,)jh y x z--+=-. The model can capture complex behaviour, from hysteresis and non-windup limits through to rule-based systems [l]. A more extensive presentation of this model is given in [9].Away from events, system dynamics evolve smoothly according to the familiardifferential-algebraic modelwhere g is composed of(0)gtogether with appropriate choices of()i g- or()i g+ ,depending on the signs of the corresponding elements of yd. At switching events (2),some component equations of g change. To satisfy the new g = 0 equation, algebraic variables y may undergo a step change. Reset events (3) force a discrete change in elements of x. Algebraic variables may also step at a reset event to ensure g= 0 is satisfied with the altered values of x. The flows of and y are defined respectively aswhere x(t) and y(t) satisfy (l),(2), along with initial conditions,3 'Ikajectory SensitivitiesSensitivity of the flowsxφandyφto initial conditionsxare obtained bylinearizing (8),(9) about the nominal trajectory,The time-varying partial derivative matrices given in (12),(13) are known as trajectory sensitiuities, and can be expressed in the alternative formsThe formxx ,xy provides clearer insights into the development of thevariational equations describing the evolution of the sensitivities. The alternative form 0(,)x t x φ, 0(,)yt x φ highlights the connection between the sensitivities and the associated flows. It is shown in Section 4 that these sensitivities underlie the linearization of the Poincare map, and so play a major role in determining the stability of periodic solutions.Away from events, where system dynamics evolve smoothly, trajectory sensitivities 0xx andxy are obtained by differentiating (6),(7) withrespect to 0x.This giveswhere/xf x f≡∂∂, and likewise for the other Jacobian matrices. Note that,,,xyxyf fg gare evaluated along the trajectory, and hence are time varyingmatrices. It is shown in 19, 101 that the numerical solution of this(potentially high order) DAE system can be obtained as a by-product of numerically integrating the original DAE system (6),(7). The extra computational cost is minimal. Initial conditions forxx are obtained from (10) aswhere I is the identity matrix. Initial conditions for 0zy follow directly from(17),Equations (16),(17) describe the evolution of the sensitivitiesxx andxybetween events. However at an event, the sensitivities are generally discontinuous. It is necessary to calculate jump conditions describing the step change inxx andxy . For clarity, consider a single switching/reset event, so the model (1),(2) reduces(effectively) to the formLet （(),()x y ττ） be the point where the trajectory encounters the triggering hypersurface s(x,y) = 0, i.e., the point where an event is initiated. This point is called the junction point and r is the junction time. It is assumed the encounter is transversal.Just prior to event triggering, at time τ-, we haveSimilarly,,y x++are defined for time τ+, just after the event has occurred. It isshown in [9] that the jump conditions for the sensitivitiesxx are given byThe assumption that the trajectory and triggering hypersurface meet transversally ensures a non-zero denominator for 0x τ The sensitivitiesxy . immediatelyafter the event are given byFollowing the event, i.e., for t τ+>, calculation of the sensitivities proceeds according to (16),(17) until the next event is encountered. The jump conditions provide the initial conditions for the post-event calculations.4 Limit Cycle AnalysisStability of limit cycles can be determined using Poincare maps [11, 12]. This section provides a brief review of these concepts, and establishes the connection with trajectory sensitivities.A Poincark map effectively samples the flow of a periodic system once every period. The concept is illustrated in Figure 1. If the limit cycle is stable, oscillations approach the limit cycle over time. The samples provided by the corresponding Poincare map approach a fixed point. A non-stable limit cycle results in divergent oscillations. For such a case the samples of the Poincare map diverge.To define a Poincare map, consider the limit cycle Γshown in Figure 1. Let ∑ be a hyperplane transversal to Γ at*x. The trajectory emanating from*xwill again encounter ∑ at*xafter T seconds, where T is the minimum period of the limit cycle. Due to the continuity of the flowxφwith respect to initial conditions, trajectories starting on ∑ in a neighbourhood of*x. will, in approximately T seconds, intersect ∑ in the vicinity of*x. Hencexφand ∑define a mappingwhere()kT x ττ≈ is the time taken for the trajectory to return to ∑. Complete details can hefound in [11,12]. Stability of the Paincare map (22) is determined by linearizing P at the fixed point*x, i.e.,From the definition of P(z) given by (22), it follows that DP(*x) is closely related to thetrajectory sensitivities***(,)(,)xxT T x x xφφ∂≡∂. In fact, it is shown in [11] thatwhereσ is a vector normal to ∑.The matrix*(,)xT x φis exactly the trajectory sensitivity matrix after one period of the limitcycle, i.e., starting from*xand returning to*x. This matrix is called the Monodromymatrix .It is shown in [11] that for an autonomous system, one eigenvalue of *(,)xT x φ isalways 1, and the corresponding eigenvector lies along **(,)f y x The remaining eigenvalues*(,)xT x φof coincide with the eigenvalues of DP(*x ), and are known as the characteristicmultipliers mi of the periodic solution. The characteristic multipliers are independent of the choice of cross-section ∑ . Therefore, for hybrid systems, it is often convenient to choose ∑ as a triggering hypersurface corresponding to a switching or reset event that occurs along the periodic solution.Because the characteristic multipliers mi are the eigenvalues of the linear map DP(x*), they determine the stability of the Poincarb map P(kx), and hence the stability of the periodic solution.Three cases are of importance: 1. Alli m lie within the unit circle, i.e., 1im<,i ∀.The map is stable, so the periodicsolution is stable. 2. Allim lie outside the unit circle. The periodic solution is unstable.3. Someim lie outside the unit circle. The periodic solution is non-stable.Interestingly, there exists a particular cross-section*∑, such thatwhere *ς∈∑.This cross-section*∑is the hyperplane spanned by the n - 1 eigenvectors of*(,)xT x φthat are not aligned with **(,)f y x . Therefore the vector *σthat is normal to*∑ is the left eigenvector of *(,)xT x φ corresponding to the eigenvalue 1. The hyperplane*∑is invariant under*(,)xT x φ, i.e., **(,)f y x maps vectors *ς∈∑back into*∑.5 ConclusionsHybrid systems frequently exhibit periodic behaviour. However the non-smooth nature of such systems complicates stability analysis. Those complications have been addressed in this paper throughapplication of a generalization of trajectory sensitivity analysis. Deterministic hybrid systems can be represented by a set ofdifferential-algebraic equations, modified to incorporate impulse (state reset) action and constraint switching. The associated variational equations establish jump conditions that describe the evolution of sensitivities through events. These equations provide insights into expansion/contraction effects at events. This is a focus of future research.Standard Poincar6 map results extend naturally to hybrid systems. The Monodromy matrix is obtained by evaluating trajectory sensitivities over one period of the (possibly non-smooth) cyclical behaviour. One eigenvalue of this matrix is always unity. The remaining eigenvalues are the characteristic multipliers of the periodic solution. Stability is ensured if all multipliers lieReferences[l] LA. Hiskens and M.A. Pai, “Hybrid systems view of power system modelling,” in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Geneva, Switzerland, May 2000.[2] M.H. Raibert, Legged Robots That Balance, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1986.[3] A. Goswami, B. Thuilot, and B. Espiau, “A study of the passive gait of a compass-like biped ro bot: symmetry and chaos,’’ International Journal of Robotics Research, vol. 17, no. 15, 1998.[4] S. Pettersson, “Analysis and design of hybrid systems,” Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Signals and Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden, 1999.[5] C. Tomlin, G. Pappas, and S. Sastry, “Conflict resolution for air traffic management:A study in multiagent hybrid systems,” IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 509-521, April 1998.[6] A. Goswami, B. Espiau, and A. Keramane, “Limit cycles in a passive compass gait biped and passivity-mimicking contr ol laws,” Journal of Au tonomous Robots, vol. 4, no. 3, 1997. 171 B.K.H. Wong, H.S.H. Chung, and S.T.S. Lee, ‘Computation of the cycle state-variable sensitivity matrix of PWM DC/DC converters and its applica tion,” IEEE Transactions on Circuit s and Systems I, vol. 47, no. 10, pp. 1542-1548, October 2000.[8] M. Rubensson, B. Lennartsson, and S. Petters son, “Convergence to limit cycles in hybrid systems - an example,” in Prepri nts of 8th International Federation of Automatic Control Symposium on Large Scale Systems: Theo y d Applications, Rio Patras, Greece, 1998, pp. 704-709.[9] I.A. Hiskens and M.A. Pai, “Trajectory sensitivity analysis of hyhrid systems,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 204-220, February 2000.[10]D. Chaniotis, M.A. Pai, and LA. Hiskens, “Sen sitivity analysis of differential-algebraic systems using the GMRES method - Ap plication to power systems,” in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Sydney, Australia, May 2001.[11]T.S Parker and L.O. Chua, Practical Numerical Algorithms for Chaotic Systems, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1989.[12]R. Seydel, Practical Bifurcation and Stability Analysis, Springer-Verlag. New York, 2nd edition, 1994.。

外文翻译模板在进行外文翻译时，我们需要注意一些重要的事项，以确保翻译质量和准确性。

以下是一些外文翻译模板，供大家参考和使用。

1. 翻译目的。

在进行外文翻译之前，我们需要明确翻译的目的。

是为了商务沟通，学术交流，还是其他用途？不同的翻译目的可能需要采用不同的翻译风格和用词选择。

2. 原文阅读。

在进行翻译之前，我们需要对原文进行充分的阅读和理解。

只有对原文有深入的理解，才能进行准确的翻译。

在阅读原文时，可以标记重要的词语和句子，以便后续的翻译工作。

3. 语言风格。

在进行外文翻译时，我们需要根据翻译的目的和受众选择合适的语言风格。

比如，商务文件的翻译可能需要正式的语言风格，而文学作品的翻译可能需要更具有文学感的语言风格。

4. 词语选择。

在翻译过程中，我们需要注意选择准确的词语。

有些词语在不同的语境中可能有不同的意思，我们需要根据上下文选择合适的译词，以确保翻译的准确性和流畅性。

5. 句子结构。

在翻译时，我们需要注意句子结构的调整。

有些语言的句子结构和语序可能与中文不同，我们需要根据中文的表达习惯调整句子结构，以使翻译更符合中文的表达习惯。

6. 校对修改。

在完成翻译之后，我们需要进行校对和修改工作。

这包括检查译文的准确性、流畅性和语言风格是否符合要求。

如果有条件，最好能请其他人进行审校，以确保翻译质量。

7. 文化差异。

在进行外文翻译时，我们需要注意文化差异带来的影响。

有些表达在不同的文化背景中可能有不同的含义，我们需要根据具体情况进行恰当的调整。

总结。

外文翻译是一项复杂的工作，需要我们对原文有深入的理解和准确的把握。

希望以上的外文翻译模板能够帮助大家更好地进行翻译工作，提高翻译质量和效率。

外文原文 1Building Materials Selection and SpecificationFae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, TurkeyAbstract: The limitations in the selection of the building materials and to the sustainability of any building construction materials that can be used are presented. The practices and techniques that can be used in reducing and minimizing the environmental impacts of building are discussed. Recommendations of using secondary and recycled materials in the construction of buildings are given. Framework for methods of assessment of the sustainability in building construction for environmental performance is presented.Key Words: Limitations, sustainability, environmental impacts, framework, climate.1. IntroductionThere is an apparently unbounded range of possibilities for the selection of building materials for the construction of structures of almost any shape or stature. Its quality will affect the structure function and long life, and requirements may differ with climate, soil, site size, and with the experience and knowledge of the designer. The factors that have the most outstanding solutions are impermeability, control of heat, air, and water flow, and the stability of the structure [1-3].Raw materials extraction, manufacturing processes, and the transportation of the materials to the project site have a multitude of impacts on the environment. These include the disruption of habitats and ecological systems, use of water, and, through energy use, the emissions of air pollutants and climate change gases. Building materials also have major impacts on the building occupants manufacture, construction of buildings and the use of building materials make a significant environmental impact internally, locally and globally. But it is not easy to deliver information to make adequate inclusion decisions considering the whole life cycle of a building. Decisions on sustainable building integrate a number of strategies during the design, construction and operation of building projects. Selection of sustainable building materials represents an important strategy in the design of a building.2.SustainabilityIn recent years, the concept of sustainability has been the subject of much disputation by academics and professionals alike. In 1987, the World Conference on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).Sustainability must address ecological impacts, regardless of conflicting interpretations of the WCED definition.A good sustainable product must give as much satisfaction as possible for the user. If not, it will be unsuccessful on the market and an economic failure.It is also important to inform people as to what basis a certain product is considered to be sustainable or not and why they should buy it [4- 5].When developing a new product, it is illustrative to move between the three corners Ecology, Equity and Economy in order to obtain a suitable balance so that each category can be fulfilled in the best way.·Ecology (environmental protection).·Equity (social equity).·Economy (economic growth).2.1 Materials Selection and SustainabilityAmong the notable technological developments of the 20th century has been the development of tens of thousands of new materials for use in construction and engineering. The construction industry has also grown to the point where it is a very large consumer of energy and materials. Concern for the environment and the impact of human activity on the Earth's ecological systems has now become clear sighted.We are faced with the problems of material selection and the environmental consequences of their use. Environmentalists have proposed various methods for assessing the impact of materials and energy use, these include ecological foot printing, ecological rucksacks, embodied energy and carbon dioxide values, and so on. Engineers have put forward rational selection methods for the choice of materials. These techniques will be reviewed and explored in an attempt to provide an environmentally-aware, materials selection method- logy for use in construction.Strictly, the term sustainable means that something is capable of being sustained not for an hour, or a day, or a week, month or year, but indefinitely.The implication is that if some process which uses materials and energy is described as sustainable, then the materials and energy which are consumed arecapable of being replaced by natural or other processes as fast as they are consumed. In many cases materials and energy appear to be consumed at a faster rate than they are being replaced. However, to make a judgment, we would need to know what the respective supply and consumption rates are in other words we need some quantitative or numerical index to help us [2].2.2 Environmental CriteriaSince construction uses such large quantities of materials, it has a major impact on the environment. In order to assess and evaluate such impact, a number of criteria or indices have been devised by economists, engineers and environmentalists, and the more important of these are the following [2].2.2.1 Embodied EnergyThis is quite simply the amount of energy consumed in manufacturing a unit quantity of a material, and it is usually expressed in kJ/kg. Its value is determined by the efficiency of the manufacturing plant. Values range from 275 GJ/tonne for aluminum (a high value) to 0.1 GJ/tonne for gravel aggregates (a low value) [2].2.2.2 Embodied Carbon DioxideEmbodied C02 is similar to embodied energy. It is the weight of C02 emitted during manufacture of unit weight of the material, and is usually expressed as kg of C02 per ton.Again, the value will depend upon the efficiency of the manufacturing plant [2].2.2.3 Ecological RucksackThe ecological rucksack concept was devised as a way of assessing material efficiency by F. Schmidt一Bleek [6]. He recognized that many tonnes of raw material could be extracted and processed to make just one kilogram of material. For example, the environmental rucksack for the precious metal platinum is 250,000:1.2.3 Rational Selection MethodThere are various approaches to the problem of selecting materials from the huge numbers now available. Designers can have recourse to materials property charts and data books. Alternatively, they can talk to their colleagues, hoping that by widening the knowledge circle, they will not omit a significant group of materials. Another strategy is simply to specify the same or a similar material to those used in previous, similar designs. All these are valid approaches, but they may result in the specification of a less than ideal material and overall, a less than optimal solution to the problem [3-5].The basis of the rational selection methods devised to date is a recognition that the performance of a component, artifact or structure is limited by the properties of the materials from which it is made. It will be rare for the performance of the item to depend solely on one material property; in nearly all cases, it is a combination of properties, which is important. To give an example, in lightweight design, strength to weight ratio of, and stiffness to weight ratio E/pwill be important. Ref. [3] has put forward the idea of plotting material properties against each other to produce material property maps. On these maps, each class of material occupies a field in material property space, and sub-fields map the space occupied by individual materials.These materials property charts are very information-rich they carry a large amount of information in a compact but accessible form. Interestingly, they reveal correlations between material properties, which can help in checking and estimating data, and they can also be used in performance optimization, in a manner such as that set out as follow.If we consider the complete range of materials, it immediately becomes apparent that for each property of an engineering material there is a characteristic range of values, and this range can be very large. For example, consider stiffness (Young's Modulus E). Materials range from jelly (very low stiffness) up to diamond (very high stiffness). The properties can span five decades (orders of magnitude),A number of conclusions can be drawn, including:(1) A rational selection method such the one put forward by Ashby is capable of incorporating environmental parameters such as embodied energy and C02 or the environmental rucksack concepts, thereby making possible rational selections based on environmental considerations.(2) This method is not as simple to use as the environmental preference method or the environmental profiles method. However, this rational method could be used to generate data for the environmental profiles and preference methods.(3) The construction industry needs to take steps to better integrate itself into the materials cycle. The quantity of demolition waste needs to be reduced, and more of it should be recycled. To this end, the building designers need to keep full records of materials of construction, and buildings need to be designed for easy dismantling at the end of their useful lives.2. 4 Ashby's Materials Selection MethodologyMaterials selection charts一Property interaction (not always causal)一First order optimization●Performance indices●Multiple constrains●Multiple design goals●Shape and material interaction一“Enhanced" performance indicesProcess selection [3, 4].3. Foundations and Construction ComponentIn any consideration of which building materials and alternatives can feasibly be integrated into the foundations of a large-scale development there are several limitations that must be considered.In terms of the actual materials that may be used, there are three main limitations. First, because of the large scale and heavy loads that the foundations must support, strength is imperative. Any materials must be consistently strong and able to effectively distribute the weight of the structure. The second major limitation is climate. In areas with sub-zero winter conditions, frost heave is a major consideration. For this reason, foundations must be deep enough to support the structure despite any changes in near-surface volume; shallow foundations will be insufficient unless certain innovative steps are taken. The limitation of climate also influences any decision on insulating foundations. Finally, there is the consideration of cost. This consideration is reliant on material availability, cost per unit, and building techniques and associated labor. For these reasons, the only materials that can feasibly be used are concrete and steel. Therefore, the alternatives for minimizing impact lie more in the methods of construction and any realistic structural changes that can be made.The three main foundation components of concrete, steel, and insulation will be examined as the only reasonable materials for the construction of a building with limitations such as the foundations [1].3.1 ConcreteIt is the fundamental component of the foundation construction, receiving the building loads through walls or posts and distributes them down and outwards through the footings. Concrete and cement have ecological advantages which include durability, long life, heat storage capability, and (in general) chemical inertness [8].The life cycle concerns of concrete are as follows. First, there is land and habitat loss from mining activities. Furthermore, the quality of both air and water quality suffer from the acquisition, transportation, and manufacture. Carbon dioxide emissions are also a negative environmental impact accrued through the production and use of concrete. Similarly, dust and particulate are emitted at most stages of the concrete life-cycle. $oth carbon dioxide and particulate matter have negative impacts on air quality [1]. Water pollution is also another concern associated with the production of concrete at the production phase. Fly ash is by-product of the energy production from coal-fired plants and increasing its proportion in cement is environmentally beneficial in two ways. First, it helps in reducing the amount of solid waste which requires disposal. As well, fly ash in the cement mixture reduced the overall energy use by changing the consistency of the concrete. Fly ash, increases concrete strength, improves sulfate foundation, decreases permeability, reduced the water ratio required, and improves the pump ability and workability of the concrete [9]. Now in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency requires that all buildings that receive federa funding contain fly ash and most concrete producer: have access to this industrial waste [9].There are alternative methods of both making concrete and building foundations with this concrete that have environmental benefits, no matter the structure scale or climate. These include Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, the increased integration of fly ash into the cement mixture, and the use of pre-cast foundation systems to reduce resource use. Through consideration and possible integration of these alternatives, impacts could potentially be reduced.3.2 SteelAs wood resources are becoming limited, steel is increasingly popular with builders. In the case of a large-scale building, steel reinforcement is basically a necessity for overall strength and weight distribution.The initial life cycle impacts of steel use are similar to those of concrete. These include land and habitat loss from mining activities, and air and water quality degradation from materials acquisition and manufacture [1]. However, the largest proportion of steel used nowadays contains a percentage of recycled materials. In terms of improving environmental conditions by reducing impacts, this is the only real recommendation for the use of steel in building foundations; to purchase recycled steel products. Not only would this reduce industrial and commercial solid waste,such a decision would also reward the manufacturers of such products.3. 3 InsulationNew and innovative pre-cast building foundations are becoming increasingly available and feasible for implementation. These new systems can reduce the overall raw material use, as well as conserve energy through the creation of an efficient building envelope. A further used of this rigid insulation as a skirt around the building foundations helps to eliminate any potential frost problems, improve drainage, and help further reduce heat loss. A polyethylene air and water vapor barrier is applied above the insulating layer, as is a three to four inch layer of sand. These shallow foundation systems have excellent insulating properties, decreased use of raw materials for concrete, and comparatively low demands for labor. However, the use of rigid insulation is increased. Also, in soils where frost and drainage is a consideration additional piles in the centre of the foundation may be required to prevent movement. This increases the relative land disturbance, although it remains still much less than that of deep foundation systems. Shallow foundations are structurally sound and are becoming increasingly common in colder climates. There are strength considerations associated with these new techniques which must be addressed by someone with the technical ability to do so, before they can be feasibly recommended for the building of the new residence.As discussed above, there are limitations to the sustainability of any foundation construction materials used. In other words, there are environmental impacts associated with all types of foundations. For these reasons, a primary recommendation is the use of secondary materials (fly ash and recycled steel) in the construction of foundations.4. FrameworkThe material components of the building envelope, that is, the foundation, wall construction, insulation and roof, have been analyzed within a framework of primarily qualitative criteria that aim to evaluate the sustainability of alternate materials relative to the materials cited in the current foundation design. This analytical process has enabled the identification of several construction materials that can be feasibly integrated into current design and construction standards of the building envelope.The tools and strategies described below are useful in analyzing the relative benefits of different materials[9-14].Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA is a comprehensive analysis that takes intoconsideration all aspects of a material over its entire lifetime: raw materials extraction; manufacturing and processing; transport; use; and post-use recycling, reuse, or disposal. This approach enables a true "apples to apples" comparison between materials.The BEES system (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology is the most widely used methodology. BEES provides materials with a score that can be compared to other similar products. At this time, however, a fairly limited number of materials have completed the BEES analysis.Life-Cycle Costing. Life-Cycle Costing is an analysis of the short- and long-term costs associated with a material, from purchase to ultimate recycling or disposal. This includes frequency of replacement, maintenance costs, and costs that are avoided through use of the material (or system). LCC is useful in looking beyond a comparison based solely on first costs. Similar to LCA, this type of analysis is not available for all materials, but a back-of-the-envelope calculation is usually fairly easy to work up.Certification. Many conventional building products are approved or certified by independent third party or government groups. The Forest Stewardship Council certifies the certifiers (Smart Wood and SCS) that assess whether forestry companies are using sustainable management practices to harvest wood. The Carpet and Rug Institute provides a Green Label for carpets that meet certain low-VOC criteria. Green Guard certifies products that meet strict indoor air quality criteria. The Department of Energy's Energy Star label identifies equipment and appliances that meet or exceed standards for energy efficiency. Scientific Certification Systems and Green Seal certify recycled-content claims and other green product claims made by manufacturers.5. ConclusionOver-consumption, resource utilization, pollution and over-population are examples of the perhaps most basic problems for the environment in the future. A more sustainable future can be achieved by producing more sustainable products causing less environmental impact. Materials and design are and will always be very important areas when developing more sustainable products.The Life Cycle Assessment concept might be the most effective way of determining the environmental impacts for all product stages from extract of material to the product disposal stage. A price must be set for restoration on everyenvironmental impact. Information can be received from official authorities pertaining to the environment in different countries. Renewable and easy recyclable materials are preferably used together with a design for easy recycling and repair of the products. Minimization of the energy connected to the product is also important. Full sustainability can never be achieved for products according to thermodynamic laws. However, the attempt to achieve more sustainability is a requisite if we want to preserve the earth for the coming generations. Education, research and spreading of information will be very important for the future in order to receive more sustainable products especially because the market demand is important in order to develop successful sustainable products.References[1] M. Davison, J. Persmann, J. Reid, J. Stange and T. Weins, Green BuildingMaterials Residence, A WATgreen/ERS 285 study.[2] J. L. Sturges, Construction Materials Selection and Sustainability, School of theBuilt Environment, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK.[3] M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon, Oxford, 1992.[4] M. F. Ashby and K. Johnson, Materials and Design: The Art And Science ofMaterials Selection in Product Design, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002 [5] L. Y. Ljungberg, Materials selection and design for development of sustainableproducts, Materials and Design 28(2007)466-479.[6] F. Berkhout and D. Smith, Products and the environment: an integrated approachto policy, Eur. Environ 9 (1999)174-185.[7] F. Schmidt-Bleek, Carnoules Declaration of the FactorTen Club, WuppertalInstitute, Germany, 1994.[8] A．Wilson，Building green on a budget,Environmental Building News8(5)(1999)．[9] G．E．Dieter，Engineering Design，McGraw-Hill，New York，l991．[10] Sandy Patience (Ed．)，The Role of Evidence in The Selection of BuildingProducts and Materials，Constructing Excellence in The Built Environment．[11] M．D．Bovea and R．Vidal，Increasing product value by integrating environmentalimpacts costs and customer valuation，J Resour Conserv Recycling 41(2004) 133-145．[12] N．S．Ermolaeva,M．B．G．Castro and P．V．Kandachar, Materials selectionfor an automotive structure by integrating structural optimization with environmental impact assessment，Materials and Design 25 (2004) 689．698．[13] M．Goedkoop and R．Spiensma，The Eco-Indicator 99：A Dam age OrientedMethod for Life Cycle Impact Assessment，Amersfooft：PRe consultant B．V．，2000．中文翻译 1建材选择和规格Fae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, Turkey摘要：建材选择的限制和可利用的任何建筑物工程材料的持久性显现出来。

外文文献翻译方法与技巧
翻译外文文献可以为学术研究提供重要的支持，以下是一些翻译方法和技巧：
精读原文
在翻译外文文献之前，先要精读原文并理解文本内容和结构，这可以帮助翻译者确定文本的主题和重点。

同时，熟悉文本的语言风格和词汇也非常重要，可以帮助翻译者更好地理解并翻译文本。

注重语言风格
不同的外文文献可能有着不同的语言风格和表达方式，翻译者应该注重语言风格的翻译，尽可能地保持原文的表达方式和文化背景，同时也要注意译文的可读性。

注意文化差异
在翻译外文文献时，注意文化差异也是非常重要的。

不同的国家和地区有着不同的文化背景和惯，翻译者应该根据文本的背景和主题灵活运用词汇、表达方式和文化隐喻等，让译文更符合文化差异和读者的惯。

使用辅助工具
在翻译外文文献时，辅助工具可以帮助翻译者提高翻译效率和准确率。

例如，使用翻译软件可以帮助翻译者快速翻译大量文本，但需要注意软件翻译的准确性和语言风格是否符合需求。

查看参考文献
在翻译外文文献时，参考文献可以为翻译者提供重要的帮助。

翻译者可以查看相关的研究文献和资料，了解行业和学术领域的相关术语和表达方式，提高翻译的准确性和专业性。

总之，翻译外文文献需要翻译者具有良好的语言能力和专业知识，同时秉承着精读原文、注重语言风格、注意文化差异、使用辅
助工具和查看参考文献的翻译方法和技巧，才能提高翻译质量和效率。

Importance of Intercultural CommunicationWhen in 422 B.C. Euripides wrote, “All is well; all yields its place and then goes.” He surely did not realize that he would someday be helping to introduce a book on international communication. Yet he recognized that people, the world, and society are dynamic and always in a state of change. The study of international communication is about change – changes in the world’s fabric of social relationships and how we must adapt to them.International communication, as you might suspect, is not new. Wandering nomads, religious missionaries, and conquering warriors have encountered people different from themselves since the beginning of time. Those meetings were frequently confusing and quite often hostile. In ancient times, the recognition of alien differences lacked accompanying cultural knowledge and often elicited the human propensity to respond malevolently to those differences. This notion was expressed over tow thousand years ago by the Greek playwright Aeschylus who wrote, “Everyone’s quick to blame the alien.” This sentiment is still a powerful element in today’s social and political rhetoric. For instance, it is common in today’s society to hear that all of the social and economic problems in the United States are caused by immigrants. Despite the persistence of this notion, today’s intercultural encounters differ from earlier meetings. They are more abundant and, because of the interconnectedness of the world, more significant. We can now board a plane and fly anywhere in the world in a matter of hours, and reality of a global economy makes today’s contacts far more commonplace than in other period of the world’s history. For example, in just a single year, 1994 to 1995, multinational companies boosted their international investments 40 percent to a record $315 billion. Reflect for a moment that the Slurpees we drink now come from over a thousand 7-Elevens owned by the Japanese. The web linking us together become vivid when we see a newspaper headline that tell us “Americans Once Again into Africa…And Staying a Lot Longer in Bosnia.”Additionally, the emergence of the information age has allowed us the opportunity to expand our knowledge so that the recognition of cultural differences need not result in hostile encounters.跨文化交流的重要性在公元前422年欧里庇得斯写道,“一切都好,所有收益都来回运转。

Applications of magnesium alloys1 the automotive industryWith the rapid development of science and technology, modern automobile manufacturing material composition changed, the proportion of dense material, low density materials have dramatically increases.In the 1990s, the car from the lightweight, environment-friendly materials to the development trend of the increasingly clear direction, aluminum, magnesium alloys are materials become more widely used.According to the calculation, car every hundred kilometres 100kg, reduced quality can save petrol 0.3 L, every 10% lower quality of the car, he can reduce automobile emissions of 10%.And the related car lightweight technology into the 21st century automobile development frontier and hot.Auto lightweight aims to increase automobile fuel economy and improve the safety car.One of the important ways to lightweight is required in order to ensure the intensity and rigidity of lightweight materials selection, magnesium alloy under is the most ideal lightest metal structure material, thus become automobile reduce weight to improve its energy conservation and environmental protection material of choice.At present, the application of magnesium in the bus is: every car between changes in 17kg 0.5 ~, average 3kg/car is about.This number may be in the future is increasing rapidly, magnesium alloy will become the main components of the car.In the U.S., many automobile parts using magnesium alloy casting production, in some models for magnesium consumption is big 4 / 26.3-5.8 kg.The famous auto companies such as general motors and ford, Chrysler, in the past ten years has been committed to the new magnesium alloys and steering clutch, intake, and lighting grippers automotive components etc, development and application effect is very obvious.German vw created the world's economy, one of the car body 1L car than aluminum alloys using space frame, in addition to its 13kg light body shell, gearbox shell, pump seat is made with magnesium alloy frame, etc.Audi car company first launch magnesium alloy die casting instrument. The use of AudiA62.8 Audimultitronic stepless/manual transmission using magnesium alloy enclosure, one-piece total weight than Tiptronic 27kg light.Currently V olkswagen (VW) Passat, AudiA2, A4 and magnesium consumption reached A6 14kg/Taiwan. Japan's Toyota first create magnesium alloy wheels of automobiles, CAM cover parts.Toyota automobile steering with airbag, after using AM60B quality magnesium alloy die-casting, quality of steel products than in the past, stock respectively, and reduced by 15% and 45% steering system vibration.But with the Australian industry ministry mitsubishi, develop deluxe engine. Magnesium applications in automotive industry in China. Shanghai, faw, no.2, changan auto company in research and development and application of magnesium in auto field play an important role.Magnesium in the car, has the following advantages:1) used to be the lightest metal magnesium metal: the proportion of aluminum, zinc 2/3 of less than 1/4, steel or iron 1/4, containing 30% for the glass fiber and magnesium, polycarbonate composite proportion of no more than 10% of it. Thus the use of magnesium alloys can effectively reduce automobile quality.2) than high strength: experiments showed that the intensity of magnesium alloy and stainless steel than than high. So don't reduce parts under the condition of magnesium alloy castings and strength than aluminum casting about 25% weight.3)thermal conductivity：Although the thermal conductivity aluminum alloys, but less than steel double than plastic materials, 10 times higher. Therefore magnesium alloys are widely used in casting automobile wheel, can effectively, provide brake friction heat out braking stability.4) easy machining：Magnesium is very easy, machining, without the cooling liquid lubricant, under the condition of high load processing, can get clean processing.5) to vibration and impact absorption performance is good:The vibration energy absorption of magnesium alloys using ability, in the drive and transmission components can reduce vibration. At the same time, in the steering wheel and seat in the car using magnesium alloy after collision can absorb the impact energy is very good.6) fight depression and other properties: magnesium metal distortion ability, compared to the impact of less than other metals.7) good welding and casting of magnesium alloys melting performance: the latent heat and heat capacity and low alloy melt, than less energy and curing speed, low viscosity, dynamics, casting mould filling better than aluminum alloy die-casting production cycle is short, easily forming thin-walled structure. The affinity with iron and magnesium, quenching iron capacity is low, service mode, mould easily than aluminium alloy high 2.3 times.8) easy recycling: magnesium recovery can be directly melting, casting and then reduce its mechanical properties.Compared with other metal alloys, low melting point, heat fuses in small, renewable energy is consumed during the new materials consumed energy of 4%. In addition, the electromagnetic shielding alloys, good appearance. Magnesium is the most potential auto structural materials, the 21st century will be a magnesium applications with the rapid development of The Times, the significant weight loss of energy saving effect, reproducible and can be recycled and dimension stability of casting and aseismic characteristics, automobile industry of the world.2 communication electronics industryElectronic information industry due to the development of the market for digital electronic communication, and highly integrated products, light and recycling of increasing demands. When the window is more and more big, the function, the more hours more volume of mobile phone housing demand higher intensity, magnesium, and replace plastic under-voltage senior texture. For power is more and more big, the thickness of the thinner notebook computer, fever is a big problem.And the cooling performance, magnesium good soon become this kind of product selection of material shell. For example, thin cast magnesium alloys have excellent performance and its die-casting wall thickness of 0.8-1.5 mm, and maintain the strength, stiffness and impact resistance. Therefore, in the parenchyma, lightweight, impact resistance, electromagnetic shielding, cooling and environmental protection requirement, magnesium became the best choice of the manufacturer. In recent years, the electronicinformation industry of magnesium consumption increase sharply, it has become the global magnesium consumption of another important factor.At present, in the areas of 3C magnesium applications are almost cast magnesium alloys. Magnesium die-cast by AZ (Mg - A1 - Zn) series, this series has good comprehensive mechanical properties, casting properties and corrosion resistance, the highest yield strength, is the most widely used in die casting Mg, one of the most widely used 3C products of AZ91D for. Japan's first will die for 3C product, early in 1991-1995, IBM Japanese companies after years of effort, successfully in seven kinds of notebook computers used on magnesium alloy die-casting shell. This method is the most mature and 3C product in the most widely used methods.3 weapons and equipmentQuality is the impact weapons achieve rapid reaction ability of the battlefield, so, one of the main factors of modern high-tech war for weapon and equipment quality index proposed extremely stringent requirements. Developed countries all expensive, lightweight materials and structure of research of advanced manufacturing technology, in order to reduce weapons, improve the quality of weapon equipment, increase flexibility with elastic and field support system, improve the weapons and dosage of survival and combat soldiers battlefield.Low density of magnesium alloys are the lightest, metal structure material, it has the strength, stiffness and fatigue strength is high, high damping suspension performance, can withstand the tremendous impact load and electric conductivity and thermal conductivity, magnetic shielding, machining and forming technology, excellent polishing performance, easy to recycle and so on a series of advantages, is the ideal weapon lightweight materials.In recent years, the United States and western military power has begun to magnesium.Alloy material used to weapons equipment and related platforms, developing very rapidly. Magnesium alloy material within a period of time in the future, there may be more than aluminum alloy material, become the weapon equipment in one of the most widely used metal structural materials.In the weapon equipment, the applications of magnesium alloys mainly confined in aviation, ing magnesium alloy production of aerospace, main components: aircraft parts, plane wall panels, rigging, gasoline and fuel oil system components, partition, fuselage rack, plane truss, ribs, long CangTi every box, fighter aircraft cockpit cabin, pilot seat, operating system and bearings, aircraft landing rocker outside, the wheel hub, rim, aircraft motor shell, pump shell, instrument shell of castings, high air-sealed members and various accessories, organized the wing aircraft engine parts, rib, casting, centrifuge magazine, front after reducer, supporting shell and magazine cover, the shell after the helicopter engine speed reducer, computer magazine, magazine before the jet engine turbine compressor magazine, supporting shell, magazine, centrifuge cartridge into the qi, hydraulic device shell, Satellites and space probe, satellite Angle, bracket, bushings, beams and t-tube stent, fittings, and satellite antenna structure, space station frames on the pieces.In recent years, except in the military and civil aircraft and aircraft engine on the magnesium alloy material, abroad, in other applications of weapons are increasing. In the light, America has been used in portable firearm stents will magnesium, solo withcommunications equipment.U.S. manufacturing Racegun (strong propellant, advanced combat with handguns) trigger parts using magnesium alloys, quality, reduce rf time reduced by 45%, American ideal solo OICW combat system (comprehensive) shell adopts magnesium, quality components GMBH &co 6.37 8.17 from below, Hanter Firearms LNC M39M1 pistol with magnesium alloy QiangJi parts. Russia's production POSP6 x 12 guns with zoom lens shell adopts magnesium alloys, observations of magnesium alloy by Germany, the bottom, pistols gunstocks sub-machine gun, France WK50 type anti-tank QiangLiuDan application of magnesium alloys, an all-missile quality 800g only.In the gun and ammunition, Germany AMX magnesium alloy by the CN105F1-30 XianTang type of gun tube sheath, British 120mmBATL6Wombat recoilless antitank guns used alloys, greatly reduced, and the quality of the M8-0.5 the rifle, total quality 308kg before, Israel has played for times caliber shelling magnesium missile shell, either.In a chariot, American land raider buggies AAA V WE43A magnesium alloy by dynamic transmission gears, case. W274A1 type magnesium alloy by military jeep body and bridge shell, significantly reducing the quality, good flexibility and YueYeXing, four soldiers can lift it, some modifications are mounted cannon, became the most without recoil pocket of self-propelled guns.。

European case law and theWTO ruling on conflictsbetween geographical indications and trademarks1 IntroductionGeographical indications (hereinafter referred to as GIs) are geographical or traditionalnames which identify a good as originating in a particular territory, where aThis paper is the written version of the presentation given by the author at the ERA conference on―Recent developments in European intellectual property law‖, held in Trier on 1–2 December 2008.A word of appreciation and thanks for suggestions and encouragement during work on this article isdue to Bernard O‘Connor, senior partner of O‘Connor and Company, and Florence Hartmann-Vareilles, Head of the ―European Business Law‖ Section at the Academy of EuropeanLaw in Trier.given quality, reputation or other characteristics of the good are essentially attributableto its geographical origin. Examples of such indications are Parmigiano Reggiano, Roquefort, Irish Whiskey, Manchego, Cognac, Teruel and Parma hams, Feta cheese, Tuscany olives and many other well known names of foods in Europe.The main function of GIs is to identify the origin of goods and expressly note the specific qualities which are due to the geographical origin. Evidently, this helps in differentiation of the products among similar goods and their identification as specific quality products on the market. For these reasons geographical indications are recognised as a valuable tool for achievement of rural and social development goals. Besides, they address quality concerns and provide marketing opportunities for traditionalproducts. Their economic benefits cannot be underestimated; GIs help producersto obtain premium prices for their products, guaranteeing at the same time safetyand quality of products to consumers. By acquiring recognition, GIs are increasingly becoming known as traditional quality products from specific regions. GIs have a long history in Europe and are of particular importance for the European Union at present.1Council Regulation 510/2006 on the protection of geographical indications and designations of origin for agricultural products and foodstuffs2 is central in the EC legal framework for the protection of GIs. The protection of geographical indications for wines in the EC is regulated by Council Regulation 479/2008 of 29 April 2008 on the common organisation of the market in wine,3 which lays down the rules and standardsfor designations of origin and geographical indications for wines. With respectto wines, Commission Regulation 753/2002 of 29 April 2002 on the description, designationand protection of certain wine sector products is also relevant, as it lays downthe rules for the labelling of wine.4 Regulation 110/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008 on the definition, description, presentation, labelling and the protection of geographical indications of spirit drinks deals with the use of geographical names for spirits.5There have been a number of disputes concerning the provisions of the above mentioned European regulations involving geographical indications. The major issues concerned generic character of registered and protected names,6 the use of partsof compound geographical indications,7 definition of geographical area of protection of GI products,8 particularities of specifications9 and various others.10 However, without doubt, the most extensive European case law concerns conflicts between geographicalindications and trademarks. This article, therefore, reviews the cases dealtwith by the European Court of Justice involving conflicts between geographical indicationsand trademarks and inquires into the WTO dispute, which examined relevantEU provisions on GIs and trademarks.2 Interface between geographical indications and trademarksIn performing their function of identification of goods, geographical indications, in spite of being recognised as a separate intellectual property type, are often linked with trademarks, particularly because in a number of WTO members GIs are protected as trademarks.11Trademarks, similar to geographical indications, serve for identification of goods. Their main purpose is to distinguish the goods or services of one undertaking from goods or services of another undertaking. However, even though there are some similaritiesbetween geographical indications and trademarks, they are different legal concepts. Besides, geographical indications and trademarks play a different role with regardto development of rural communities and information transmitted to consumers.The possibility of conflict between geographical indications and trademarks is recognised both in national and international law. As to the international treaties,few of them regulate expressly the relationship between trademarks and geographical indications.12 Only one, the TRIPS Agreement, deals comprehensively with both types of intellectual property rights in the same instrument.The EU legislation also devotes attention to the issue in question. Regulation510/200613 Article 14 helps to regulate the problems arising when a trademark that includes a geographical name clashes with a protected geographical indication or a protected designation of origin.14 The Regulation distinguishes between three situations.The simplest case is the first one, referred to in Article 14.1 of the Regulation. Any application for a conflicting trademark for the same type of product made after the date of application for protection of the geographical name at Community level will be refused. In this case, the regulation gives priority to the geographical name.The second case, referred to in Article 14.2 of the Regulation, provides for coexistencein certain cases. However, a conflicting trademark can only continue to be usedin accordance with Community law if:– the trademark was applied for, registered or established by use in good faith before the date of protection in the country of origin or the date of submission to the Commissionof the application for registration of the protected geographical indicationor protected designation of origin;– there are no grounds for invalidity or revocation of the trademark under applicable Community legislation.The third situation is different. In case of conflicts between registered trademarks and geographical indications, the registration of the latter is not allowed if it would mislead the consumer in light of a trademark‘s reputation and the length of time it has been used.15 As an illustration of this situation, consider a hypothetical example of application for registration of ―Guinness‖ bee r from the little village of Guinness in France. Such an application would be refused in light of the protection of the Irish trademark ―Guinness‖.163 The European case law involving conflicts between geographical indications and trademarksThe European case law on conflicts between geographical indications and trademarks is the most extensive. This is not surprising, considering that even during the negotiationsof the WTO TRIPS Agreement the issue of geographical indications and trademarks was the most contentious. These negotiations might have been influenced by the famous ‗Torres‟ case. In this case, the ―Miguel Torres‖ trademark had been registered in Spain and used for wine for many years. The Portuguese government declared ―Torres Vedras‖ a geographi cal indication, which, under a European Commissionregulation on wine, would have resulted in prohibiting the use of the ―Miguel Torres‖ trademark since it was in conflict with a geographical indication. As a consequenceof this case, the European Commission subsequently amended its regulationto allow the co-existence of both the geographical indication and the trademark.3.1 The Austrian ‗Cambozola‘ cheese case17The Italian Consorzio per la Tutela del Formaggio Gorgonzola brought proceedings against Käserei Champignon Hofmeister GmbH & Co. KG and Eduard Bracharz GmbH (Austria) prohibiting the marketing in Austria of a blue cheese under the designation…Cambozola‟ and requiring cancellation of the …Cambozola‟ trademark. The applicant referred to Article 3 of the International Stresa Convention for the Use of Designations of Origin and Names of Cheeses,18 which provided that only “cheese manufactured or matured in traditional regions, by virtue of local, loyal and uninterruptedusages” may benefit from designations of origin governed by national legislation.Article 1 of the Convention also prohibited the use of descriptions which contravene that principle. Article 2 of the Agreement between the Austrian Governmentand the Italian Government on geographical designations of origin and names of certainproducts, signed in Rome on 1 February 1952, prohibited the importation andsale of all products bearing, or displaying on their packaging or in their trademarks, designations and names listed in the annex, which were liable to mislead the public as to the origin, variety, nature or specific qualities of those products or goods.The European Court of Justice ruled that the principle of free movement of goods does not preclude Member States from taking the measures incumbent upon themin order to ensure the protection of designations of origin registered under Council Regulation 2081/92. Use of a name such as …Cambozola‟ might therefore be deemed, for the purposes of Article 13(1)(b) of that Regulation, to evoke the protected designationof origin …Gorgonzola‟, irrespective of the fact that the packaging indicates the product‘s true origin.The European Court of Justice ruled that it is for the national court to decide whether, on the facts, the conditions laid down in Article 14(2) of Regulation 2081/92 allow use of an earlier trade mark to continue notwithstanding the registration of the protected designation of origin …Gorgonzola‟, having regard in particular to the lawin force at the time of registration of the trademark, in order to determine whether such registration could have been made in good faith, on the basis that use of a name such as …Cambozola‟ does not, per se, constitute an attempt to deceive the consumer.3.2 Misleading labels on the beer in the ‗Warsteiner‘ case19Warsteiner Brauerei (a German beer producer and the owner of the trademark …Warsteiner‟) had run a brewery inWarstein in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany, since 1753. In autumn 1990, Warsteiner Brauerei acquired a brewery located in Paderborn, 40 km from Warstein, where it brewed …Light‟ and …Fresh‟ type beers until the end of 1991. The labels on the front of the bottles for these beers bore inter alia the name …Warsteiner‟ or …Marke Warsteiner‟ (…Warsteiner Brand‟). The back labels indicated inter alia that the beers were brewed and bottled “in unserer neuen Paderborner Brauerei” (―in our new Paderborn Brewery‖).The Schutzverband gegen Unwesen in der Wirtschaft, an association founded to combat unfair competition, thought that these labels were misleading and broughtan action against Warsteiner Brauerei before the Landgericht (Regional Court), Mannheim, seeking an injunction, pursuant to Paragraph 3 of theUWG (Gesetz gegen den unlauteren Wettbewerb—Law against Unfair Competition), restraining it from using …Warsteiner‟ as a geographical indication of source for beer brewed in Paderborn.The Landgericht prohibited the defendant from offering for sale, distributingand/or putting into circulation beer with the offending labels. On appeal, the Oberlandesgericht(Higher Regional Court), Karlsruhe, quashed the judgment of theLandgericht and dismissed the action of the Schutzverband. The dispute finally camebefore the Bundesgerichtshof.relationship between the national legislation and the Regulation. The Court acknowledgedthat Council Regulation 2081/92 did not preclude the application of national legislation which prohibits the potentially misleading use of a geographical indication of source in cases where is no link between the characteristics of the product andits geographical provenance.。

外文原文(一)Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciple s*M. H. HoeflichFriedrich Carl von Savigny, nobleman, law reformer, champion of the revived German professoriate, and founder of the Historical School of jurisprudence, not only helped to revolutionize the study of law and legal institutions in Germany and in other civil law countries, but also exercised a profound influence on many of the most creative jurists and legal scholars in England and the United States. Nevertheless, tracing the influence of an individual is always a difficult task. It is especially difficult as regards Savigny and the approach to law and legal sources propounded by the Historical School. This difficulty arises, in part, because Savigny was not alone in adopting this approach. Hugo, for instance, espoused quite similar ideas in Germany; George Long echoed many of these concepts in England during the 1850s, and, of course, Sir Henry Sumner Maine also espoused many of these same concepts central to historical jurisprudence in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Thus, when one looks at the doctrinal writings of British and American jurists and legal scholars in the period before 1875, it is often impossible to say with any certainty that a particular idea which sounds very much the sort of thing that might, indeed, have been derived from Savigny's works, was, in fact, so derived. It is possible, nevertheless, to trace much of the influence of Savigny and his legal writings in the United States and in Great Britain during this period with some certainty because so great was his fame and so great was the respect accorded to his published work that explicit references to him and to his work abound in the doctrinal writing of this period, as well as in actual law cases in the courts. Thus, Max Gutzwiller, in his classic study Der einfluss Savignys auf die Entwicklung des International privatrechts, was able to show how Savigny's ideas on conflict of laws influenced such English and American scholars as Story, Phillimore, Burge, and Dicey. Similarly, Andreas Schwarz, in his "Einflusse Deutscher Zivilistik im Auslande," briefly sketched Savigny's influence upon John Austin, Frederick Pollock, and James Bryce. In this article I wish to examine Savigny's influence over a broader spectrum and to draw a picture of his general fame and reputation both in Britain and in the United States as the leading Romanist, legal historian, and German legal academic of his day. The picture of this Anglo-American respect accorded to Savigny and the historical school of jurisprudence which emerges from these sources is fascinating. It sheds light not only upon Savigny’s trans-channel, trans-Atlantic fame, but also upon the extraordinarily*M.H.Hoeflich, Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciples, American Journal of Comparative Law, vol.37, No.1, 1989.cosmopolitan outlook of many of the leading American and English jurists of the time. Of course, when one sets out to trace the influence of a particular individual and his work, it is necessary to demonstrate, if possible, precisely how knowledge of the man and his work was transmitted. In the case of Savigny and his work on Roman law and ideas of historical jurisprudence, there were three principal modes of transmission. First, there was the direct influence he exercised through his contacts with American lawyers and scholars. Second, there was the influence he exercised through his books. Third, there was the influence he exerted indirectly through intermediate scholars and their works. Let us examine each mode separately.I.INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSLATED WORKSWhile American and British interest in German legal scholarship was high in the antebellum period, the number of American and English jurists who could read German fluently was relatively low. Even those who borrowed from the Germans, for instance, Joseph Story, most often had to depend upon translations. It is thus quite important that Savigny’s works were amongst the most frequently translated into English, both in the United States and in Great Britain. His most influential early work, the Vom Beruf unserer Zeitfur Rechtsgeschichte und Gestzgebung, was translated into English by Abraham Hayward and published in London in 1831. Two years earlier the first volume of his History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages was translated by Cathcart and published in Edinburgh. In 1830, as well, a French translation was published at Paris. Sir Erskine Perry's translation of Savigny's Treatise on Possession was published in London in 1848. This was followed by Archibald Brown's epitome of the treatise on possession in 1872 and Rattigan's translation of the second volume of the System as Jural Relations or the Law of Persons in 1884. Guthrie published a translation of the seventh volume of the System as Private International Law at Edinburgh in 1869. Indeed, two English translations were even published in the far flung corners of the British Raj. A translation of the first volume of the System was published by William Holloway at Madras in 1867 and the volume on possession was translated by Kelleher and published at Calcutta in 1888. Thus, the determined English-speaking scholar had ample access to Savigny's works throughout the nineteenth century.Equally important for the dissemination of Savigny's ideas were those books and articles published in English that explained and analyzed his works. A number of these must have played an important role in this process. One of the earliest of these is John Reddie's Historical Notices of the Roman law and of the Progress of its Study in Germany, published at Edinburgh in 1826. Reddie was a noted Scots jurist and held the Gottingen J.U.D. The book, significantly, is dedicated to Gustav Hugo. It is of that genre known as an external history of Roman law-not so much a history of substantive Roman legal doctrine but rather a historyof Roman legal institutions and of the study of Roman law from antiquity through the nineteenth century. It is very much a polemic for the study of Roman law and for the Historical School. It imparts to the reader the excitement of Savigny and his followers about the study of law historically and it is clear that no reader of the work could possibly be left unmoved. It is, in short, the first work of public relations in English on behalf of Savigny and his ideas.Having mentioned Reddie's promotion of Savigny and the Historical School, it is important to understand the level of excitement with which things Roman and especially Roman law were greeted during this period. Many of the finest American jurists were attracted-to use Peter Stein's term-to Roman and Civil law, but attracted in a way that, at times, seems to have been more enthusiastic than intellectual. Similarly, Roman and Civil law excited much interest in Great Britain, as illustrated by the distinctly Roman influence to be found in the work of John Austin. The attraction of Roman and Civil law can be illustrated and best understood, perhaps, in the context of the publicity and excitement in the English-speaking world surrounding the discovery of the only complete manuscript of the classical Roman jurist Gaius' Institutes in Italy in 1816 by the ancient historian and German consul at Rome, B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, the greatest ancient historian of his time, turned to Savigny for help with the Gaius manuscript (indeed, it was Savigny who recognized the manuscript for what it was) and, almost immediately, the books and journals-not just law journals by any means-were filled with accounts of the discovery, its importance to legal historical studies, and, of course, what it said. For instance, the second volume of the American Jurist contains a long article on the civil law by the scholarly Boston lawyer and classicist, John Pickering. The first quarter of the article is a gushing account of the discovery and first publication of the Gaius manuscript and a paean to Niebuhr and Savigny for their role in this. Similarly, in an article published in the London Law Magazine in 1829 on the civil law, the author contemptuously refers to a certain professor who continued to tell his students that the text of Gaius' Institutes was lost for all time. What could better show his ignorance of all things legal and literary than to be unaware of Niebuhr's great discovery?Another example of this reaction to the discovery of the Gaius palimpsest is to be found in David Irving's Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law. This volume is also more a history of Roman legal scholarship and sources than a study of substantive Roman law. Its pages are filled with references to Savigny's Geschichte and its approach clearly reflects the influence of the Historical School. Indeed, Irving speaks of Savigny's work as "one of the most remarkable productions of the age." He must have been truly impressed with German scholarship and must also have been able to convince the Faculty of Advocates, forwhom he was librarian, of the worth of German scholarship, for in 1820 the Faculty sent him to Gottingen so that he might study their law libraries. Irving devotes several pages of his elementary textbook on Roman law to the praise of the "remarkable" discovery of the Gaius palimpsest. He traces the discovery of the text by Niebuhr and Savigny in language that would have befitted an adventure tale. He elaborates on the various labors required to produce a new edition of the text and was particularly impressed by the use of a then new chemical process to make the under text of the palimpsest visible. He speaks of the reception of the new text as being greeted with "ardor and exultation" strong words for those who spend their lives amidst the "musty tomes" of the Roman law.This excitement over the Verona Gaius is really rather strange. Much of the substance of the Gaius text was already known to legal historians and civil lawyers from its incorporation into Justinian's Institutes and so, from a substantive legal perspective, the find was not crucial. The Gaius did provide new information on Roman procedural rules and it did also provide additional information for those scholars attempting to reconstruct pre-Justinianic Roman law. Nevertheless, these contributions alone seem hardly able to justify the excitement the discovery caused. Instead, I think that the Verona Gaius discovery simply hit a chord in the literary and legal community much the same as did the discovery of the Rosetta Stone or of Schliemann’s Troy. Here was a monument of a great civilization brought newly to light and able to be read for the first time in millenia. And just as the Rosetta Stone helped to establish the modern discipline of Egyptology and Schliemann's discoveries assured the development of classical archaeology as a modern academic discipline, the discovery of the Verona Gaius added to the attraction Roman law held for scholars and for lawyers, even amongst those who were not Romanists by profession. Ancillary to this, the discovery and publication of the Gaius manuscript also added to the fame of the two principals involved in the discovery, Niebuhr and Savigny. What this meant in the English-speaking world is that even those who could not or did not wish to read Savigny's technical works knew of him as one of the discoverers of the Gaius text. This fame itself may well have helped in spreading Savigny's legal and philosophical ideas, for, I would suggest, the Gaius "connection" may well have disposed people to read other of Savigny's writings, unconnected to the Gaius, because they were already familiar with his name.Another example of an English-speaking promoter of Savigny is Luther Stearns Cushing, a noted Boston lawyer who lectured on Roman law at the Harvard Law School in 1848-49 and again in 1851- 1852.Cushing published his lectures at Boston in 1854 under the title An Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. He devoted a full chapter to a description of the historical school and to the controversy betweenSavigny and Thibaut over codification. While Cushing attempted to portray fairly the arguments of both sides, he left no doubt as to his preference for Savigny's approach:The labors of the historical school have established an entirely new and distinct era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence; and though these writers cannot be said to have thrown their predecessors into the shade, it seems to be generally admitted, that almost every branch of the Roman law has received some important modification at their hands, and that a knowledge of their writings, to some extent, at least, is essentially necessary to its acquisition.译文(一)萨维尼和他的英美信徒们*M·H·豪弗里奇弗雷德里奇·卡尔·冯·萨维尼出身贵族，是一位出色的法律改革家，也是一位倡导重建德国教授协会的拥护者，还是历史法学派的创建人之一。

Utilization of urban sewage sludge: Chinese perspectives Purpose Urbanization and industrialization in China has resulted in a dramatic increase in the volume of wastewater and sewage sludge produced from wastewater treatment plants. Problems associated with sewage sludge have attracted increasing attention from the public and urban planners. How to manage sludge in an economically and environmentally acceptable manner is one of the critical issues that modern societies are facing.Methods Sludge treatment systems consist of thickening, dewatering，and several different alternative main treatments(anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, drying, composting, and incineration). Agricultural application, landfill, and incineration are the principal disposal methods for sewage sludge in China. However, sewage sludge disposal in the future should focus on resource recovery, reducing environmental impacts and saving economic costs.Results The reuse of biosolids in all scenarios can be environmentally beneficial and cost-effective. Anaerobic digestion followed by land application is the preferable options due to low economic and energy costs and material reuse.Conclusion It is necessary to formulate a standard suitable for the utilization of sewage sludge in China.1 IntroductionIn 2008, it is estimated that 57 billion tons of municipal wastewater was discharged in China, 58% of which came from municipal domestic sewage, while the production of municipal wastewater and dewatered sewage in China increased approximately 5% per year on average from 1998 to 2009 as shown in Fig.1.Sewage sludge as an inevitable by-product of wastewater treatment process presents a number of environmental concerns.Wastewater treatment processes concentrate various pollutants such as heavy metals, organic micro-pollutants, and pathogens into sludge. Sludge disposal can thereby result in the release of toxins into the environment and subsequently into the food chain. On the other hand, it has been estimated that depending on technology choice, approximately 30∼60% of sewage treatment plant operating costs are related to sludge treatment activities. Therefore, the management of sewage sludge in an economically and environmentally acceptable way is a matter of increasing importance.Fig. 1 Production of municipal wastewater and dewatered sewage sludge in ChinaAn ideal way to solve the issue of sludge waste is to minimize its production in biological wastewater treatment processes, rather than rely on post-treatment. When mechanical wastewater treatment is used, a diversity of approaches for sewage sludge treatment processes and end use exists, each with different associated costs and environmental impacts. Strategies on end uses of biosolids have traditionally been based on cost, regulatory, environmental, and public acceptance considerations. In recent years, several methods have been used to evaluate their economic and environmental acceptability. Hospido et al considered land application as an acceptable option for anaerobic digested sludge by evaluating environmental and economic costs of threescenarios (land application, incineration, and pyrolysis of dried sludge), but the environmental impact of construction was ignored. Also little detailed economic analysis information is available for other alternative scenarios. Barber used a model comparing the environmental impacts and economic costs of different alternative treatment and disposal scenarios. Nevertheless, the transport costs associated with the full range of biosolids management options were not discussed, which may be one of the limiting factors of sludge land application in China. Few investigations have been reported on the environmental and economic impacts of pyrolysis and gasification scenario, partly due to their high cost and scarce application in practice. Therefore, more detailed papers should be investigated for an overall comparison of different treatment and end use of urban sewage sludge, to determine which combinations are more sustainable.There are 1,258 municipal wastewater treatment plants(WWTPs) in China. The method of sewage sludge disposal is carried out using four processes: 45% of the sludge produced is being utilized in agriculture, 3.5% is being incinerated, 34.5% is landfilled including 3.5% with domestic waste, while 3.5% is used in some other areas (Fig. 2). There are political and economic incentives to increase the agriculture application of sludge since it contains large amounts of organic matter and nutrients, such as N and P. However, the reduced availability of land, increased public comprehension of pathogen risk, the potential for food chain contamination by heavy metals, and the risk of uncertainty surrounding organic micropollutants act to limit sludge land application. Landfill is also decreasing because of technology, economic capacity, and new legislation. Incineration due to significant dry solid volume reduction and energy recovery from the sludge can contribute to a sustainable biosolids strategy, but environmental pollution and the cost should becarefully treated. Other disposal options such as pyrolysis, gasification,combustion,and co-combustion of sewage sludge with other materials and use as an energy source in the production of cement or building materials have been intensively investigated. These processes which can recover energy from sewage sludge will probably become the future trends of development.Fig. 2 Ways of sludge disposal and utilization in China (2010)Based on the above considerations, it can be expected that studies for the treatment of sewage sludge shall focus on the following aspects: safe handling, resource recovery, and low economic costs. In all these respects, the recovery of sustainable energy from sewage sludge will be of obvious importance. Another issue of concern is to reduce toxins in sewage sludge before the final treatment and minimize the negative impacts on human and ecosystem health. The aim of this paper is to discuss the current situation and future outlook for sewage sludge treatment and disposal and estimate the environmental and economic impacts of various options from sewage sludge. It also provides some reference for decision makers to better manage sewage sludge.2 Composition of sewage sludge in ChinaThe composition and characteristics of sewage sludge depend on several factors, such as the origin of the wastewater, the purification treatment of the wastewater, stabilization treatment, time and storage conditions, or the coagulant agents used. Generally, sewage sludge is composed of organic compounds, macronutrients, and a wide range of micronutrients, non-essential trace metals, organic micropollutants, and microorganisms. It should be stated that some parameters are important when considering the ultimate disposal of the processed sludge and energy reuse from the sludge during treatment. Dry matter has an effect on fuel requirements, exhaust gas production at the incineration process, and the cost of sludge transportation. V olatile matter, a measure of the sludge organic content, is the most important parameter regarding the energetic use of sewage sludge. Other factors, such as harmful organic compounds, micropollutants, nutrients, and heavy metal, cannot be neglected. According to Hua et al., polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons have become one of the primary pollutants in sludge of Zhejiang WWTPs instead of heavy metals, which has a great influence on agriculture application of sewage sludge. Emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products, illicit drugs, flame retardants, and perfluorinated compounds should be focused on, due to their endocrine-disrupting properties. N and P are essential resources especially with respect to P. Natural P deposits of sufficient quality are becoming scare, prompting rapid price increase. As a result, large quantities of sludge are applied to farmland. Heavy metal content which is very sensitive to the wastewater source decides whether sewage sludge can be applied to land or not. The threshold value of heavy metal for sludge end use should meet the Pollutants Control Standard of Sludge.3 Sewage sludge treatment process and anaerobic digestionSludge treatment process Biosolids management was divided into categories for sludge treatment and end use, which are likely to be realized by different entities—the wastewater treatment plant and the recipient of treated sludge. Sludge treatment systems generally consist of thickening, dewatering, and several alternative main treatments, such as anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, drying, composting, and incineration, which are critical in determining biosolids quality and post-treatment options. Anaerobic digestion or composting is used to meet regulatory requirement for pathogen and remnant organic materials reduction prior to land application. Although incineration can significantly decrease dry solid volume and effectively attain a 100% reduction of pathogens and viruses, it produces dioxins, furans, and fly ash, as incurring as higher running/operational costs. Drying is a necessary process prior to thermal utilization of sewage sludge. The moisture content should meet standards regulated by Chinese legislation after sludge treatment.Life cycle assessment as an environmental information analysis tool to aid planners in the wastewater treatment plant has been extensively applied to sludge treatment. Hong et al carried out a quantified environmental and economic analysis of six alternative scenarios: dewatering, dewatered sludge composting, dewatered sludge drying, dewatered sludge incineration, incinerated ash melting, and dewatered sludge melting, each with and without digestion. The results show that sewage sludge digestion leads to the lower economic and environmental impacts, while dewatered sludge melting is an environmentally optimal and economically affordable method. Murry et al. did an integrated study, comparing nine alternative treatment schemes and arranged them in order of environmental and economic impacts. They proposed that anaerobic digestion (no lime) is overall the most preferable sludge treatment option whereas incineration, particularly coal-fired, is the most costly. Acommon feature of these methods was the utilization of the resource embodied in sludge; for example, heat drying with compost takes advantage of embodied nutrients, anaerobic digestion, and incineration of sewage sludge takes advantage of embodied energy. Overall, in order to decrease the environmental and economic impacts during sludge treatment, maximizing potential offsets, including the efficiency of the thickening process, energy capture from anaerobic digestion, and the electricity production rate generated from biogas, is required.Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic digestion is considered an essential process in a modern WWTP due to reduction of sludge volume, generation of energy-rich biogas, and production of a nutrient-rich final product. Compared with other technologies, it is the most efficient method to capture energy from biosolids with high water content. Barber reported that the conversion of methane produced from anaerobic digestion to electricity and heat is the main contributor to renewable energy within the WWTP. In the EU, 50% of sewage treatment plants have anaerobic digestion, 18% incorporate aerobic digestion, and 4% lime stabilization, whereas 24% of the plants undertake no sludge stabilization. The same tendency is observed in China, but no detailed available information was reported. However, its application has often been limited by very long retention times and low overall degradation efficiency. In order to increase biodegradability and enhance anaerobic digestion with lower retention time and higher biogas production, various sludge pretreatment techniques have been applied in sludge digestion. These processes include biological (largely thermal phased anaerobic), thermal hydrolysis, mechanical (such as ultrasound, high pressure and lysis), chemical with oxidation (mainly ozonation), alkali, and combined pretreatment.Currently, combined sludge digestion with other processes to achieve maximum utilization has attracted more and more attention. Using energy released by microbial decomposition to complete water evaporation in the process of biological drying is a promising method for dewatering sludge. There are some advantages in this process such as low-cost and energy consumption since no fossil fuel is depleted in such systems. Moreover, CO2 emission can also be significantly reduced, while the remaining sludge can be converted into amino acid salt with a content of 90% amino acid after acidification. An effective project like this has already been applied in Qinhuangdao City, China.4 Ways of sludge disposal and utilization4.1 Main disposal methods in ChinaLandfill Landfill is economical and low energy consumption due to its low-technology processes. However, it is a significant source of CH4and N2O, which are greenhouse gases with a high global warming potential. Leachate containing P and heavy metal can threaten surface and ground waters, and none of the nutrient or energy content is recovered from landfill. Biosolid management technologies for very small towns, with limited technical and financial resources, may justifiably consider investing in biofiltration or methane trapping and flaring at their local landfill.Land application Land application of sewage sludge has a great incentive in view of its fertility and soil conditioning properties. It has been shown that the use of sewage sludge derived soil amendments can improve soil physical properties, such as porosity, aggregate stability, bulk density, water retention and movement, and sequester carbon in the soil, thereby reducing atmospheric CO2content and global warming potential. The environmental offset in electricity and fuel consumption is also great when sludge is usedin place of synthetic fertilizers.Land application of sewage sludge is convenient and low requirements. Various stabilized biosolids such as slurry, dewatered cake, and dried pellets can be applied to land. However, sludge utilization can be limited due to its heavy metal, organic micropollutants, and pathogen content. Heavy metal concentrations depending on the relative contributor of industrial wastewaters to the overall flow can be decreased from sludge via source control. Pathogens are removed by pretreatment such as thermophilic anaerobic digestion, or composting.Land application is available only when the sludge quality meets the local criteria with respect to pathogens and heavy metal content. In addition, the doses and rates of sludge application should also be carefully considered. Reports show that excessive application of sludge has increased the bioavailability of heavy metals, which might pose a serious risk to human health. While long-term application of sewage sludge can result in leaching of P and heavy metals, the risks of which are greater than the transfer of heavy metals into plant tissue and the food chain in the case of crops.In addition, recovery of N and P should also be taken seriously. It is generally accepted that with the rapid urbanization in China, increasing amounts of N and P are entering the cities through food consumption. It is estimated that N and P contained in urban sewage sludge were 31,500 and 23,600 tons, respectively, in 2009. With increasing urbanization, the improvement of sewage treatment systems and nutrient use efficiency in food production systems, it is anticipated that nutrients contained in the urban waste stream are likely to increase dramatically in China in the next 10–20 years. Although the absolute amounts of N and P in sewage sludge are not great as compared to chemical fertilizersapplied to agricultural land in China, their emission to the environment will have serious impacts on water quality and ecosystem health. P, as a nonrenewable resource, is becoming depleted, and production of P fertilizer is increasingly more expensive, thus threatening food security globally. Therefore, recovery of nutrients from sewage sludge in a sustainable way is becoming an important challenge for environmental engineers.4.2 Thermochemical processes for sludgeIncineration Incineration of sewage sludge is a process in which its organic matter is completely transformed into CO2 and H2O under high-temperature and aerobic conditions, while inorganic compounds remain in the ash. It is an effective way to dispose of sludge with advantages such as large reduction of sludge volume, thermal destruction of toxic organic compounds, and minimization of odor generation. The final sludge volume after incineration is approximately 10% of that after mechanical dewatering. The energy produced in the incineration process can be used for drying the mechanically dewatered sludge cake prior to the incineration process or can be used for the production of electricity. The amount of energy produced strongly depends upon the water content of the sludge and performance of the incineration.Incineration as an attractive disposal method has been applied worldwide. For example, the amount of sludge being incinerated in Denmark has already reached 24% of the sludge produced, 20% in France, 15% in Belgium, and 14% in Germany, while in USA and Japan the percentage has increased to 25% and 55%, respectively. The main problems for combustion of sludge are high running cost and environmental impacts. Environmental problems relate to the accumulation of heavy metals in ashes and exhaust gases to the atmosphere. The former can be solved by using incineration ash as raw materials in cementmanufacturing, during which process heavy metals are immobilized in cement. Exhaust gases consist of dioxins, furans, and other pollutants (CO2, NO x, N2O, and SO x). Emissions of dioxins and furans are not generally a problem if temperatures above 600°C are kept and flue gases are rapidly cooled below 400°C. N2O can effectively be eliminated by increasing the combustion temperature to 880°C. Addition facilities such as electrostatic precipitators, wet scrubber system, etc. are also needed to comply with the strict exhaust gas emission standards. Large investment for the purification of flue gases may raise social objections.Co-combustion of sewage sludge with other natural resources (coal, lignite, or wood) or municipal solid waste is also an alternative method for the management of sewage sludge. Environmentally and economically, technology scenarios for co-combusting of biosolids meet Waste Incineration Directive emission criteria and provide a net energy gain, but absence of policy and legal clarity, supply chain insecurity, and market immaturity hinder the development of co-combustion.Incineration is suitable for cities; for example, Hangzhou has switched to incineration as the preferred option in sewage management, where land is very valuable. To avoid the high operation cost for sludge incineration and also to improve the energy recovery efficiency, exploiting new types of sewage sludge incinerators, implementation of a combined heat and power production unit at incineration plants, and the use of the polluted drying gas in the incineration process are feasible. It is expected that incineration will play an increasingly important role in sewage management in China in the coming decade. Pyrolysis Pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition of organic substances in the absence of air or in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere. The products of pyrolysis are biogas (noncondensable), bio-oil (condensable volatiles), and carbonaceous bio-char residue all of which have a potential end use and can be maximized by modulating the process conditions. Compared to incineration, pyrolysis has some potential advantages. One advantage is that the conversion of the combustible gases into electrical power can be achieved more efficiently.In addition, the formation and emission of toxic organic compounds, such as dioxins, NO x, and SO x, can be avoided in pyrolysis with low oxygen concentration.Using steam pyrolysis to treat sludge is currently a practice being conducted in China, for example, in the city of Shenzhen. After treatment, the moisture content of sludge is reduced from 80% to 50%, resulting in the final sludge volume decreasing by 60%. During this process, pathogen and odor can be thoroughly removed. The treatment sludge can be made into organic fertilizer, which can be used for horticulture and forestry cultivation. It is a proof of concept for the sustainable development of the circular economy.Other technologies, such as production of bio-oil from the pyrolysis of sewage sludge, have attracted attention due to the non-renewable nature and the increasing price of fossil fuel. Because the mechanism of such a process is complex, many parameters such as temperature, sewage sludge types, retention time, and the catalysts used affect bio-oil production. Literature concerning the production of bio-oil from sludge has demonstrated that the temperature and volatile solid content were the primary factors affecting oil and char yields. The maximum oil yield was achieved with primary sludge at 500°C, and the optimum pyrolysis temperature for waste activated sludge was 400°C. It is also stated that the optimal pyrolysis temperature for bio-oil production is 450°C. Experimental studies on pyrolysis liquids obtained from different sewage sludge have come to very interestingconclusions: High sewage sludge ash content favored the decrease in the char yield and the generation of nonvolatile gases, while the sewage sludge with less content of oxygen-containing compounds would favor the quality of the pyrolysis liquids. It elucidates some recommendable characteristics in order to use sewage sludge as pyrolysis feedstock. Metal oxide catalysts can have different influence on pyrolysis. The presence of Fe2O3 and ZnO probably inhibited the decomposition of organic matters in demineralized sludge samples to generate more solid residues, while Al2O3,CaO,and TiO2 promoted the degradation of organic matters to produce less solid residues. Al2O3 and TiO2 may decrease pyrolysis time, while CaO, Fe2O3, and ZnO may prolong pyrolysis time. It is therefore important to formulate optimal catalysts for such systems.However, the acceptance of this technology may be limited by the low economic value of the product, as well as the relative complexity of the processing equipments. The economic viability of pyrolysis may be improved if the yield of oil were enhanced or if value-added products such as adsorbents could be produced from the pyrolysis chars.5 PerspectivesThis paper reviews present and future directions of sewage sludge management in China. Up until now, most of the sewage sludge produced in the process of wastewater treatment has been used in agriculture or disposed of in landfills, or via incineration. Sewage sludge is rich in resources including nutrients and energy. Given the vast population and rapid urbanization in China, sewage sludge represents a major issue in environment and resource management. To resolve this issue, we propose that a holistic approach should be taken to manage sewage sludge in China, and future research and commercialization should focus on the following aspects:• Life-cycle analysis of food and water consumption in urbanized regions to provide a full account of nutrient flow within urban ecosystems and to calculate the value of sewage sludge within a given boundary/region• Diverse resource recovery systems (for nutrients, bioenergy, and raw substances for building materials) should be developed and applied for sewage sludge management, and in many cases, these systems should be integrated and optimized depending on the quality of sewage sludge and the scale of the region producing sewage sludge. Cost–benefit analysis should also be conducted so that the best technology available can be selected for different scenarios• Novel and environmentally friendly materials derived from sewage sludge, such as PHA, are appealing, and the potential of different bacterial species and recombinant strains should be explored further in the context of increased PHA yield and productivity• For sustainable management of sewage sludge, frameworks for risk assessment should be developed for different options of resource recovery, and the risks should be communicated to the public• New energy policies and regulations such as the climate change levy and enforcing source control to municipal sewers are critical in determining the sustainability of the future in sludge management。

外文文献及翻译A brief introduction of AT89S522.Pin Description2.1 VCC: Supply voltage.2.2 GND: Ground.2.3 Port 0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification.2.4 Port 1: Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pulled-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table.Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming andoutput buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (I IL) Because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOBX@DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX@RI),Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.2.6 Port 3: Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shownrunning resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.2.8 ALE/PROG: Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the programpulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 or SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.2.9 PSEN: Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.2.10 EA/VPP: External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will beinternally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.2.11 XTAL1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.2.12 XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.3.Memory OrganizationMCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data Memory. Up to 64K bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed.3.1 Program MemoryIf the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to external memory. On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program fetches to addresses 0000H through 1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses 2000H through FFFFH are to external memory.3.2 Data MemoryThe AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes occupy a parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. This means that the upper 128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from SFR space. When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address mode used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions which use direct addressing access the SFR space. For example, the following direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at location 0A0H (which is P2).MOV 0A0H, #dataInstructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For example, the following indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses the data byte at address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose address is 0A0H).MOV @R0, #dataNote that stack operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper 128 bytes of data RAM are available as stack space.4.Watchdog Timer (One-time Enabled with Reset-out)The WDT is intended as a recovery method in situations where the CPU may be subjected to software upsets. The WDT consists of a 14-bit counter and the Watchdog Timer Reset (WDTRST) SFR. The WDT is defaulted to disable from exiting reset. To enable the WDT, a user must write 01EH and 0E1H in sequence to the WDTRST register (SFR location 0A6H). When the WDT is enabled, it will increment every machine cycle while the oscillator is running. The WDT timeout period is dependent on the external clock frequency. There is no way to disable the WDT except though reset (either hardware reset or WDT overflow reset). When WDT overflows, it will drive an output RESET HIGH pulse at the RST pin.5.UARTThe UART in the AT89S52 operates the same way as the UART in the AT89C51and AT89C52. For further information on the UART operation, please click on the document link below:/dyn/resources/prod_documents/DOC4316.PDF6.Timer 0 and 1Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89S52 operate the same way as Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89C51 and AT89C52. For further information on the timers’operation, please click on the document link below:/dyn/resources/prod_documents/DOC4316.PDF7.Timer 2Timer 2 is a 16-bit Timer/Counter that can operate as either a timer or an event counter. The type of operation is selected by bit C/T2in the SFR T2CON. Timer 2 has three operating modes: capture, auto-reload (up or down counting), and baud rate generator. The modes are selected by bits in T2CON, as shown in Table 6-1. Timer 2 consists of two 8-bit registers, TH2 and TL2. In the Timer function, the TL2 register is incremented every machine cycle. Since a machine cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscillator frequency.transition at its corresponding external input pin, T2. In this function, the external input is sampled during S5P2 of every machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one cycle and a low in the next cycle, the count is incremented. The new count value appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle following the one in which the transition was detected. Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator frequency. To ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes, the level should be held for at least one full machine cycle.7.1 Capture ModeIn the capture mode, two options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2=0, Timer 2 is a 16-bit timer or counter which upon overflow sets bit TF2 in T2CON. This bit can then be used to generate an interrupt. If EXEN2=1, Timer 2 performs the same operation, but a 1-to-0 transition at external input T2EX also causes the current value in TH2 and TL2 to be captured into RCAP2H and RCAP2L, respectively. In addition, the transition at T2EX causes bit EXF2 in T2CON to be set. The EXF2 bit, like TF2, can generate an interrupt.7.2 Auto-reload (Up or Down Counter)Timer 2 can be programmed to count up or down when configured in its 16-bit auto-reload mode. This feature is invoked by the DCEN (Down Counter Enable) bitlocated in the SFR T2MOD. Upon reset, the DCEN bit is set to 0 so that timer 2 will default to count up. When DCEN is set, Timer 2 can count up or down, depending on the value of the T2EX pin. Timer 2 automatically counting up when DCEN=0. In this mode, two options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2=0, Timer 2 counts up to 0FFFFH and then sets the TF2 bit upon overflow. The overflow also causes the timer registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The values in Timer in Capture Mode RCAP2H and RCAP2L are preset by software. If EXEN2=1, a 16-bit reload can be triggered either by an overflow or by a 1-to-0 transition at external input T2EX. This transition also sets the EXF2 bit. Both the TF2 and EXF2 bits can generate an interrupt if enabled. Setting the DCEN bit enables Timer 2 to count up or down, as shown in Figure 10-2. In this mode, the T2EX pin controls the direction of the count. A logic 1 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count up. The timer will overflow at 0FFFFH and set the TF2 bit. This overflow also causes the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and RCAP2L to be reloaded into the timer registers, TH2 and TL2, respectively. A logic 0 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count down. The timer underflows when TH2 and TL2 equal the values stored in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The underflow sets the TF2 bit and causes 0FFFFH to be reloaded into the timer registers. The EXF2 bit toggles whenever Timer 2 overflows or underflows and can be used as a 17th bit of resolution. In the operating mode, EXF2 does not flag an interrupt.8.Baud Rate GeneratorTimer 2 is selected as the baud rate generator by setting TCLK and/or RCLK in T2CON. Note that the baud rates for transmit and receive can be different if Timer 2 is used for the receiver or transmitter and Timer 1 is used for the other function. Setting RCLK and/or TCLK puts Timer 2 into its baud rate generator mode. The baud rate generator mode is similar to the auto-reload mode, in that a rollover in TH2 causes the Timer 2 registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in registers RCAP2H and RCAP2L, which are preset by software. The baud rates in Modes 1 and 3 are determined by Timer 2’s overflow rate according to the following equation. Modes 1 and 3 Baud Rates=Timer 2 Overflow Rate 16The Timer can be configured for either timer or counter operation. In most applications, it is configured for timer operation (CP/T2=0). The timer operation is different for Timer 2 when it is used as a baud rate generator. Normally, as a timer, it increments every machine cycle (at 1/12 the oscillator frequency). As a baud rate generator, however, it increments every state time (at 1/2 the oscillator frequency). The baud rate formula is given below.[]Modes 1 and 3Oscillator Frequency Baud Rate 3265536RCAP2H,RCAP2L =⨯- Where (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the content of RCAP2H and RCAP2L taken as a 16-bit unsigned integer.This figure is valid only if RCLK or TCLK=1 in T2CON. Note that a rollover inTH2 does not set TF2 and will not generate an interrupt. Note too, that if EXEN2 is set, a 1-to-0 transition in T2EX will set EXF2 but will not cause a reload from (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) to (TH2, TL2). Thus, when Timer 2 is in use as a baud rate generator, T2EX can be used as an extra external interrupt. Note that when Timer 2 is running (TR2=1) as a timer in the baud rate generator mode, TH2 and TL2 should not be read from or written to. Under these conditions, the Timer is incremented every state time, and the results of a read or write may not be accurate. The RCAP2 registers may be read but should not be written to, because a write might overlap a reload and cause write and/or reload errors. The timer should be turned off (clear TR2) before accessing the Timer 2 or RCAP2 registers.9.InterruptsThe AT89S52 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0 and INT1), three timer interrupts (Timers 0,1 and 2), and the serial port interrupt. Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing a bit in Special Function Register IE. IE also contains a global disable bit, EA, which disables all interrupts at once. Note that bit position IE.6 is unimplemented. User software should not write a 1 to this bit position, since it may be used in future AT89 products. Timer 2 interrupt is generated by the logical OR of bits TF2 and EXF2 in register T2CON. Neither of these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine is vectored to. In fact, the service routine may have to determine whether it was TF2 or EXF2 that generated the interrupt, and that bit will have to be cleared in software. The Timer 0 and Timer 1 flags, TF0 and TF1, are set at S5P2 of the cycle in which the timers overflow. The values are then polled by the circuitry in the next cycle. However, the Timer 2 flag, TF2, is set at S2P2 and is polled in the same cycle in which the timer overflows.10.Oscillator CharacteristicsXTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.AT89S52单片机简介2.引脚功能2.1 VCC：电源2.2 GND：接地2.3 P0：P0口是一个8位开路漏极双向I/O口。

五分钟搞定5000字－外文文献翻译工具大全/node/2151建议收藏在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。

由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手"。

具体操作过程如下：1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献；2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了；3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。

另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。

注：1、Google翻译：/language_toolsgoogle，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。

我利用它是这样的。

一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。

回到我自己说的翻译上来。

下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。

在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。

大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。