学号： 10415104
常州大学
毕业设计（论文）外文翻译
（2014届）
外文题目Application of a combined UF/RO system for the
reuse of filter backwash water from treated swimming
pool water
译文题目混合超滤/反渗透系统在游泳池水处理的反冲洗水
回用中的应用
外文出处Desalination 178(2005) 41—49
学生龙瑞娜
学院环境与安全工程学院专业班级给水101班
校内指导教师张凤娥专业技术职务教授
校外指导老师专业技术职务
二○一四年一月
混合超滤/反渗透系统在游泳池水处理的反冲洗水回用中的应用Florian G. ReiBmann a*, Eva Schulze b, Volker Albrecht b
"Institute for Urban Water Management, Dresden University of Technology, D-O1062
Dresden, Germany
Tel. +49 (351) 463-34687; Fax +49 (351) 463-37204; email:
Florian.Reissmann@mailbox.tu-dresden.de bWassertechniseher Anlagenbau Plauen GmbH, Re~iger Gewerbering I1, D-08525 Plauen,
Germany
Received 15 October 2004; accepted 22 November 2004
摘要：
由于超滤、反渗透相结合的处理工艺的全面应用，把处理过的游泳池水重用作过滤器反冲洗水是有效的。超滤处理表明滤料的缩小是十分重要的。浊度值从5-25FNU下降至0.02FNU。在这项研究中被调查的设备，90分钟就能实现过滤。根据这样的结构，超滤设备达到了97％以上的效率。为了避免盐和溶解的化合物浓度的增加，多达三分之一的超滤滤液直接用于反冲洗设备。结果，据观察，游泳池水质没有恶化，特别是消毒副产物的浓度没有增加。成本比较显示，每年可节约的费用取决于膜的预期使用寿命。如果膜的预计使用年限超过7年，每年的节省将可能超过4300欧元。对于直接排放浓度的阈值，悬浮固体浓度，可吸附有机卤化物以及化学需氧量的浓度，也有特别的作用。关键词：游泳池水处理，过滤反冲洗废水，中水回用，超滤，反渗透
1.引言：
把不同用途的水回收使用变得更加重要。水资源短缺和干旱的严重威胁并不只限于发展中国家。即使在像德国这样的国家，供水厂和企业为满足未来用水需求，扩大水的循环使用将成为一种可能的选择的，这种公司的数量也越来越多。伴随着许多改进的设计和技术，膜处理为水的重复使用提供了许多优势。
来自饮用水生产的过滤反冲洗水的重复使用，目前被认为受到越来越多水供应商的亲睐。在过去，过滤反冲洗水经常被排放到污水理厂，导致升高了排放费用也加大了原水或饮用水的消耗。不同的试验点和大规模的工厂证明了对重复使用的过滤反冲洗水进行超滤处理的可能性[1,2]。在许多情况下，通过对些废水进行膜处理，可以有效的降低排放费用[3]。此外，应用膜处理技术处理过滤反冲洗水和回用水，最近被越来越多的用于游泳池中[4,5]。像砂滤或者超滤与氧化工艺结合这样不同的处理组合，可能而且能够被用到游泳池的循环用水系统中[6]。
但是，水质不能因为游泳池的循环用水系统而受到影响。在德国，在DIN19643标准当中[7]，水质要求和可能的处理组合都要考虑。水质方面，尤其是包括限制参数，如三氯甲烷（THM，0.02 mg /l ），余氯（0.3-0.6mg/l），或微生物污染物[总数（HPCS），菌胶团，大肠埃希氏菌，假单胞菌属）]等消毒副产物。另外，还有一种特殊的要求是，为了达到稳定的水质每人每天至少30升的补充水量。如果要回收不同的水量，例如过
滤回水，游泳池水质不恶化是应该的。
在这项研究中，效果SFBW重复使用使用池水联合超滤和反渗透工艺DIN19643质量特别考虑到影响。此外，实验包括调查膜性能，illtrate水质和浓缩处理。
废水过滤会用水的效果使用了一个把超滤和反渗透工艺相结合的工艺，在游泳池，关于DIN 19643的质量被调查了。另外，实验包括膜性能调查，水中杂质过滤，和浓缩处理。
2.材料与方法
在这项研究中，最大容量为2.5立方米/小时超滤设备，被安装在齐尔恩多夫市的（巴伐利亚州）现有的一个游泳池中。现存的传统工艺和过滤回水处理概况如图1所示。
图1. 齐尔恩多夫市游泳池水的处理流程
来自不同游泳池的循环用水通过传统的混凝和絮凝处理，然后通过随后的直接过滤过程。在这项研究中的游泳池的调查中，双介质的砂滤器有粒状活性炭和沙子。将滤液用次氯酸钠消毒并回到池中。根据客人的数量以及过滤器的1-5天的运行时间。平均每天处理35.2-37.9立方米的水，反冲洗后的砂滤器，过滤反冲洗水直接进入一个容量为43立方米的沉淀池。经过0.5到2小时沉淀后，澄清过滤反冲洗水直接用泵送至超滤设备。污泥送至下水道。
为了使联合膜过滤装置能够稳定的运行，一个带有45平方米的有效膜超滤装置就足够了。在研究中的超滤设备是一个已获专利的德国“多底”结构的组件。这种膜模型的一个结构结合了7个单毛细血管。其结果是，提高了膜的稳定性，并降低纤维断裂的可能性。聚醚砜膜的分子质量减少了100KD[8]。流道空的直径为0.8毫米的纤维，以恒定2立方米/小时的连续流流动。
实验以至少2小时沉淀和10到15分钟的过滤开始，因为反冲洗回水的有效过滤时间是短的，所以澄清阶段缩短到30分钟。在研究中过滤阶段的最大需要时间是90分钟。进行反洗的膜从滤液渗透贮槽的反冲洗水流量为150L /（m2.h）。为了保证恒定的流速，
化学处理在每个反冲洗区间使用次氯酸钠进行处理。
过滤设备的滤液用NaOCl消毒，随后的处理液收集在一个滤液体积为1.6立方米的储罐，作为膜冲洗泵的填料。随后，将滤液分为两部分。第一个流入反渗透设备，而另一部分是直接回到游泳池。反渗透设备用于减少溶解的化合物。因为水的循环作用，像盐或DOC等化合物的溶解浓度的不断增加可在游泳池观察到。因此，要应用一个处理步骤来减少这种化合物。反渗透是一种为减少溶解化合物的行之有效的方法。约三分之一（700至1100升/小时）滤液直接到反渗透处理系统。由于反渗透膜不能耐氯，反渗透系统之前必须安装填充有颗粒的过滤器活性炭。几分钟的接触时间就足够催化反应余氯。
除了连续记录膜的性能参数（TMP和焊剂，浊度），采取填料中的样品，滤料，集中浓缩并进行TSS，金属和有机物和参数（DOC和紫外线的254nm波长处的吸光度）的分析。UV吸光度是一个估计存在复杂的化学化合物的有用的参数。特别是波长为254 nm吸收共轭碳双键链接和已知芳环的光。特别的，UV吸收光（SUV A）从DOC和提供现存基础组织信息UV A计算到。基础信息则在分析水样中有机物的性质的中。微生物调查包括羟丙基纤维素的分析，以及在滤料中的假单胞菌，总大肠菌群和大肠埃希氏菌。
3.结果与讨论
3.1膜性能
在实验过程中，观察到膜的性能（通量，TMP和磁导率）无显著变化。由于实验已进行了3个月，在图2典型的超滤膜性能经营期参数超过约24小时作为一个例子。在其他实验期间得到相似的结果。
在低于200毫巴的非常低的TMP要保证64L/ （m2.h ）的稳定的流量。20 ° C的正常渗透率在高于330 L/ （m2.h.bar ），这表明膜的性能良好。由于在过滤过程中10-15分钟的期间增加的TMP几乎可以忽略，过滤时间增至90分钟时，如图所示2所示。
在一个特殊的试验时期，间隔使用NaOCl的化学清洗是为了达到一个稳定的渗透性,并且使滤液不受任何微生物污染。结果这些实验表明几乎恒定的TMP，即使没有NaOCl的增加也能进行膜的反冲洗。相反，在滤液中被发现一个微生物污染（高羟丙基纤维素和假单胞菌），表明无任何化学品的使用，标准滤液反洗消毒不足以抑制微生物再生长。在表1的例子中，显示了取样的三个微生物的结果。
结果表明，对反冲洗装置的初步的消毒是不够的，并在10/23/03 ，滤液中仍然含有高浓度的高羟丙基纤维素和假单胞菌。改变化学消毒的剂型点，进行延长消毒，完整的冲洗超滤系统，特别考虑到管道的安装后，在以下抽样调查过程中（如表1所示，只有两个抽样）没有更多的微生物污染被发现。此外，滤液存储槽中没有发现微生物污染，这表明没有发生微生物再生长。最后，45分钟过滤期间和化学净化的滤膜在每一秒的反冲洗时，一个稳定的通透性，以及滤液没有受到任何微生物的污染。由于微生物的分解，就满足了德国DIN 19643准则，滤液可以返回到池中并且水质没有受到任何影响。
图2 运行大约四周后主要膜性能参数典型控制
表1.微生物分析
3.2 去除率
过滤回水经过超滤处理后，滤液中的浊度值从5和25 FNU之间下降到低于进料0.02 FNU，表明颗粒物几乎完全去除。为了提供优质的游泳池水，增加消毒剂是必要的。在大多数情况下，使用氯气对池水进行消毒。由于化学消毒剂的作用而产生的消毒副产物的量，如氯的量受水中有机物量的影响。在提供良好的游泳池水质中有机化合物的减少起着关键作用。在图3中显示了进水中（SFBW），在超滤处理后的过滤水中，以及随后使用NaOCl消毒过的水中的重要的有机物的总参数。
与此相反，颗粒物通过超滤处理，有机化合物的更低的去除率是能够实现的。平均来说，只有最多约11％的DOC能够恢复。这些值与在其他处理来自饮用水生产的过滤回水处理实验中的值是非常相似的[2]。与此相反，在超滤处理以及随后的氯消毒后UV A254（波长是254nm的紫外线）值增加约10％。表明有机化合物的芳香性增加了。
通过加氯消毒，有机化合物的结构发生显著地改变。简单的有机化合物，其特征在于低UV A254值，如多糖的氧化物和更复杂的有机化合物的生成，导致UV A254值升高。然而，计算的SUV A（紫外吸光度）值从0.39到0.481 /（m.*mg）呈小幅增加，并且这些发现已经被证实。虽然在填料中的SUV A（紫外吸光度）值水平以及在滤液中是非常低的，有机化合物的结构的清晰的转变表明这些化合物芳香性的增加。因此，如果水是循环多次的，连续增加芳香性和有机物腐殖质是必须要考虑的。然而，迄今还没有被观察到游泳池水质受到负面影响。
除了增加UV A254（波长是254nm的紫外线）和相应的SUV A（紫外吸光度）值，测量消毒副产物THM（三氯甲烷）的浓度从0.005到0.007毫克/升同比增长40％。但是，THM（三氯甲烷）浓度低于德国DIN19643标准，该标准为0.02毫克/升，结果，过滤水的质量应该不会影响游泳池水质。
图3 在超滤处理前后有机物聚集参数比较
3.3 成本效益
考虑到过滤回水超滤/反渗透联合处理的成本，排放费用显著降低，对饮用水供应费用降低的实现具有重大意义。此外，用于饮用水加热的能量消耗要低得多。在表2中对Zirndorf（齐尔恩多夫市）游泳池的预期成本与反冲洗水回收系统进行了比较。
可以看出，每年约9,500立方米的水可以被重复使用。基于废水排放的平均费用和饮用水供应的成本，通过联合超滤反冲洗设备使每年降低成本23750英镑似乎是可能的。此外，每年可节约能耗估计约7,300英镑。
与此相反，设备安装的费用以及运营的成本需要考虑。对联合超滤/ 反冲洗设备的投资成本估计约90,000英镑。运营成本的计算公式为：
?化学品（用于反渗透设备的NaOCl和反渗透阻垢剂）：每年3,800英镑
?能源成本（例如，泵）：每年5,600英镑
?进行监督检查成本：每年3300英镑
基于这些计算，每年联合膜设备的成本可以决定下来，并且与现有的没有回水修复系统的成本比较。在图4，每年的预期成本就取决于这两种情况下设备的使用寿命。
表2.废水处理，饮用水，加热的联合超滤渗透反冲洗系统的费用降低
图4 有废水回收系统以及没有废水回收系统的成本比较可以清楚地看出，预期寿命在5年以上，应用联合超滤/反渗透设备的成本都低于无需反冲洗水回收系统的操作成本。由进一步优化，减少这个使用时间估计能够在设备使用7年之后带来4.300英镑的节约。然而，观察到膜的寿命约在5到7年，甚至更高的年限，这将影响成本发生显著变化。
3.4 浓缩处理
在超滤处理过程中由几乎完全恢复所引起的，颗粒物固体悬浮物的聚集，化学耗氧量（COD）和吸附的有机卤化物（AOX）是非常的聚集。如果要将浓缩物排到污水管道系统，在许多情况下，是违反规章制度的，因为他们往往是有浓度要求的。在案例研究中，过滤回水直接排放到下水道，是未来最可行的处置浓缩物的方案。其结果是，德国联邦以及接收废水公用事业，监管本地指令需要加以考虑。在表3中对重要的阈值和过滤回水直接排放浓度进行了比较。浓缩的值是来自反冲洗超滤膜后的回水的最大样本并没且没有NaOCl。
从该表中可以清楚地看出，应用超滤处理后，集中浓度达到被认为是过滤回水直接排放的阀值。固体悬浮物，COD和AOX等参数似乎是最重要的，因为他们超过阈值有二到七个因素。但是，这些值的呈现仅仅在超滤浓缩时才集中。此外，过滤回水30％
来自砂滤，并不是直接排放到超滤设备，并仍然在过滤回水容器内。在原来的过滤回水中AOX的浓度分析在0.09ml/ l 。整个齐尔恩多夫市游泳池处于AOX的最大平衡，排出的废水中AOX浓度可以计算出为0.17ml/ l 。其结果是，可以满足规定阈值，并且排放废水到污水处理厂是可能的。为了减少悬浮固体和COD ，游泳池操作者和废水污水处理厂运营商的特殊协商是必要的。
表3.浓缩分析
4.结论
联合超滤反渗透处理来自处理游泳池的过滤回水，是一个合适的环保的游泳池水重复利用的方法。基于一个全面的研究，对膜性能和游泳池水质过滤回水的重复使用，废水的处理进行了调查。
过滤回水的超滤处理有许多优势。高品质的滤液，可以很容易地返回到游泳池并且没有任何安全隐患。该项研究的结果表示由于超滤处理几乎完全去除了颗粒物质。由于水温高的作用，可以实现大流量，实现一个高超的膜处理。特别考虑到防止滤液中微生物的污染，进行化学处理是必要的。反冲洗是为了减少盐或DOC这样的溶解化合物。大约三分之一的超滤滤液被反冲洗，结果，观察到并没有污染游泳池水质。
结果TSS，COD ，AOX在超滤设备里积累，德国联邦接收污水公用事业监管的各自的阈值的不能达到，浓缩物排入下水道，将受到额外收费，或必须考虑替代处置方案。然而，随着不断维修和工厂的监督，渗透要求根据现行的法规和洗澡标准生成。另外，通过减少废水量，可以使水的处理费用，以及给游泳池供水的饮用水的费用降低成为可能。基于膜的大约为7年的预计使用年限，的不变能源，水和废水成本，每年节约超过4300英镑似乎是可能的。
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[8] Inge AG, Information material inge ag, 2003. http://www.inge.ag (visited 09/30/2004).
[9] C. Wolf, C. Triilzsch, I. Frank and H. Wingrich, Removal of NOM for the minimisation of disinfection by-products using NF/RO systems – a case study. Proc. Membranes in Drinking and Industrial Water Production, Mfihtheim, Germany, 2002.
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译 Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails
Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. （Sales Promotion;E--Marketing；Internet；Strategic Planning ） 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies；More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.
Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf17286315.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>
Strategic transformations in Danish and Swedish big business in an era of globalisation, 1973-2008 The Danish and Swedish context In the difficult inter-war period, a state-supported, protected home market orientation had helped stabilise both Denmark’s and Sweden’s economies, but after WorldWar II priorities changed. Gradually and in accordance with the international economic development, restrictions on foreign trade were removed, and Danish and Swedish industry was exposed to international competition. As a consequence, several home market oriented industries –such as the textile and the shoe industry –were more or less outperformed, while in Sweden the engineering industry soon became the dominant leader of Swedish industry, with companies such as V olvo, Ericsson, Electrolux, ASEA and SKF. In the Danish case, the SMEs continued to be dominant but in combination with expanding export oriented industrial manufacturers such as Lego, Danfoss, Carlsberg and the shipping conglomerates ok and A.P. moller-Marsk. In Sweden and Denmark stable economic growth continued into the 1970s, but due to the problems during the oil crises, the economies came into fundamental structural troubles for the first time since World War II. In the beginning this was counteracted by traditional Keynesian policy measures. However, because of large budget deficits, inflation and increasing wages, both the Danish economy from 1974 and the Swedish economy from 1976 encountered severe problems. Towards the late 1970s Denmark’s and Sweden’s economic policies were thus increasingly questioned. It was clear that Keynesian policy could not solve all economic problems. Expansive fiscal policies in terms of continued deficits on the state budget could not compensate for the loss of both national and international markets and step by step the Keynesian economic policy was abandoned. The increased budget deficit also made it difficult for the state to support employment and regional development. These kinds of heavy governmental activities were also hardly acceptable under the more market oriented policy that developed first in Great Britain and the USA, but in the 1980s also in Denmark and Sweden (Iversen & Andersen, 2008, pp. 313–315; Sjo¨ gren, 2008, pp. 46–54). These changes in political priorities were especially noticeable in the financial market. After being the most state regulated and coordinated sector of the economy since the 1950s, then between 1980 and 1985 the Danish and Swedish financial markets underwent an extensive deregulation resulting in increased competition. Lending from banks and other credit institutes was no longer regulated, and neither were interest rates. The bond market was also opened as the issuance of new bond loans was deregulated in Sweden in 1983. When the control of foreign capital flows was liberalised in the late 1980s the last extraordinary restriction was now gone. Together with the establishment of the new money market with options and derivates, this opened up to a much larger credit market and the possibility for companies to finance investments and increase business domestically as well as abroad (Larsson, 1998, pp. 205–207). Another important part of the regulatory changes in the early 1980s were new rules for the Copenhagen and Stockholm stock exchanges. Introduction on the stock exchange was made much
原文来源：李海宏《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》[A].2012中国旅游分销高峰论坛.[C].上海 Marketing Customer Satisfaction 顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 Since the 20th century, since the late eighties, the customer satisfaction strategy is increasingly becoming business has more customers share the overall business competitive advantage means. 自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 First, customer satisfaction strategy is to get a modern enterprise customers, "money votes" magic weapon 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝 With the changing times, the great abundance of material wealth of society, customers in the main --- consumer demand across the material has a lack of time, the number of times the pursuit, the pursuit of quality time to the eighties of the 20th century entered the era of the end consumer sentiment. In China, with rapid economic development, we have rapidly beyond the physical absence of the times, the pursuit of the number of times and even the pursuit of quality and age of emotions today gradually into the consumer era. Spending time in the emotion, the company's similar products have already reached the same time, homogeneous, with the energy, the same price, consumers are no longer pursue the quality, functionality and price, but the comfort, convenience, safety, comfort, speed, jump action, environmental protection, clean, happy,
毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄
最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间，工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先，越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关，甚至变得更加活跃：他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作，同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而，这里是机构间差异较大。例如，环境报告的数量变化，每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间，结果是不那么容易诠释。第一，活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的：一些最高审计机关进入，而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二，但是，审计报告数量略有下降，1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变（1994-1996年，20％的规律性审计和44％绩效审计;1997-1999：16％规律性审计和绩效审计54％）。在一般情况下，绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来，再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年，有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年，这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然，这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯，可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来，少数环境审计是规律性审计（560篇报告中有87篇，占16％）。大多数审计绩效审计（560篇报告中有304篇，占54％），或组合的规律性和绩效审计（560篇报告中有169篇，占30％）。如前文所述，绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中，绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施（560篇报告中有264篇，占47％），符合国家环保法律，法规的，由政府部门，部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问（560篇报告中有212篇，占38％）。此外，审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统（560篇报告中有156篇，占28％）。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告：影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10％至20％。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自：S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721
外文翻译 原文 Foreign T rade o f China Material Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka 1.Introduction On December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing: ?In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44% ?In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1 ?In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2 ?In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province ?In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere 2.Evolution of China’s Trade Regime Equally remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a much
外文翻译 原文 Marketing Material Source：Marketing Management Author：Philip Kotler Marketing Channels To reach a target market, the marketer uses three kinds of marketing channels. Communication channels deliver messages to and receive messages from target buyers. They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, billboards, posters, fliers, CDs, audiotapes, and the Internet. Beyond these, communications are conveyed by facial expressions and clothing, the look of retail stores, and many other media. Marketers are increasingly adding dialogue channels (e-mail and toll-free numbers) to counterbalance the more normal monologue channels (such as ads). The marketer uses distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service to the buyer or user. There are physical distribution channels and service distribution channels, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers, and retailers. The marketer also uses selling channels to effect transactions with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors and retailers but also the banks and insurance companies that facilitate transactions. Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offerings. Supply Chain Whereas marketing channels connect the marketer to the target buyers, the supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried to final buyers. For example, the supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides, tanning operations, cutting operations, manufacturing, and the marketing channels that bring products to customers. This supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company captures only a certain percentage of the total value generated by the supply chain. When a company acquires competitors or moves upstream or downstream, its aim is