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语言学复习资料

语言学复习资料
语言学复习资料

语言学

Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society

What is culture?

广义:the patterns of brief, customs, institutions,techniques,language.

侠义:refers to local or specific practice, belief or customs.

The relationship Between Language and Culture

A.Part to whole (language is a part of culture .)

https://www.doczj.com/doc/bd16680582.html,nguage can transport Culture.

7.1.1ANTHROPOLOTICAL ATUDY OF LINGUISTICS (人类语言学)

定义:study language in a sociocultural context.

人物1. Malinowski提出:

a.The meaning of a word greatly depended upon its occurrence in a given context.

https://www.doczj.com/doc/bd16680582.html,nguage functions as a link in concerted human activity.

人物2. Firth: 伦敦学派的创始人):

He developed his own theory of CONTEXT OF SITUATION(情景语境理论).

情景语境理论:A. The relevant features of the participants,persons,personalities:

I. The verbal action of the participants.参与者的言语行为

II. The non-verbal action of the participants.参与者的非言语行为

B. The relevant objects.相关事物

C. The effects of the verbal action.言语行为的影响

Firth, who speaks (or writes ) what language (or what language variety ) to whom and when and to what end. (Fishman,1972:46).

ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION (民族文化交际学、交际民族学)

Hymes,1972 提出:

1.A speech community refers to a group of people who …share not only the same rules of speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well?

2.Situation, event and act are three units of interaction. Put together, these units form a nested hierarchy that can be used to study how members form a given community speak to each other.

SPEAKING: S= Situation(场景) ,P= Participants (参与者), E= Ends (目的), A= Act sequence (相关形式和内容), K=Key(语气), I= Instrumentalities(语式) , N= Norms (准则), G= Genres (体裁)

SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESES: 是由Sapir and Whorf 两人提出.

Linguistic Determinism(语言决定论):language may determine our thinking patterns Linguistic Relativity(语言相对主义):

A. Different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.

B. Similarity between languages is relative.

7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESES: this hypothesis primarily suggests is that our language will mould our view of the world.

Two versions of the SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESES :

1.A strong version(强式说): emphasizing the decisive role of language as the sharper of our thinking patterns.

2.A weak version(弱式说) :but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relayive, rather than categorical.(相对的)

In the later 1960s, two American scholars, Brent Berlin and Paul Kay, conducted a large cross-linguistic investigation of basic color vocabulary, which involved 98 languages in the world.

(Berlin & Kay,1991:46):

Dani :There are only two basic color words in this language: modla for light, bright, hence, white

mili for dark, dull, hence, black.

7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom

There are three objectives for us to teach culture in our language class:

1.To get the students familiar with cultural differences.

2.To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of target culture will.

3.To emphasize the inseparability (不可分离性) of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices.

7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective (情景和社会变体) “You are what you say” (Lakoff,1999)

Social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context. Among these factors, some major ones include: a) class, b) gender,c)age, d)ethnic identity,e)education background,f) occupation,g) religious belief. William Labov:

a famous sociolinguist, conducted a rather meticulous survey at several departments in the City of New York:

The objective for having this sociolinguistic investigation was to examine the relationships between speakers’social status(社会阶段) and their phonological

V ARIATIONS(语音变体).

Result: class and style are two major factors influencing the speakers? choice of one phonological variant over another.

ROBIN LAKOFF:

Women Register(女性语言) in the language that takes on the following features:

1.Women use more “fancy” color terms such as “mauve” and “beige”

2.Women use less powerful curse words.

3.Women use more intensifiers such as “terrible” and “awful”.(加强词)

4.Women use more tag questions. (附加问句,反役疑问句)

5.Women use more statement questions(陈述问句) like “Dinner will be ready at 7 o?clock?” with a rising intonation at the end.

6.Women?s linguistic behavior is more indirect and ,hence,more polite than men’s

Women register is not only used by women but also by powerless members in society.

“Sex” is a word used to refer to one?s biological property, while “gender” is a word employed to show one?s social property.(社会属性)

Linguistic Sexism(语言性别歧视): if we want to reform the language ,the first thing we need do is to try to change the society.

7.2.3 More about Sociolinguistics.

社会语言学(Sociolinguistics), as an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationships between language and society.

Sociolinguistic studies c an further be specified as two related but not identical perspectives of observation,namely,sociolinguistic study of society(语言社会学研究) and a sociolinguistic study of language(社会语言学研究).

As far as language teaching is contributions which can further be summarized as follows(Berns,1990:339):

1.Sociolinguistics has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of language teaching.(有利于语言教学的重点转移)

2.It has also contributed to innovations in materials and activities for the classroom.(有利于语言课堂在资料和活动方面的创新)

3.It has contributed to a fresh look at the nature of language development and use.有利于重新审视语言的发展和使用的本质

4.It has contributed to a more fruitful research in this field.(有利于在这一领域里有成果研究)

Rogers(1961): and set up a tripartite mode (三重模型) for successful communication:

1.Try to look at things from other persons? point of view.

2.Try to sense their feeling to given issue.

3.Try to understand their way of knowing the world.

7.3.2 Cross-cultural Communication(跨文化交际)

1.When in Rome do as the Romans do.入乡随俗

2.Put yourself in other?s shoes.换位思考

3.One culture?s meat is another culture?s poison.各有所好,各有所爱

4.Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding.诚实和真诚是互相理解的关键Chapter 8 Language in Use

8.1 Speech act theory(言语行为理论): a theory about language used to do things.

The theory originated with British philosopher John Austin in the 50’s of the 20th century and developed by J. R . Searle (Austin’s student).

According to this theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking, thus linguistic communication is composed of a succession of acts. 我们在说话的时候正在进行各种行为,因此语言沟通是由一连串的行为

Basically, John Austin and his student J. Searle believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts.“言语行为”理论是由英国牛津大学道德哲学教授奥斯汀建立的。他认为人们说话时不仅是传递信息或描述物体,通常是言语本身即是一种行为,即以言行事。

8.1.1 Performatives(施为句) and Constatives(叙事句\表述句)

Austin?s first shot ai the theory is the claim that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives.奥斯汀理论的第一步是认为句子有两类:施为句和叙事句。

performatives: Austin argue that sentences like the following do not describe things. they can?t be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is ,or is a part of, the doing of an action.And verbs like name are called performative verbs.这些句子并不是用来描述事物的,因此没有真假。说出这些句子是或者句子的部分本身就是实施某种行为。所以这些句子称为施

为句。其中的动词称为施为性动词。

Constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and constatives bear the truth-value.表述句是指各种陈述,其作用是描写某一件事件,过程或状态,有真假之分。

Constatives & Performatives

A description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentences of this type are known as constatives. E.g. I pour some liquid into the tube.

描述了说话人说话的同时在做什么。说话人不能通过说这句话把液体倒入试管,他必须同时做倒液体的动作。否则,我们可以说他作了虚假陈述。这样的句子叫表述句。例如:我把一些液体倒入试管。

In some senses, constatives are also performatives. e.g.

The cat is on the mat. (implicit 隐性的performatives)

I tell you that the cat is on the mat. (explicit 显性的performatives)

Austin explored the possibility of separating performatives from constatives on grammatical and lexical criteria(标准,条件). 奥斯汀从语法和词汇上区别施为句和表述句。

(1)Typical performatives use first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, and performative verbs.典型的施为句一般是a. 第一人称单数作主语;b. 用一般现在时;c. 用陈述语气;d. 用主动语态;e. 动词是施为性动词。

Exceptions(例外):

1.Pedestrians are warned to keep off the grass.行人禁止践踏草坪。

2.Turn right. 向右转。

3.Thank you.

4.You did it.你犯了罪。

The above are performatives.

(2) the most typical constative verb state, which is used to describe things, may be used to do things. In uttering “I state that I’m alone responsible”, the speaker has made a statement and undertaken the responsibility. “state”一般被用来表述事物,是最典型的表述动词,却也可以被用来做事。说“I state that I’m alone responsible”(我声明我承担全部责任)的时候,说话人就发表了声明,承担了责任。这句话就成了performatives.

8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act (行事行为理论)

1.Locutionary Act(发话行为):The act of uttering words, phrases, clauses.

It’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the act of saying something : the utterance of a sentence with determinate (确定的,一定的,决定的)sense and reference.

发话行为指的是用句子来叙述,报告,描写。言内行为指话语过程本身,诸如:句法,词汇与发言等。

2.Illocutionary Act (行事行为): to say sth. is to do sth.

The act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention. The making of a statement, offer promise, etc, in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it. the act of using a sentence to perform a function such as command, request, etc.

行事行为是指说话过程中通过话语的一些约定俗成的关联力量进行陈述,承诺等。说话带有目的性。

* Illocutionary Force(行事语力):may be said to be equivalent to speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning,or extra meaning, and may be translated into Chinese as “言外之意”.

The intention or purpose underlying the act of saying sth. (speaker’s meaning)

e.g. You have left the door wide open.

the locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words “you”“have”“door”“open”etc. and expressed what the words literally mean. locutionary: utterance of all the word.

the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of speaking ,i.e. asking sb. to close the door. “or making a complaint.

3.Perlocutionary Act (取效行为): the effect of the utterance.

the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something, the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances. The results or effects that are produced by means of saying sth.

取效行为是指行为本身就是讲话的结果。即讲话所产生的情感,思想,行动等的某种反应。

The differences between Illocutionary Act and Perlocutionary Ac t is : one is related to the speaker’s intention and the other not.

8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature(会话含义理论): proposed by Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Grice.

The extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.

会话含义指话语的言外之意,往往是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意,含有会话含义的话语,即说者能说,听者能懂的话语。

8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle(合作原则) 简称:CP

Grice argues that we can make a distinction between what B said in this case and what he implied, suggested or meant.

合作原则的内容:Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.使你所说的话在其所发生的阶段,符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。

Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:

QUANTITY(数量准则)

1.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange).使所说的话正好满足当前交谈的需要的信息。

2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.说出的话语所含的信息量既不能太多,也不能太少,只要满足交谈目的的信息量即可。所说的话不要多于需要的信息。

E.g.

A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?

B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.

This is said when it is known to both A and B where Mr.X’s address is. Thus B is withholding some of the information required and is flouting (违反)the maxim of quantity(not informative enough). The implicature produced is “I do not wish to tell you where Mr.X lives.”

QUALITY(质量准则)

Try to make your contribution one that is true.所说的话要求真实。

1.Do not say what you believe to be false. 不要说自知是虚假的话。

2.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说缺乏足够证据的话。说出的话尽可能真实,有证可查,至少是自己信以为真的话。

E.g

A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?

B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.

This is said when it is known to both A and B that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and is flouting the maxim of quality. (He doesn’t tell whether to go or not).The implicature produced is “I do not want to go to your party tonight.”

RELATION(关联准则)

Make your contribution relevant. 要有关联。说出的话要切题,不说与主题、论题或话题无关的话。

E.g

A: The hostess is an awful one. Don’t you think?

B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?

This is when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for A to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and flouting the maxim of relation. The implicature produced is “I don’t wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner.”

MANNER(关联准则)

Be perspicuous and specific.要清晰。说话清楚明白,简练而且有条理,避免含混和歧义。

1.Avoid obscurity of expression. 避免晦涩。

2.Avoid ambiguity. 避免歧义。

3.Be brief (avoid prolixity) 要简洁,简短有力。

4.Be orderly. 要有序的

E.g

A: Shall we get something for the kids?

B: Yes. But I veto (否决) I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word “ice-cream”. Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The implicature produced is “I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream.”

8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims 违背准则

参照合作原则。

8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature

1.Calculability 可推导性

2.Cancellability 可取消性

3.Non-Detachability 不可推导性

4.Non-Conventionality 非规约性

8.3.1 Relevance Theory 关联理论

( proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition交际与认知)

Ostensive-inferential Communication明示推理交际

结合语码模式和推理模式,Sperber和Wilson提出了明示推理交际的概念。

“明示”和“推理”是交际过程的两个方面。

从说话人的角度来说,交际是一种明示过程,明示是通过某种使听话人“显映的”

(manifest)方式进行编码,把信息意图明白地展现出来。

从听话人的角度来说,交际又是一个推理过程,推理就是根据说话人的明示行为(比如话语),结合语境假设,求得语境效果,获知说话人的交际意图。

Sperber和Wilson进而把明示推理交际定义为:说话人发出一种刺激信号,使之对交际双方“互相显映”,通过这种刺激信号,说话人意欲向听话人显映或更加清楚地显映一系列的命题{I}。

The communicator produces a stimulus which makes it mutually manifest to communicator and audience that the communicator intends, by means of stimulus, to make manifest or more manifest to the audience a set of assumptions I.

Principle of Relevance(关联原则)的定义:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. 每一个明示交际行动都传递一种假定:该行动本身具备最佳关联性。明示交际行动:说话人表明自己说话的意图。

关联理论3定义:①an assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effect in that context.②an assumption is relevant to an individual at a given time if and only if it is relevant in one or more of the contexts available to that individual at that time.③ a phenomenon is relevant to an individual if and only if one or more of the assumptions it makes manifest is relevant to him.

由关联理论3定义得出的Presumption of Optimal Relevance(最佳关联设想) Presumption of Optimal Relevance(最佳关联设想) :

A.The set of assumptions {I} which the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth the addressee?s while to process the ostensive stimulus.发话者意欲向听话人显映的假设集{I},具有足够的关联,使听话人值得努力去处理该明示的刺激信号。

B.The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate {I}. 这一明示刺激信号,是发话者传递假设集{I}时所能运用的最大关联的信号。

Degrees of Relevance(关联程度):

Sperber和Wilson认为,关联的程度取决于话语所具有的语境效果和处理话语所付出的努力这两个因素。关联依赖于语境,依赖于交际主体的认知能力和认知环境,所以关联有强弱的程度之分。

关联的强弱程度只能用一些粗略的判断加以比较和描述,而不能对之作绝对的量化分析。

关联是一个由最大关联到最小关联或无关联的连续体(continuum),简略些说可分为最大关联(maximally relevant),强关联(very relevant),弱关联(weakly relevant)和完全不关联(irrelevant)。

因此,话语所具有的语境效果和处理话语时所作的努力是确定关联性的两个因素。

(1) an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large. 语境效果与话语的关联性成正比关系: 在其他条件相同的情况下,语境效果越大,关联性越强;

(2) an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small.处理话语所付出的努力是负面的因素,与关联性成反比关系:在其他条件相同的情况下,处理话语的努力越小,关联性就越强。

关联性Relevance =语境效果Contextual Effect /推理努力Processing Effort

Revised Principle of Relevance

关联的第一原则(认知原则):人类认知倾向于最大关联相吻合。

关联的第二原则(交际原则):每一个明示的交际行为都应设想为它本身具有最佳关联。

最大关联(maximal relevance)是话语理解时付出尽可能小的努力而获得的最大语境效果。最佳关联(optimal relevance)是话语理解时付出有效的努力之后所获得的足够的语境效果。

8.3.2 The Q-and R-principles: proposed by Laurence Horn

The Q-Principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-Principle the Relation maxim.

The Q-principle数量原则(hearer-based):

Make your contribution sufficient (cf. Quantity)

The R-principle关系原则(Speaker-based):

Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation,Quantity2, Manner3)

The hearer-based Q-principle is a sufficient condition(充分条件) in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to.

The R-Principle, in contrast, encourages the hearer to infer more is meant.(R原则鼓励听者推导出更多的意思)

In communication,people always tend to convey the greatest information (Q-Principle) with the least utterances (R-Principle).(用最少的语言表达最多的意思。)

In other words, the Q-Principle is concerned with content (内容), the speaker who follows this principle supplies the sufficient information. the R-Principle is concerned with the form(形式), the speaker who employs this principle uses the minimal form, so that the hearer is entitled to infer that the speaker means more than he says.

Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics

Saussure(索绪尔): father of modern linguistics现代语言学之父

Saussure’s ideas were developed along three lines:linguistics(语言学), sociology(社会学) and psychology(心理学).

1.Saussure believed that language is a System of Sign. 索绪尔认为语言是一种符号系统。

This sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the SIGNIFIER(能指) and the SIGNIFIED(所指).

https://www.doczj.com/doc/bd16680582.html,NGUE vs. PAROLE(语言和言语)

3.SYNTAGMATIC vs. PARADIGMATIC (组合和聚合)

4.AYNCHRONIC vs. DIACHRONIC (共时性和历时性)

12.1 The Prague School (布拉格学派):

12.1.1 Introduction

It sees language in terms of FUNCTION.(从功能的角度研究语言)

1.They fully justified the synchronic study of language but erected no rigid theoretical barrier to separate diachronic study.(布拉格学派以共时研究为主,但并没有完全将共时研究和历时研究想隔离)

2.They emphasized the systemic character of language by arguing that no element of any language can be satisfactorily analyzed or evaluated if viewed in isolation,and assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with the coexisting elements in the same language system.(布拉格学派强调语言的系统性,她们认为语言系统中任何一个成分都是相互联系着的,不能孤立研究两个分开的成分。)

3.They took language as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.(他们将语言看作是一种工具,用来研究语言的一系列功能。)

12.2.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions

The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and t he distinction between phonetics (语音学:研究发音)and phonology(音位学).

LANGUE belongs to phonology , PAROLE belongs to phonetics. 语言是音位学,言语是语音学。

A phoneme may be defined as the sum of the differential functions. 音位:在某一语言单位中,具有区别意义的最小的语言单位。

12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)

Functional Sentence Perspective is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or text) in terms of the information they contain.句子功能观:是语言分析的理论,分析一篇话语中/语篇中所包含的信息

Theme: 主位:说者和听者都知道的信息。

Rheme:述位:说话人想要传递的新的信息。

The Subject-Predicative distinction is not always the same as the Theme-Rheme contrast.(主语并不一定是主位)

E.g.

A.Sally stands on the table.

(Subject) (Predicate)

(Theme) (Rheme)

B. On the table stands Sally.

(Predicate) (Subject)

(Theme) (Rheme)

Sally is the grammatical subject in both sentences, but the Theme in (A) and the Rheme in (B).

Communicative Dynamism (CD)交际性动力: is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence.衡量一句话中所承载的信息量的大小。

12.2 The London School (伦敦学派)

12.2.1 Malinowski’s theories

Malinowski: Anthropology(人类学家),波兰人。

他认为:According to him, the meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs.话语的意思并不来自于组成这个话语的单词语境,而是来自于情景语境。

He distinguishes three types of context of situation(三种情景语境):

1.Situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity.话语与当时身体活动有直接关系的情景

2.Narrative situation. 叙述情景

3.Situation in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum--PHA TIC COMMUNION. 话语用来填补言语空白的情景——寒暄交谈。

三种情境的具体内容:

1.By the first type of situation Malinowski meant that t he meaning of a word is not given by the physical properties (物理性能) of its referent(指示物), but by its function. Explanation: 词的意义不是它的自然属性给的,而是所指物它的功能。

2.The second type: Malinowski further distinguished “ the situation of the moment narration (叙述本身所处的当时当地情境)” and “the situation referred to by the narrative(在交谈中提到的/涉及到的情境<言语中所谈到的情景>)”

3.The third , its meaning cannot possibly come from situations in which language used, but form the “atmosphere of sociability and the fact of the personal communication of these people”

According to him, the real linguistic data are the complete utterances in actual uses of language.真正的语言数据资料……

12.2.2 Firth’s theories

Firth : Halliday’s teacher (韩立德的老师)

Firth influenced by Malinowski, he regarded language as a social process, as a means of social life, rather than simply as a set of agreed-upon semiotics and signs. Firth 把语言看作社会过程,人类社会生活的一种方式,而不是一种约定俗成的符号内容。

Firth did not see language as something wholly inborn or utterly acquired.(即是天生的,又是后天形成的)

Thus he insisted that object of linguistic study is language in actual use.研究对象:实际使用中的语言。

And the goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyze meaningful elements of language in order to establish corresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.研究意义:语言中有意义的分成分析出来,以便于建立语言因素与非语言因素之间的对应关系。

The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of language, explain their relations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal relations between these elements and human activities in the environment of language use.研究方法:决定语言的组成部分,说明他们在各个层次上的关系,以及他们之间相互的关系。

Firth held that meaning is use(意义就是使用). Thus defining meaning as the relationship between an element at any level and its context on that level.(任何层次上的成分和它的语境层次上的语境关系)

There are five levels of analysis: 1. Phonological 音位学

2. Lexical and semantic 词汇和语义层次

3. Morphological 形态学

4. Syntactic 句法

5. Context of situation 情景语境

情景语境的定义:

Firth defined the context of situation as including the entire cultural setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment. 情景语境包括语言的整个文化背景和参与者的个人意识,而不是语言从事的某种活动。

By a typical context of a situation, he meant that social situations determine the social roles participants are obliged to play;典型的情景语境:社会情景决定了我们在社会情景中所扮演的角色。

Firth: Situational context(情景语境) and the linguistic context(语言语境) of a text:

1.The internal relations of the context itself.语篇本身的内在关系

A. The syntagmatic relations between the elements in the structure.结构成分之间的组成关系。

B. The paradigmatic relations between units in the system.系统中单位之间的聚合关系。

2.The internal relations of the context of situation. 情景语境的内部关系。

A. The relations between text and non-linguistic elements ,and the general effects.语篇和非语言成分之间的关系,以及总的效果。

B. The analytical relations between words, parts of words,phrases and the special elements of the context of situation.分析词,词的一部分,短语以及情景语境中特殊成分的关系。

Firth:also listed a model in his paper in linguistics that covers both that situational context and the linguistic context of a text:

1.The relevant features of the participants参与者的有关特征: persons ,personalities.

A. The verbal action of the participants. 参与者的言语行为

B. The non-verbal action of participants. 参与者的非言语行为

2.The relevant topics, including objects, events, and non-linguistic, non-human events.

3.The effects of the verbal action.言语行为的效果

Firth’s second important contribution to linguistics is his method of PROSODIC ANALYSIS(韵律分析法),called PROSODIC PHONOLOGY(韵律音位学).

Firth pointed out that in actual speech, it is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but PHONEMATIC UNIT(准音位单位). Firth 认为构成联合关系的不是音位,而是准音位单位。

He held that the basic unit in analyzing speech is not word,but text, text in particular contexts of situation. 分析话语的基本单位不是一个单词,而是语篇<特定语境下的语篇>。

12.2.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar(系统功能理论/语法)

System-Functional Grammar has two components: 1. System Grammar 系统语法

2.Functional Grammar 功能语法

Systemic Grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential(意义潜势).

Functional Grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction.

Systemic-Functional Grammar is based on two facts:

https://www.doczj.com/doc/bd16680582.html,nguage users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to re alize different semantic functions in social interaction.

https://www.doczj.com/doc/bd16680582.html,nguage is inseparable from social activities of man.

Halliday’s Systemic Grammar is different from other linguistic theories in the following aspects 韩立德的系统语法与其他语言学理论的不同体现在:

1.It attaches great importance to the sociological aspects of language.重视语言的社会学性质

2.It views language as a form of doing rather than a form of knowing.认为语言是做事的一种手段,而不是知识的一个表现形式,把语言行为潜势与实际语言行为相区分

3.It gives a relatively high priority to description of the characteristics of particular languages and particular varieties of languages.重视对个别语言以及个别变体的描写

4.It explains a number of aspects of language in terms of clines. (i.e ungrammatical→more unusual→less unusual→less usual→grammatical)用连续性这一概念来解释众多语言现象。

E.g<不符合语法的→反常→不太反常→不太惯常→符合语法>

5.It seeks verification of its hypotheses by means of observation from texts and by means of statistical techniques.依靠对各种语篇的观察和统计学的手段来验证自己的假设

6.It has as its centre the category of the system.把系统范畴作为核心

In systemic grammar, the notion of system is made a central explanatory principle, t he whole of language being conceived as a “system of systems”.在系统语法里,系统的概念是由一条基本的解释性的原则构成的,即整个语言系统被认为是一个“系统的系统”。

On a very general level, there is the AXIS OF CHOICE and AXIS OF CHAIN:

Axis of Choice(选择轴)/paradigmatic(聚合)/ 意义的选择

Axis of Chain(链状轴)/ syntagmatic(组合)/语法的选择

伴随着话语次序出现的维度是连锁轴,而沿着纵线出现的基本模型则构成选择轴。连锁轴代表组合关系,选择轴代表聚合关系。出现在选择轴上的是对比关系。如果没有对比,语言就失去了交际的作用。连锁轴处理语法的表层,例如句法结构,语言单位,以及它们的级(句子,子句,词组,词,语素)。选择轴处理语法的意义,例如系统和精密度。系统就是一组存在于语法中的一系列选择(The SYSTEM is a list of choices that are available in the grammar of a language)

例如英语中"数"的系统(number system),包含两种选择:单数和复数(singular and plural)。而人称系统(person system )提供了三个选择:第一人称,第二人称,第三人称(first person, second person ,third person)。

-- 单数

|

|

-- 复数

-- 第一人称

|

人称-- 第二人称

|

-- 第三人称

There are also systems of gender,tense,and mood.(性,时态,语气)

此外英语中还有其它诸如性、时态和语态等系统。

All system have three essential characteristics所有系统所具备的三个基本特点:

1.The terms in a system are mutually exclusive.系统中的选择选项是互相排除的。选择了其中

的一个,同时也就排除了对其他项目的选择。

2.A system is finite..每个系统都是有限的。我们完全能够确定一个系统的限度,准确地说出它所包含的选择的数目,一个不多,一个不少。

3.The meaning of each term in a system depends on the meaning of the other terms in the system.系统中每一个选择的意义取决于系统中其他选择的意义。如果其中一个意义改变了,其他选择也要改变意义。

In English, we make choices between different types of processes,participants, and circumstances.在英语里,我们可以对不同类型的过程、参与者和环境进行选择。它们都被统称为及物性选择(transitivity)。首先,我们把所有的选择区分为六种:

|-- 物质过程material process

| (John kicked the ball)

|-- 行为过程behavioural process

| (John laughed)

|-- 心理过程mental process

及物性系统| (John likes Mary)

(Transitivity) |-- 言语过程verbal process

| (John said it is cold in the room)

|-- 关系过程relational process

| (John is on the sofa)

|-- 存在过程existential process

| (There is a cat on the sofa)

SCALE OF DELICACY精密阶:

E.g intention process 目的过程

1. Action process→

Transitivity material process→(动作过程)supervention process 意外过程

(及物性)(物质过程) 2. Event process

(事件过程)

When meanings are expressed, people are intentionally making choices in the system network. On this basis, choice is meaning. 在表达意义时,人们特意在系统网络中进行选择。在此基础上,选择就是意义。

Functional Grammar:功能语法

功能语法包括:1.The Ideational Function概念功能

2.The Interpersonal Function 人际功能

3.The Textual Function 语篇功能

The Ideational Function概念功能:

定义:The Ideational Function is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. 概念功能是用来传递新的信息给听者。

概念功能包括经验功能(experiential function)和逻辑功能(logical function)两个部分。The Ideational function mainly consists of “transitivity” (及物性)and “voice”(语态)

E.g John built a new house. (物质过程)

Actor: John

Process: Material: Creation :built

Goal: Affected: a new house

概念功能中的六个及物性过程:

1.Material process(物质过程): are those in which sth. is done(做了什么事情)

物质过程是表示做某事件的过程(a process of doing)。这个过程本身一般由动态动词(如)来表示,“动作者”(actor,即逻辑上的主语)和动作的目标(goal逻辑上的直接宾语)一般由名词或代词来表示,如图1:

图1:物质过程

我吃了一个苹果。

(动作者)(物质过程)(目标)

2.Mental process(心理过程):

心理过程是表示“感觉”(perception )、“反应”(reaction)和“认知”(recognition)等心理活动的过程(a process of sensing)。表示感觉的动词有see,look等;表示反应的动词有like,please等;表示认知的动词有know,believe,convince等。

心理过程一般有两个参与者。一个是心理活动的体即“感知者”,另一个是客体即被感知的“现象”(phenomenon)。例子,如图2:

图2:心理过程

李敏喜欢这块布料。

(感觉者)(心理过程)(现象)

3.Relational process(关系过程): can be classified into two types: Attributive(归属) and Identifying(识别)

关系过程指的是反映事物之间处于何种关系的过程(a process of being)。它可分为“归属”(attributive)和“识别”(identifying)两大类。归属类指某个实体具有哪些属性,或者归于哪种类型,其公式是“A是X的一种”。这两种关系过程各自又可进一步分为“内包式”

(intensive)、“环境式”(circumstantial)和“所有式”(possessive)。例子如图3和4:

图3:关系过程(归属)

李白是一位诗人。

(载体)(关系过程)(属性)

图4:关系过程(识别)

教务员是这位女同志。

(被识别者)(关系过程)(识别者)

4.Verbal process(言语过程)

言语过程是通过讲话交流信息的过程(a process of saying)。常用的动词有say,tell,praise,boast, describe等。“讲话者”不一定是人。在言语过程中,“受话者”也可以作为一个参与者出现。“讲话内容”(verbiage)可能是要传递给受话者的某个信息,也可能要受话者做某件事,如图6:

图6:言语过程

小琳告诉蔡华她今晚会回家。

(讲话者)(言语过程)(受话者)(讲话内容)

5.Behavioral process(行为过程):refers to physiological and psychological behavior. Behavioral Process has only one participant.(行为过程只有一个参与者) and when Behavioral Process has two participants, we may take it as Material Process

行为过程指的是诸如呼吸、咳嗽、叹息、做梦、哭笑等生理活动过程(a process of behaving)。行为过程一般只有一个参与者即“行为者”,而且行为者一般是人。这一点与心理过程相似,与物质过程不同。如图5:

图5:行为过程

她放声痛哭。

(行为者)(环境)(行为过程)

6.Existential process(存在过程)

存在过程是表示有某物存在的过程(a process of existing)。常用的动词是be,此外还有等exist, arise。在每个存在过程中,都必须有一个“存在物”(existent)。如图7:

图7:存在过程

墙上挂着一幅画。

(环境)(存在过程)(存在物)

The Interpersonal Function(人际功能)

定义:

The Interpersonal Function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations.

人际功能是指语言具有表达说话者身份、地位、态度、动机和对事物的判断、参加社会活动、建立社会关系等功能。

And Interpersonal Function is realized by MOOD and MODALITY.人际功能是通过语气+情态来实现的。

MOOD语气:

定义:语气系统说明在某个情景语境中讲话者选择了何种交际角色.

组成部分:主语(subject)可由名词\名词短语或小句充当

限定部分(finite element)用来表示时态(tense morphemes)的助动词(auxiliary verbs)和情态动词( Modal verbs). (例子中的will\is)

E.g

Ignoring the problem will not make your work easier.

To argue with the captain is asking for trouble.

According to Halliday,

of the various speech roles, two are the most basic: giving and taking.语言的言语角色最基本的任务是给予和求取

the commodities exchanged can also fall into two kinds: goods &services and information.交换物也可分为两类物品及服务、信息

Speech roles and commodities exchange make up four principle speech roles: offer, command, statement, and question.言语角色和交换物构成了四种主要的言语功能:提供、命令、陈述和提问.

Role in change

(交换角色)

Commodity exchange

(交换物)

(a) Goods-&-services (b) information

(i) giving给予

“offer”提供

Would you like this teapot?

“statement”陈述

He?s giving her teapot

(ii) demanding求取

“command”命令

Give me that teapot!

“question”提问

What is he giving her?

The Textual Function (语篇功能):衔接、连贯

00541语言学概论必过资料

第一章语言和语言学 第一节语言的客观存在形式 一、语言: 1.语言是一种社会现象,不是一种物质实体。 2.言语交际是一个编码(说话)和解码(听话)的过程。 (语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为,有声的口头语言,即口语) 3.语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言是不完全一模一样的。 二、口语和书面语的主要差别: 1.口语:是有声的口头语言。 2.书面语:是经过加工提炼和发展了的口语书面形式。 3.口语是第一性的,书面语是第二性的。 4.书面语比口语更精练、更精确。 5.书面语比口语省略成份少一些。(多了一些成份) 三、口语与书面语的关系: 1.口语是第一性的,书面语是第二性的。 2.书面语反过来影响和促进口语的发展。 3.口语、书面语基本是一致的。(一般情况下) 四、书面语产生具有重大的历史意义: 书面语的产生克服了口语的时间、空间的限制,是人类进入文明社会的标志。 五、语言和民族: 1.语言是民族的重要标志,但不是最可靠的标志。 (1)在绝大多数情况下一个民族使用一种语言。 (2)也有一个民族使用多种语言。(犹太民族) (3)不同民族使用同一种语言。(满族、汉族) (4)尽管语言是最直观的,最容易识别民族的标志,从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”,也许是维系一个“民族”的最根本的因素。 因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。不能单凭“互相理解程度”来区分语言和方言。() 六、语言与种族的关系: 语言和种族没有必然的联系,但不是完全没有联系。特别就“语系”而言,两者之间的联系还是比较明显的。(汉语、汉藏语系都有声调) 七、语言和种族没有必然联系的根本原因是:语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关,但是语言不是一种生理现象,也不是一种心理现象,不是先天遗传的,它是一种社会现象,完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系。 八、语言的客观存在形式:口语、书面语。语言的客观存在形式首先表现为有声的口头语言即口语, 而当出现了文字以后,又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。 口语和书面语都有两个方面:一方面是表示一定意义的声音或图形,这是一种物理现象;另一方面则是由声音或图形(字)表示的意义,那是一种心理现象,或者说是思维活动的结果和感情流露。 第二节语言的性质 一、语言和言语 瑞士语言学家索绪尔是杰出的代表和集其大成的学者。 他的《普通语言学教程》(1916)开创了20世纪现代语言学的新局面。 1.什么是语言、言语? (1)言语:指说话这种行为和说出来的具体的话。 特色:a.具有个人因素(嗓音、用词等)。

汉语言文学语言学概论复习要点

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精品文档 Linguistics: I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets 1. ( ) The study of language as a whole is often called __________ linguistics. A. particular B. general C. ordinary D. generative 2. ( ) __________ can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A. Phones B. Sounds C. Phonemes D. Speech sounds 3. ( ) The two clauses in a __________ sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence. A. simple B. complete C. complex D. coordinate 4. ( ) The goal of __________ is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and indifferent social situations. A. psycholinguistics B. sociolinguistics C. historical linguistics D. general linguistics 5. ( ) A __________ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle 6. ( ) The open, back and long vowel is __________. A.[ɑ:] B.[?:] C.[?:] D.[u:] 7. ( ) Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable extent __________. A. regular but not systematic B. irregular and systematic C. regular and systematic D. irregular but systematic 8. ( ) A scientific study of language is based on the __________ investigation of language data. A. symbolic B. systemic C. systematic D. system 9. ( ) __________ are sometimes called “semivowels”. A. vowels B. fricative C. glides D. nasals 10. ( ) __________ is a typical tone language. A. English B. Chinese C. French D. American English 11. ( ) A sentence is considered __________ when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. A. right B. wrong C. grammatical D. ungrammatical 12. ( ) The number of the lexical items in the minor lexical categories is __________ and no new members are allowed for. A. large B. small C. limitless D. fixed 13. ( ) Human beings are the only species that learns and acquires language__________ explicit instruction. A. with B. without C. within D. through 14. ( ) According to F. de Saussure, __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all

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