炼化工程
UNIT 1 Composition of Petroleum石油的组成
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, toxic, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, and other organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. It is refined and separated, most easily by boiling point, into a large number of consumer products, from gasoline and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and pharmaceuticals.
In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes both crude oil and natural gas. Both crude oil and natural gas are predominantly a mixture of hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions, the lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as gases, while the heavier ones from pentane and up are in the form ofliquids or solids. However, in the underground oil reservoir the proportion of gas and liquid varies depending on the subsurface conditions, and on the phase diagram of the petroleum mixture.
An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas. A gas well produces predominately natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, and heptane in the gaseous state. Under surface conditions these will condense out of the gas and form natural gas condensate, often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some volatile light crude oils.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
任何石油产品中，都不希望硫的含量高，柴油也不例外。对于这些燃料油，人们声称硫加剧了磨损和沉积物的问题，但对其产生的后果的大小仍有争议。不过，不管对柴油要求的低硫含量有无技术上的理由——对于减少空气污染这个道理是不辩自明的。生产模式已经确立，炼厂必须接受这一规定。正因为如此，许多炼油厂通常安装有粗柴油加氢脱硫的工艺装置。
【课文参考译文】
石油或原油是天然形成的、有毒的、可燃性的液体，是含有不同分子量的碳氢化合物以及其它有机化合物的复杂混合物。它是在地球表面下的地质层中发现的。石油大部分是通过石油钻探开采得到的。石油很容易按不同馏程进行炼制和分离成为大量的消费产品，从汽油、煤油到沥青以及用作制造塑料和药品的化学试剂。
严格意义上来说，石油仅仅包含原油，但是惯用法上，它包括石油和天然气。石油和天然气主要是烃类混合物。在地面压力和温度条件下，轻质的碳氢化合物甲烷、乙烷、丙烷和丁烷以气体的形式出现，而重质的碳氢化合物如戊烷和重于戊烷的烃都是以液体或固体的形式出现。然而，在地下油藏，气体或液体的比例变化的取决于亚地表层条件和石油混合物的相图。
油井主要生产原油，伴有一些天然气溶解在其中。因为地表的压力低于地下的压力，一些气体将从溶液中溢出，或者以伴生气或溶解气被回收（或燃烧）。气井主要是产生天然气。然而，由于地下温度和压力比地表高一些，气体中或许含有较重的碳氢化合物，例如气态的戊烷、己烷和庚烷。在地表条件下，这些较重的碳氢化合物将会从气体中析出，形成天然气的凝聚物，经常简称为凝析油。凝析油外观上类似于汽油，组成类似于一些挥发性的轻原油。
【练习参考答案】
In any petroleum product, a high sulphur content is considered undesirable, and diesel fuels are no exception. For such fuels, sulphur is claimed to aggravate problems of wear and deposits, but the magnitude of the effect is still a matter of some controversy. However, whether or not there is technical justificationother than that of abatement of air pollution ---for the low sulphur levels demanded for diesel fuels, the pattem has been established and must be accepted by the refiner. For this reason, processing units for the hydrodesulphurisation of gas oils are commonly installed in refineries.
UNIT 2 Petrochemicals石化产品
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Petrochemicals are generally chemical compounds derived from petroleum either by direct manufacture or by indirect manufacture as by-products from the variety of processes that are used during the refining of petroleum. Gasoline, kerosene, fuel oils, lubricating oils, waxes, asphalts, and the like are excluded from the definition of petrochemicals, since they are, not, in the true sense, chemical compounds but are in fact intimate mixtures of hydrocarbons.
The classification of materials such as petrochemicals is used to indicate the source of the chemical compounds, but it should be remembered that many common petrochemicals can be made from other sources, and the terminology is therefore a matter of source identification.
The manufacture of chemicals from petroleum is based on the ready response of the various compound types to basic chemical reactions, such as oxidation, halogenation, nitration, dehydrogenation, addition, polymerization, and alkylation. The low-molecular-weight paraffins and olefins, as found in natural gas and refinery gases, and the simple aromatic hydrocarbons have so far been of the most interest because it is these individual species that can readily be isolated and dealt with. A wide range of compounds is possible, many are being manufactured, and we are now progressing the stage in which a sizable group of products is being prepared from the heavier fractions of petroleum. For example, the various reactions of petroleum heavy ends, in particular the asphaltenes, indicate that these materials may be regarded as chemical entities and are able to participate in numerous chemical or physical conversions to, perhaps, more useful materials. The overall effect of these modifications is the production of materials that either afford good-grade aromatic cokes comparatively easily or the formation of products bearing functional groups that may be employed as a nonfuel material.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
石化工业的初始原料大概通过一到两种方法从原油中提取。这些原料物质，也许本身就存在于原油当中，因此通过物理方法加以分离，如蒸馏和溶取。同时，这些物质也可能因含量低而在炼制过程中生成了合成物。实际上，原油中一般不存在非饱和烃，几乎所有的非饱和烃都是在各种炼制过程中作为中间产品而产生的。
【课文参考译文】
石化产品通常指直接或间接地从石油中提炼的化合物，这些化合物往往是石油炼制各种过程中产生的副产品。汽油、煤油、燃料油、润滑油、石蜡、沥青以及诸如此类的产品不属于石化产品。因为，从严格意义上说，它们不是化合物，而是烃类的混合物。
像“石化产品”这样的物质分类用来表明化合物的来源。但应记住，许多我们所熟知的石化产品也可以通过其他途径生产，因而这一术语只是用来识别原料的来源。
从石油生产化学品是基于各种类型的化合物对各种基本化学反应响应迅速，如氧化反应、卤化反应、硝化反应、脱氢反应、加成反应、聚合反应和烷基化反应。迄今为止，人们最感兴趣的是从天然气和炼厂气中所得到的低分子量链烷烃和烯烃，以及轻质芳烃，因为这些物质能够进行迅速分离和处理。大量化合物都有望得到，其中许多化合物正在生产。目前我们正在探索如何从石油的重质馏分中提炼数量可观的产品。比如石油重质馏分，尤其是沥青质的各种反应表明可以将这些物质当做化学单体，能够通过各种化学和物理反应将其转变成更有价值的产品。这些转化的总体效果是，所生产的物质能够相对容易地用作高品质芳焦，或者能够形成带有官能团的产品，用作非燃料原料。
【练习参考答案】
The starting materials for the petrochemical industry are obtained from crude oil in one or two general ways. They may be present in the crude oil and as such, are separated through physical methods, such as distillation or solvent extraction. On the other hand, they may be converted to synthetic during the refining operations because of lower content. In fact, unsaturated hydrocarbons, which are not usually present in crude oil, are nearly always manufactured as intermediates during the various refining processes.
UNIT 3 Petroleum refining石油炼制
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Petroleum refining is the separation of petroleum into fractions and the subsequent treating of these fractions to make them into petroleum products. Most petroleum products, including kerosenes, fuel oils, lubricating oils, and waxes, are fractions of petroleum that have been treated to remove undesirable components. Other products, for example, gasolines, aromatic solvents, and even some asphalts, are totally or partly sy.nthetic in that they have compositions that are impossible to achieve by direct separation of these materials from crude petroleum. They result from chemical processes that change the molecular nature of selected portions of crude petroleum; in other words, they are the products of refining or they are refined products.
Refining petroleum is a complex series of steps by which the original crude material is eventually converted into salable products with the desired qualities and, perhaps more important, in the amounts dictated by the market.
In fact, a refinery is essentially a group of manufacturing plants that vary in number with the variety of products produced; refinery processes must be selected and products manufactured to give a balanced operation: that is, crude oil must be converted into products according to the rate of sale of each. For example, the manufacture of products from the lower boiling portion of petroleum automatically produces a certain amount of higher boiling components. If the latter cannot be sold as, say, heavy fuel oil, they accumulate until refinery storage facilities are full. To prevent the occurrence of such a situation, the refinery must be flexible and able to change operations as needed. This usually means more processes - a cracking process to change an excess of heavy fuel oil into more gasoline with coke as the residual product or a vacuum distillation process to separate the heavy oil into lubricating oil stocks and asphalt - to accommodate the ever-changing demands of the market.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
此外，一套完整的炼油装置须包括以下设备：所有必要的非工艺设施；充裕的储罐容量用以储存原油、中间产品和成品；可靠的电力来源和物料装卸设备；用于维持一天24小时，一周七天连续运转所需的车间和物资；废料和污水处理设备；以及产品调合设施。
【课文参考译文】
石油炼制就是将石油分离成各种馏分，然后将这些馏分经过处理，制成各种石油产品。大部分石油产品，包括煤油、燃料油、润滑油和蜡，都是原油经过处理脱除不需要的成分而得到的石油馏分。其他石油产品，如汽油、芳烃溶剂、甚至包括某些沥青，则是通过完全或者部分合成而制得的。因为组成这些产品的物质成分无法通过直接分离原油获得，而是通过化工过程，改变原油选定部分的分子性质而获得的。换言之，它们是通过炼制得到的，或称为炼制产品。
石油炼制包含一系列复杂的过程。通过这些过程，石油原料最终转化成为可销售的产品。这些产品不仅满足质量要求，而更重要的是它们在数量上符合市场需求。
实际上，炼油厂从根本上说是一组生产装置，其数量根据产品的不同市场需求。
炼油工艺须经选择，产品生产应该平衡：即从原油生产产品必须依据每种产品的销售量而进行。比如，从沸点较低的组分生产石油产品，就会自动产生一定数量的高沸点产品。如果这些高沸点产品不能作为重燃料油销售，这些产品就会积压，直到装满炼厂的储存设施。要避免这种情况出现，炼厂应灵活采取措施，并根据需要改变操作。一般而言，这意味着需要更多的工艺以适应不断变化的市场需求：运用裂化工艺将过剩重燃料油转化成汽油，而焦碳成为副产品；或者运用减压蒸馏工艺将重油分离成润滑油基础油和沥青。
【练习参考答案】
In addition,a complete refining installation must include the following: all necessary non-processing facilities; adequate tankage for storing crude oil, intermediate,and finished products;a dependable source of electrical power, material-handling equipment; workshops and supplies for maintaining a continuous 24 h/day,7 day/week operation; waste disposal and water-treating equipment; and product-blending facilities.
UNIT 4 Catalytic Cracking催化裂化
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Catalytic cracking is a process for the conversion of heavy hydrocarbon fractions mainly into high-quality gasoline and fuel oil components, which are lighter, less viscous and thus more valuable than the feedstock.
The conversion, or cracking, predominantly takes place in the vapour phase in the presence of a catalyst. This catalyst, which is available as pellets or as a powder, has the ability to enhance the rate of cracking reactions and selectively to promote certain types of reactions. This results in products and product properties that are characteristic of the catalytic cracking process, e.g. formation of relatively large quantities of olefins, iso-components, and aromatics. These components contribute significantly towards the high octane number of the gasoline.
Although catalysts are now being developed that can tolerate some metals deposition and thereby facilitate processing of residual material containing moderate amounts of asphaltic material and metals, a catalytic cracker complex usually includes a vacuum distilling unit for feed preparation. It, furthermore, includes distillation columns for separation of the products, and treaters for the final products.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
近几年来，世界能源状况已推动了更有效的转化过程的开发和应用，使炼油厂的原油加工手段能够升级，以生产出更多价值高的轻质馏分油和较少的燃料油。因此，相对于直馏产品而言，炼油厂的转化或裂化产品的数量正在增加。因为这些转化产品的特点通常是除硫以外，烯烃、芳烃和氮的含量也较高。由于这个原因，加氢脱硫过程已经发展到了目前这种作为一种加氢精制过程的状况，通过采用合适的催化剂和操作条件，已经能够把这些不合要求的质量特性减少到可接受的水平。
【课文参考译文】
催化裂化主要是把重质烃馏分转化成优质汽油和燃料油组分的工艺，这些产品较轻，粘度较低，因而比其原料更有价值。
这种转化或裂化主要是在气相并在有催化剂存在的条件下发生。这种制成颗粒状或粉末状的催化剂，具有提高裂化反应速度并有选择地促进某种类型反应的能力。其结果是生产具有催化裂化工艺特点的产品和产品性质，如较多数量的链烯烃、异构组分和芳烃。这些组分对提高汽油的辛烷值起着很大的作用。
尽管正在开发能够容忍某些金属沉积物的催化剂，以便加工含有适量沥青质和金属的渣油原料，催化裂化联合装置通常包括用于原料制备的减压蒸馏装置，此外，它还包括用于产品分离的蒸馏塔和最终产品的处理装置。
【练习参考答案】
In recent years, the world energy situation has encouraged the development and application of more effective conversion processes, whereby the crudes processed by the refinenes can be upgraded to give larger quantities of lighter, more valuable distillates and less fuel oil. As a consequence, the quantity of converted or cracked products within the refineries is increasing relative to straight-run products. Since these converted products are often characterised by high olefin, aromatics and nitrogen contents, in addition to sulphur. For this reason the hydrodesulphurization process has evolved to its current status as a hydrotreating process with, by application of suitable catalysts and operating severity, the capability of reducing these undesirable quality features to an acceptable level.
UNIT 5 Co-catalysts共催化剂
Read the text and translate it into-Chinese.
Due to rapid changes in fuels supply and demand, the US refining industry has experienced volatility in the relative pricing of its products. As a result, the drive to maximize either gasoline or diesel from the FCC has been constantly changing. How does a refiner respond to these market variations to maximize, the value of the products from the FCC unit?
Co-catalysts are a new product category providing the refiner with the flexibility to change the product slate ofthe FCC without changing the FCC catalyst. Changing between a maximum gasoline co-catalyst and a maximum LCO co-catalyst will allow the refiner to rapidly capture the most favorable economics at all times - maximizing FCC profitability.
Co-catalysts are added to the base catalyst to rapidly change the core performance of the FCC. Due to their exceptional catalytic properties, co-catalysts drive this fundamental change in unit performance and displace at least the equivalent rate of the base catalyst. They can be added quickly to the unit making the unit performance respond to rapidly changing product values --- in the shortest time --- optimizing profitability far more quickly than can be achieved by reformulating the FCC catalyst.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
共催化剂与助剂和催化剂具有相似之处，但是作为独立和新系列的产品而与众不同。催化剂能够提供催化裂化装置核心的催化效果。助剂加入到基础催化剂中能促进其它工艺过程或产品的效果，如最大化生产丙烯、汽油脱硫、促进一氧化碳燃烧、减少氮氧化物和硫氧化物等。将共催化剂加入到基础催化剂中，比常规助剂的添加速率更快，以改变催化裂化的核心效果。
【课文参考译文】
由于燃料油市场供需关系的急剧变化，美国炼油工业的产品相对价格也经常变化。因此，从催化裂化装置中得到最大量的汽油或柴油的生产方案也经常变化。炼油商如何从催化裂化装置中得到最大的产品价值以应对市场变化呢？
在炼油商需要灵活改变催化裂化装置的产品方案而不改变催化裂化催化剂的情况下，共催化剂（应运而生）成为一种新的产品种类。在最大量生产汽油的共催化剂和最大量生产轻循环油的共催化剂之间变换，可以使炼厂总能迅速的获得最大的经济效益——使催化裂化装置的利润最大化。
将共催化剂加入到基础催化剂中能快速的改变催化裂化装置的主要性能。由于其优良的催化特性，共催化剂能够促使装置的性能发生根本变化，并可替代至少同等量的基础催化剂。它们可以快速加入装置中，使得装置性能迅速地发生相应变化，在最短的时间内重塑产品分布和产品价值——远比通过调整催化裂化催化剂的配方快得多地实现利润的优化。
【练习参考答案】
Co-catalysts have similarities with both additives and catalysts, but stand alone as a separate and new category of products. Catalysts provide the core catalytic performance of the FCC unit. Additives are added to the base catalyst to promote other process or product effects such as propylene maximization, sulfur reduction of gasoline, CO combustion promotion, NO x and SO x reduction, etc. Co-catalysts are added to the base catalyst - at greater addition rates than typically used for additives- to change the FCC core performance. UNIT 6 Distillation蒸馏
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
The most widely used separation process in the chemical industry is distillation. This unit operation is also referred to as fractionation or fractional distillation. Separation of constituents is based upon differences in volatility.
In distillation, a vapor phase contacts a liquid phase, and mass is transferred both from the liquid to the vapor and from the vapor to the liquid. The liquid and vapor generally contain the same components but the different relative quantities. The liquid is at its bubble point, and the vapor in equilibrium is at its dew-point. Mass is transferred simultaneously from the liquid by vaporization and from the vapor by condensation.
The net effect is an increase in concentration of the more volatile component in the vapor and of the less volatile component in the liquid. Vaporization and condensation involve the latent heats of vaporization of the components, and heat effects must therefore be considered in distillation calculations.
In an ideal solution, the volatility can be related directly to the pure-component vapor pressure of each component. In nonideal solutions, no simple relationship exists. Distillation is widely used to separate liquid mixtures into more or less pure components.
Translate the following paragrtiph into English.
蒸馏操作的应用多种多样。用于炼钢、火箭及医疗的纯氧就是通过液化空气蒸馏得到的。
原油最初在大型蒸馏塔中分离出许多馏分，这些馏分进一步处理得到最终产品，并且蒸馏经常应用于最终产品生产过程的中间环节。
【课文参考译文】
在化学工业中使用最为广泛的分离过程是蒸馏。这种单元操作也被称为分馏或组分蒸馏。组分分离是基于各组分挥发性的差别。
在蒸馏过程中，气相与液相相接触，从液相到气相和从气相到液相都会发生传质过程。通常气相和液相中含有相同的组分但是相对数量不同。液相处于沸点，而气相在平衡时则处于露点。传质同时发生在液相气化和气相冷凝过程中。
实际效果是气相中更易挥发的组分浓度增加，而液相中不易挥发的组分浓度增加。气化和冷凝涉及组分的气化潜热，因此在蒸馏计算中必须考虑热效应。
在理想溶液中，挥发度与每个纯组分的蒸气压直接关联。在非理想溶液中，这种简单关系不存在。蒸馏广泛应用于将液相混合物分离为近似纯组分。
【练习参考答案】
Applications of distillation are tremendously diverse. Pure oxygen, for use in steel-making, in rockets, and for medical applications, is produced by the distillation of air that has been liquefied.
Crude oil is initially separated into a number of fractions in large distillation columns. These fractions are further processed into finished products, and distillation is frequently used in the intermediate steps in the manufacture of the final products.
UNIT 7 Adsorption吸附
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Adsorption involves the transfer of a constituent of a fluid to the surface of a solid phase. To complete the separation, the adsorbed constituent must then be removed from the solid. The fluid phase may be either a gas or a liquid. If several constituent are adsorbed to varying extents, it is often possible to separate them into relatively pure components.
Many solid adsorbents are used. Strictly speaking, the term adsorbent is usually applied to a solid that holds the solute to its surface by physical forces. An example would be the adsorption of organic vapors by charcoal. The lighter fractions of natural gas are
separated industrially using a moving bed of adsorbent. Most other industrial processes use fixed beds and batch or cyclical processes rather than multistage equipment because ofthe difficulty of moving the solid.
Molecular sieves are special synthetic adsorbents that can be used to separate mixtures by differences in molecular size, polarity, or carbon-bond saturation. For example, water molecules are relatively small and highly polar, so they are preferentially adsorbed by molecular-sieve adsorbents. Thus, these adsorbents are useful in drying gases and liquids. Molecular sieves are being used to separate normal paraffins from hydrocarbon streams in an oil refinery for use in the manufacture of biodegradable detergents.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
许多分离工艺涉及到通过塑料薄膜的传质过程。虽然这些操作具有有限的应用范围，但是它们有希望解决特殊的分离问题。
与吸附操作紧密相关的是通过不同方式保留固体中的溶质的分离过程。一种方法是离子交换，通过与固体离子交换树脂进行化学反应从而保留溶质。
【课文参考译文】
吸附过程涉及流体组分转移到固体表面的过程。为了完成分离过程，被吸附的组分随后必须从固体上脱除。流体相态可以是气相或液相。如果有几种组分吸附的程度不同，通常可将它们分离成相对较纯的组分。
许多固体吸附剂得到应用。严格说来，吸附剂一词通常适用于通过物理作用将溶质附着在其表面的固体。一个例子就是使用煤焦来吸附有机蒸气。工业上使用移动床吸附剂将天然气中的轻组分分离出来。由于移动吸附剂固体较困难，其它大部分的工业过程使用固定床和间歇或循环工艺而不是多级设备。
分子筛是特殊合成的吸附剂，它利用分子尺寸、极性或碳键饱和程度的不同来分离混合物。例如，水分子通常相对较小并具有高极性，所以它们更适合使用分子筛吸附剂来吸附。因此，这些吸附剂很适用于干燥气体和液体。在生物降解洗涤剂的生产过程中，就利用分子筛将正构烷烃从炼厂的烃类物流中分离出来。
【练习参考答案】
A number of separation processes involve the transfer of mass through a thin plastic membrane. Although these operations have relatively limited application, they show promise for special separation problems.
Closely related to adsorption are separation processes that retain solutes in solids by various means. One such process is ion exchange, where the solute is retained by a chemical reaction with the solid ion-exchange resin.
UNIT 8 Petroleum Gas石油气
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
During the distillation of a crude oil, considerable volumes of gas (methane, ethane propane, butanes) may be released, and in the various reforming and cracking processes in a refinery, further quantities of gas are generated as a result of breakdown of heavier fractions. Such gas has a higher calorific value than fuel oil and can therefore be used with advantage as a fuel for refinery process units. However, there are often other demands on refinery gas since the lighter paraffins are readily converted to "synthesis gas"(carbon monoxide and hydrogen) which is a starting-point for the manufacture of many chemical products including methanol and ammonia and their derivatives. Ethylene and propylene, if produced, are also valuable raw materials for petroleum chemical production.
Butane is an essential constituent in imparting desirable volatility and anti-knock characteristics to a motor spirit, and it is also a valuable product, per se, as "bottled" gas. Butanes and butenes can be maintained in the liquid state at ambient temperature under quite moderate pressures, and can therefore be marketed in steel containers which can safely be used in the home. Such liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) provides a convenient source of high calorific value fuel for heating and cooking in locations where electricity and town or natural gas are not available, as for example in remote country districts, and also in caravans and small boats.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
丙烷也可用作液化石油气，而且因其沸点较低，故在高寒地区特别适用。不过，丙烷液化气的主要销路还是在工业用途上，特别是借助氧，丙烷火焰用于金属切割。C3，C4碳氢化合物在炼油厂里也可用作生产车用汽油组分的某些装置的进料。例如，丙烯和丁烯可用作催化聚合装置的原料，而异丁烷可在烷基化装置里与一系列的烯烃反应。
【课文参考译文】
原油蒸馏时会释放出数量相当可观的石油气（甲烷、乙烷、丙烷和丁烷）。而且，在炼油厂的各种重整和裂化过程中，由于重馏分分解的缘故，也会产生大量石油气。这种石油气比燃料油具有更高的热值，因此它能有效地用作炼油装置的燃料。不过，由于轻质烷烃容易转化成“合成气”（一氧化碳和氢气），而这种“合成气”又是制取包括甲醇和氨及其衍生物的原料，所以炼油厂出来的石油气常常有其它用途。如果有乙烯和丙烯产出，它们也是石油化工生产中的宝贵原料。
为使车用汽油具备所要求的挥发性能和抗爆性能，丁烷是不可缺少的组成部分。而且，丁烷本身也是一种有价值的产品，它可用作“瓶装”气。在中等压力及常温下，丁烷和丁烯均可保持液体状态。因此，它们可以储存在钢制容器中出售，家庭使用十分安全。在没有电、煤气或天然气供应的地方，比如偏僻的乡村、野外的活动房和小船上，这种液化石油气均可作为取暖、做饭提供便利的高热值燃料。
【练习参考答案】
Propane may also be used as LPG, and its lower boiling-point makes it suitable for this purpose in cold climate. However, the main outlet for propane LPG is for industrial purposes, particularly for metal-cutting, using oxy-propane torches. The C3 and C4 hydrocarbons also find uses in the refinery itself as feed-stocks for certain processes manufacturing motor-gasoline components. Propylene and the butenes, for example, may be fed to a catalytic polymerization unit, and isobutene may be reacted in an alkylation unit witha wide range of olefins.
UNIT 9 Benzene Reduction in Reformate降低重整油中的苯含量
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
The sources of benzene in the gasoline pool vary for each refinery, the predominant source for most is reformate. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has estimated that benzene in reformate contributes about 50 to 75% of the benzene in the US gasoline pool. Therefore, the most cost effective strategy for reducing benzene in gasoline is to treat the reformate stream.
Benzene reduction in reformate can be achieved by either the removal of benzene precursors before they are converted to benzene in the reformer, or by post-removal of benzene in the reformate product by chemical conversion of benzene or by removal with fractionation. Each refinery will determine the technology that best meets its specific needs.
Removal of reformer feed benzene precursor was one of the options many refiners adopted to achieve the current l vol% benzene requirement. The precursors can be sent through an isomerization unit if there is available capacity or sent directly into a gasoline pool if the octane requirement and sulfur balance allow. However, this approach results in a significant loss of opportunity for increasing octane and hydrogen production in the reformer. Many refiners do not have spare hydrogen production capacity due to the implementation of clean fuel projects in the last few years. Removal of reformer feed benzene precursors would not be able to meet the need for refiners for the new benzene regulations in most cases.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
重整油后脱除苯有两种选择：分馏或转化。分馏就是分离出富含苯的重整物流，进行苯抽提或者作为一种商品在石化市场销售。除非炼厂已具有该工艺处理的设备或能力，否则很难证实这种小规模的苯抽提是有投资价值的。
苯饱和方法已经被很多炼厂工业化，而且被认为是技术成熟的。然而，这种方法伴随着严重的辛烷值下降和高氢气消耗。
【课文参考译文】
每个炼厂汽油中苯的来源是不同的，对于大多数炼厂来说苯主要来自于重整油。美国环境保护署估计，来自重整油中的苯占整个美国汽油池中苯总量的50%到75%。因此，降低汽油中苯含量最有效的措施是处理重整油物流。
降低重整油中的苯含量可以通过两种方法实现：一种是在重整装置中苯的前身物在转化成苯之前将其脱除；另一种是通过苯的化学转化或是分馏脱除的方法对重整产物中的苯进行后处理。每个炼厂都会决定采用一种最好的技术来满足其特定的需求。
脱除重整进料中的苯前身物体是许多炼厂采取的方法之一，可以实现目前苯体积含量为1%的要求。如果异构化单元容量允许，这些母体可以通过异构化单元被输送到汽油中；或者在辛烷值和硫含量平衡许可的前提下，被直接输送到汽油池中。然而，这种方法会导致重整装置中提高辛烷值及产氢的机会大大减少。在最近的几年中，由于清洁能源项目的施行，大多数的炼厂并没有多余产氢的能力。大多数情形下脱除重整进料中苯前身物将不能满足炼厂对于最新的苯含量规格的要求。
【练习参考答案】
There are two types of reformer post removal options for benzene: fractionation or conversion. The fractionation option separates the benzene rich reformate stream either for benzene extraction or for sale as a commodity on the petrochemical market. Unless the refinery has existing facilities or capacity for such a process, it is very difficult to justify the investment for benzene extraction on a small scale.
Benzene saturation has been commercially practiced by a number of refineries and is considered a proven technology. However, this approach comes with a significant octane penalty and high hydrogen consumption.
UNIT 10 Petroleum-based Fuels石油类燃料
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
The combustible fuels in common use are predominantly from fossilized resources containing carbon and hydrogen which react with oxygen (usually in the form of air) to form major products of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water. Pure carbon or hydrogen are themselves combustible but common fuels are likely to be some compounds of the two generally and are then designated as hydrocarbons, C x H y, where x and y commonly cover a range from one to about twenty. Of these, coal provides the most extensive resource but, as well as being more difficult to extract and transport than liquid or gaseous types, is not suited to modem engine combustion and is used mainly for the production of steam for electrical power production.
Petroleum-based fuels are by far the most common intemal combustion engine fuels and are a blend of many hydrocarbons distilled and reformed in the refining process to give the appropriate properties.
Gasoline is a blend of colourless, volatile liquid petroleum fractions which boil between about 30o C and 200o C a typical relative density being about 0.73. For overall average properties, gasolines are sometimes considered to be the single compound, iso-octane C8H18, but this is substantially different, particularly in volatility. Actual components range from C4 to C9 (sometimes to C12) and cover many types of hydrocarbons depending on the crude oil source and the refining process. The fuel is refined to give appropriate octane numbers, volatility, etc., but the composition of the final product may still vary considerably from one source to another. Net heating values (lower) are about 44MJ/kg.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
石油资源是极为有限的，但石油燃料最适合于内燃机，因为它们具有高能量密度，易于运送。与之相比，气体燃料更易于运送。但它们的能量密度却低得多。然而，气体燃料的贮藏量更多一些。值得一提的是，某种矿产的消耗率至少应与它的总贮藏受到同等的重视。大多数预测指出，按现在的燃料消耗率，石油资源将在21世纪中叶前被耗尽，气体燃料应可持续到21世纪的大部分时间。而煤是一种长期的资源，其贮藏量能用几百年。显然，这些预测并非不可变，因为它们所依赖的许多因素有可能发生变化。
【课文参考译文】
目前广泛使用的燃料主要来自包含碳和氢的化石资源，它们与氧发生反应（通常是以空气的形式），主要生成产物是二氧化碳、一氧化碳和水。纯净的碳和氢自身可燃，但常用的燃料通常是由它们构成的某些化合物，称为碳氢化合物，记为C x H Y，X与Y 的取值范围通常从1到大约20。在这些化合物中，煤提供了最广泛的燃料资源，但它比液态与气态燃料更难开采，更难运输，从而不适于现代内燃机的使用，它主要用于电站产生水蒸汽来发电。
石油类燃料是目前为止最常用的内燃机燃料，它是许多碳氢化合物的混合体，并通过炼制加工过程如蒸馏和重整使其具有适当的性质。
汽油是一种无色易挥发的液态石油类混合燃料，其沸点在30℃到200℃之间，典型的相对密度为0.73。就整体性质而言，有时可将汽油看成单一的化合物——异辛烷C8H18，但又有许多不同之处，尤其是挥发性不同，汽油的实际组分从C4到C9（有时达C12），汽油中含有的碳氢化合物的种类取决于原油来源与炼制过程。燃料经过精炼，使其获得适当的辛烷值和挥发度等，但最终产品的组成可能仍旧随原料的不同而有相当大的差别，其净热值（低热值）大约为44MJ/kg。
【练习参考答案】
Petroleum are extremely limited resources, but they are the most suitable fuels for intemal combustion engines because of their high energy density and easy delivery To compare with it, gaseous fuels are even easier for delivery but considerably inferior on the aspect of energy density. However, their "reserves are much more than those of petroleum resources. It should be noted that, for a certain mineral product, the rate ofits consumption should be viewed at least as important as its total reserves. Most predictions indicate that, at current usage rates, petroleum resources will be depleted before the middle of the twenty-first century, and gaseous fuels should last through much of that century. However, coal is a long-term resource with potential supplies for several hundred years. Obviously, all these predictions are somewhat speculative as they depend on many factors which have the potential to change.
UNIT 11 Lubrication润滑油
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Lubrication depends upon many factors besides the nature of the lubricant, the shape and roughness of rubbing surfaces and the materials from which they are made are important. Whether or not there is a rolling as well as rubbing motion, and the relative speeds of moving parts, also need to be considered.
The nature of the environment in which lubricant is required is critically important in many applications. In many modern machines, lubricant is often required at extremely high or extremely low temperatures, or in the presence of high humidity or artificial atmospheres or nuclear radiation. When lubricant are used for metalcutting and similar operations, where there is inevitably some contact between human beings and the lubricant, the possibility of a hazard to health is an important consideration.
The main object of lubrication is to reduce friction and wear in the moving parts of machine. This reduces frictional heat and the consequent waste of energy, and it also avoids premature failure of the machine through excessive wear or seizure. Although there are some engineering plastics and resins that do not require the use of a lubricant, their use is limited to relatively light duties.
Most of the moving parts of machinery are metallic and a lubricant is necessary. Lubrication can be achieved with gases and solids as well as with liquids, and there are special circumstances where either gas or solid lubrication is preferred. However, such cases are rare and addition here will be confined to lubricating oils and greases.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
在一些应用领域中，润滑油充当了固体污染物的载体。这些污染物或者通过油过滤器除去，或者悬浮在润滑油中，直到重新更换润滑油。这一操作过程对于活塞发动机尤为重要，因为在活塞发动机中，润滑油会受到燃烧产物的污染。
【课文参考译文】
除了润滑油的天然特性，润滑取决于很多因素，摩擦表面的形状和粗糙程度及其所使用的制作材料也很重要。是否存在一个滚动或是摩擦运动，以及移动部件的相对速度也应该予以考虑。
润滑油所需的环境特性在许多应用方面是至关重要的。在许多现代机械中，经常在极端高温或低温的环境下，或是在高湿度或合成气的氛围里，或是在核辐射的情形下需要使用润滑油。当润滑油用于进行金属切割和类似的操作时，人们不可避免地和润滑油之间存在一些接触，对于健康危害的可能性是重点需要考虑的。
润滑的主要目的是减少机械的移动部件的摩擦和磨损。这将减少摩擦热和由此带来的能源浪费，同时避免机械由于过度磨损或咬死而过早毁损。尽管有些工程塑料和树脂不需要使用润滑油，但是它们的应用领域局限于相对轻型的机械。
大多数机械的移动部件都是金属的，润滑油是非常必要的。润滑性能可以通过气体、固体以及液体实现，存在更倾向于使用气体或者固体润滑的特殊情况。然而，这些情况是非常少见的，此处添加局限于润滑油和油脂。
【练习参考答案】
In some applications, lubricants act as a carrier for solid contaminants, which can either be removed by oil filters, or be kept in suspension until the oil is changed. This is a particularly important function in piston engine lubrication, in which oil is contaminated by combustion products.
UNIT12 Asphalt沥青
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Asphalt is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude petroleums. It is most commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase (though there is some disagreement amongst chemists regarding its structure). One writer states that although a "considerable amount of work has been done on the composition of asphalt, it is exceedingly difficult to separate individual hydrocarbon in pure form", and "it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large". The primary use of asphalt is in road construction, where it is used as the glue or binder for the aggregate particles.
Asphalt can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a similar black thermo-plastic material produced by the destructive distillation of coal. During the early- and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, tar was a readily available product and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, asphalt has completely overtaken the use of tar in these applications.
Asphalt can be separated from the other components in crude oil (such as naphtha, gasoline and diesel) by the process of fractional distillation, usually under vacuum conditions. A better separation can be achieved by further processing of the heavier fractions of the crude oil in a de-asphalting unit, which uses either propane or butane in a supercritical phase to dissolve the lighter molecules which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with oxygen. This makes the product harder and more viscous.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
不同油田石油混合物中轻烃比例变化极大，变化的范围在轻油中重量百分比高达97%，而在重油或沥青中少到50%。
沥青典型被储存和运输的温度在150摄氏度左右。有时候在运输前混入柴油和煤油以保持其流动性，交货后，这些轻物质从混合物中被分离出来，这种混合物通常被称作沥青原料。
【课文参考译文】
沥青是一种粘稠的、黑色的和高粘度的液体或半固体，存在于大多数的原油中。沥青通常被当作为一种胶体，以沥青质作为分散相和软沥青作为连续相（尽管化学家们对于它的结构还存在一些分歧）。有作者声称：尽管对沥青的组成进行了相当大量的工作，但是将单体烃从沥青中分离出来还相当困难，而且分离和辨别沥青中所有不同的分子几乎不可能，因为具有不同化学结构的分子数量相当的大。沥青最初是用于公路建设方面，被用作凝结颗粒的胶体或粘结剂。
沥青有时候容易和焦油混淆，焦油是一种类似黑色热塑料的物质，它是由煤炭的破坏性干馏得到的。在20世纪早期和中期，当生产城市煤气的时候，焦油是一种相当容易得到的产品，并且广泛的应用于道路沙石颗粒的粘结剂。添加焦油到碎石路，产生了“焦油碎石混合物”这个词，这个词现在常用于特指道路制作材料。然而，自从20世纪70年代以后，当天然气替代城市煤气后，沥青在上述领域的应用完全地超过了焦油。
通常在减压条件下，通过蒸馏过程可以将沥青与原油中的其它组分（例如石脑油、汽油和柴油）分离开来。在脱沥青装置中，通过对原油中的重组分进行深加工可以实现更好的分离。在该装置内，在超临界相中使用丙烷或丁烷溶解较轻的分子，然后将其分离出来。沥青还能进行深加工，通过“吹炼”产品，也就是与氧气反应，使得产品更硬并且更粘稠。
【练习参考答案】
The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture is highly variable between different oil fields and ranges from as much as 97% by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the heavier oils and bitumens.
Asphalt is typically stored and transported at temperatures around 150 degrees Celsius. Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called asphalt feedstock.
UNIT13 Polyethylene聚乙烯
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
When ethylene is heated under pressure, with oxygen as a catalyst, it is converted to a polymeric form known as polyethylene or polythene. The product is a mixture of high-molecular-weight alkanes (if the one double bond at the end of the chain is ignored) and may be classified as a polyalkane. Under one set of experimental conditions the value ofn may vary from 50 to 700 with the average for the mixture being about 500. Since the repeating unit of the polymer(---CH2CH2---) has a value of 28, the average molecular weight for it is about 14000. At this point we should make a special note of the fact that most polymers are not pure compounds but are complex mixtures of compounds.
The polythene ofindustry is a thermoplastic solid, i.e., it will soften and flow when heated. Most thermoplastic materials soften at relatively low temperatures; polythene is plastic at about 115o C, like other polymers, it may be deposited as a thin film or sheet. The
film-forming property of thermoplastic polymers is important and, because of it, many useful products are possible: raincoats, tablecloths, shower curtain, paints, etc. It may be moulded into a variety of solid articles such as the flexible, non-breakable bottles used for drug store products and other materials. Perhaps its most important use has been in electrical insulation where the non-conducting property of the alkane hydrocarbon is employed in a useful way.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
热塑性聚合物通常既硬又脆，因此，为了实用，在聚合物加工成型前，把称为增塑剂的各种软化剂同聚合物掺合起来。增塑剂常常是结构比较简单并能溶于聚合物的纯有机物。性质优良的增塑剂能无限地留在塑料内，性质低劣的增塑剂则会慢慢地挥发，剩下原来硬而脆的聚合物。
【课文参考译文】
乙烯用氧作催化剂在压力下加热时，转变成一种称为聚乙烯的聚合物形式。该聚合物是高分子量链烷烃的混合物并可归类为聚烷烃（如将链末端的一个双键忽略不计的话）。在一组实验条件下，聚合度n值从50到700，混合物的n平均值为500。由于聚合物的重复单元(---CH2CH2---)分子量是28，因此它的平均分子量约为14000。此时，我们应特别注意这一事实，即大多数聚合物不是纯的化合物，而是化合物的复杂混合物。
工业聚乙烯是一个热塑性固体，即它受热时会变软并流动。大多数热塑性聚合物的软化温度相对较低。聚乙烯约在115℃时呈塑性，同其他聚合物一样，聚乙烯可被制成薄膜或薄板。热塑性聚合物成膜的性质是重要的，由于这一性质，可以用它制成许多有用的制品，如雨衣、台布、浴帘和涂料等；还可把聚乙烯模塑成许多固体制品，如药店盛装药品的及其他物品用的柔软而不易碎的各种瓶子。也许，聚乙烯的最重要的用途是用于电的绝缘体，此种用途是有效地利用了链烷烃的不导电的性质。
【练习参考答案】．
Thermoplastic polymers are usually hard and brittle, so for practical purpose, various softening agents known as plasticizers are blended with the polymer before it is fabricated. Plasticizers are often pure organic compounds which are relatively simple in structure and soluble in the polymer. Plastiazers with good quality will remam in the plastic indefinitely, while the poor ones will slowly volatilize and leave behind the original hard, brittle polymer.
UNIT 14 Steam Cracking蒸汽裂解
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Ethylene is produced commercially by the steam cracking of a wide range of hydrocarbon feedstocks. In Europe and Asia, ethylene is obtained mainly from cracking naphtha, gasoil and condensates with the coproduction of propylene C4 olefins and aromatics (pyrolysis gasoline). The cracking of ethane and propane, primarily carried out in the US, Canada and the Middle East, has the advantage that it only produces ethylene and propylene, making the plants cheaper to construct and less complicated to operate.
No major advances are seen in steam cracking technology in the near term with efforts being directed at improving plant performance through process optimisation, computer control and fumace design. However, ceramic-based fumaces could be developed in the future offering much higher conversion rates and efficiency achieved by very high temperature cracking with no coke formation.
An advanced catalytic olefins (ACO) process that produces ethylene, propylene and other olefins from naphtha at a lower temperature of 700o C has been developed by a Korean Company. The process is claimed to reduce energy needs by 20%, initial investment costs by 30% as well as reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Plans are to install the ACO process in an existing olefins plant in Korea.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
提高轻烯烃产出的烯烃裂解和相互转化工艺已经被开发出来。特别是这些工艺能够把C4至C8的烯烃和轻裂解汽油转化成乙烯和丙烯。能够增强裂解过程控制或允许乙烷脱氢的更新的催化工艺正在开发过程中。
使用碳数较低的醇作为原料生产乙烯的工艺是可行的。一些公司已经开发出了MTO（用甲醇生产烯烃）技术，此工艺能把甲醇转化成乙烯和丙烯。在中国，由煤液化生产的甲醇作为原料，使用此技术生产乙烯备受关注。
【课文参考译文】
工业上通过蒸汽裂解很宽范围的碳氢化合物原料来生产乙烯。在欧洲和亚洲主要通过裂解石脑油，轻质柴油和凝析油来获得乙烯，同时联产丙烯，C4烯烃和芳烃（裂解汽油）。乙烷和丙烷裂解制烯烃技术主要在美国、加拿大和中东应用，裂解产品只有乙烯和丙烯，且装置造价低，操作相对简单。
近期，蒸汽裂解技术没有重大进展，所作的努力主要是通过工艺条件优化，计算机控制和裂解炉设计来改善装置的性能。但是，以陶瓷为基础的裂解炉可能在将来有所发展，它能在裂解反应温度非常高的条件下达到更高的转化率和效率，而反应器不发生结焦。
一家韩国公司开发了一种用石脑油为原料在700℃的较低温度下生产乙烯、丙烯和其它烯烃的先进催化烯烃(ACO)生产工艺。据称该工艺能降低20%能耗，降低30%初期投资，以及减少二氧化碳排放，并计划在韩国一家现有烯烃厂内建设一套ACO工艺装置。
【练习参考答案】
Olefin cracking and interconversion processes have being developed to boost light olefins output. Typically, they can convert C4-C8 olefins and light pyrolysis gasoline into ethylene and propylene. Newer catalytic processes are under development that provide enhanced control of the cracking process or permit catalytic dehydrogenation of ethane. Processes are available that use lower alcohols as feedstocks to produce ethylene. Some companies have developed a MTO (methanol-to-olefins) technology that converts methanol to ethylene and propylene. There is considerable interest in using this technology in China with methanol produced via the liquefacition of coal.
UNIT 15 Ethylene Plant乙烯装置
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
One of the most common building blocks of the petrochemical industry is ethylene with millions of tons produced every year throughout the world. Ethylene is used to make such common chemicals such as polyethylene, polystyrene, and alpha-olefins. A typical ethylene plant also makes a number of other important building-block chemicals such as propylene, butadiene and an aromatics-rich pyrolysis gasoline.
The typical ethylene plant is divided into two basic sections: the cracking furnaces and the fractionation train. The furnaces can go by a number of names: "naphtha cracking furnaces", "pyrolysis furnaces", "naphtha pyrolysis furnaces", "naphtha steam cracker", etc.
As the name implies, the cracking furnace in an ethylene plant takes the feedstock and cracks the molecules at high temperatures. Typically 12- 15 furnaces are used in a single ethylene plant. Most feed streams are naphtha-type stream in plants outside of the United States. In the U.S., the feed stream is predominantly a mixture of ethane and propane (E/P mix).
The feed is mixed with steam and cracked at 850o C in the furnace coils. The furnace effluent gas is cooled in transfer line exchangers (TLEs) where the heat removed from the cracked gas is used to generate high-pressure steam.
After the transfer line exchanges, the sample is cooled even more with oil-quenching and water-quenching systems. The cooled furnace effluent is compressed to an optimum pressure for separating into the various chemical components in the fractionation section where product recovery occurs. The stream is also run through a caustic wash system to remove H2S and CO2 between compression stages.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
裂解炉的先进控制，对乙烯装置的整体效率至关重要。进料物流的过度裂解，可能会因为在炉管内表面上形成的结焦过多而导致裂解炉提前停车。但是，进料的裂解深度不够将直接造成总产量的减少。在线色谱仪能够提供装置控制系统所需的数据，以寻求裂解深度的最佳均衡点。
【课文参考译文】
石化行业最普通的基本原料之一就是乙烯，全世界每年都会生产数百万吨的乙烯。乙烯用于生产聚乙烯、聚苯乙烯和α-烯烃等常用化学品。典型的乙烯装置还会生产许多其它重要的基本化工原料，例如丙烯、丁二烯和富含芳烃的裂解汽油。
典型的乙烯装置可以分为两个基本部分：裂解炉部分和分馏部分。炉子的名称不一，有“石脑油裂解炉”、“热裂解炉”、“石脑油热解炉”、“石脑油蒸汽裂解炉”等。
顾名思义，乙烯装置中的裂解炉就是接收进料并在高温的情况下将分子裂化。单套乙烯装置通常有12-15台裂解炉。除了美国，大多数乙烯装置进料为石脑油类物流；而在美国，进料物流主要为乙烷和丙烷的混合物（E/P混合物）。
乙烯装置进料与蒸汽混合并在850o C下在炉管中裂化。裂解气在管式换热器中冷却，从裂解气取出的热量用于产生高压蒸汽。
经过急冷管式换热后，还要利用急冷油系统和急冷水系统使物流进一步冷却。冷却的裂解炉流出物被压缩至最适宜的压力，在分馏单元分离成各种化学组分，并在此进行产品回收。在压缩机的某两段之间，该物流还要通过碱洗系统脱除H2S和CO2。【练习参考答案】
Advanced control of the cracking furnace is critical to the ethylene plant's entire efficiency. "Over-cracking" of the feed stream can lead to premature furnace shutdowns due to excessive coke formation on the inner surface of the coil. Yet, "undercracking" of the feed is a direct reduction in overall production. Process gas chromatographs provide the data the plant's control system needs to find the right balance for cracking severity.
UNIT 16 Plastics塑料
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Plastics are polymers, molecules formed of many identical units bound to each other like pearls in a necklace. For a polymer to be electrically conductive it must "imitate" a metal --- the electrons in the bonds must be freely mobile and not bound fast to the atoms. One condition for this is that the polymer consists of altemate single and double bonds, termed conjugated double bonds. Polyacetylene is the simplest possible conjugated polymer. It is obtained by polymerisation of acetylene.
At the beginning of the 1970s researchers were studying the polymerisation of acetylene. In his reaction vessel polyacetylene appeared in the form of an unremarkable black powder. On one occasion a visiting researcher accidentally added one thousand times more catalyst than usual. Imagine the researcher's surprise when a beautiful silvery film formed on the surface of the liquid in the vessel. The obvious question was: "If the plastic film shines like a metal, can it conduct electricity, too?"
Although the polyacetylene film shone like silver, it was not an electrical conductor. Could it perhaps be modified in some way? In the mid-1970s three researchers began co-operating to investigate this and results were quick to come. When they caused the films to react with iodine vapour, the conductivity increased by as much as ten million times. This surprising discovery has radically altered our view of plastic as a material.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
将塑料易于成型且重量轻的特性与金属易导电韵特性相结合，这一令人振奋的想法激发了集中的开发研究。由于导电性范围很宽，从不良半导体到金属级别的导电性都有其商业应用，如电池、电容器、抗静电材料及防腐材料等。
塑料的优点是很容易制作大型及柔性的表面，而且价格低廉。太阳能电池塑料可以大面积的展开，在不久的将来，它将为我们提供无环境污染的电能。
【课文参考译文】
塑料是聚合物，由许多相同单元相互键合而形成的分子组成，类似项链上的珍珠。一个聚合物要导电，就必须像金属那样，成键电子必须能够自由流动，而不是与成键原子紧密结合。一种情况是这种聚合物由单双键交替构成，即所谓的共轭双键。聚乙炔可能是最简单的共轭聚合物，它是由乙炔聚合所得。
20世纪70年代初，人们一直在从事乙炔聚合研究，所用的反应器内聚乙炔呈现为普通的黑色粉末。有一次，一位访问学者在乙炔聚合过程中偶然地多加了上千倍的催化剂，结果在反应器内的液面上形成一层漂亮的银膜，可以想象研究者当时的惊讶程度。显而易见的问题是：“假如塑料膜如同金属膜一样光亮，它也能导电吗？
尽管聚乙炔膜像白银一样闪亮，但是它并不是电导体。这种情况能够以某种方式改变吗？在70年代中期，三个人开始合作研究这一问题并很快得出结果。当他们将所得的聚乙炔膜与碘蒸汽反应时，其导电性呈千万倍的增加，这一惊人发现彻底改变了我们对塑料的传统认识。
【练习参考答案】
The exciting idea of combining the mouldability and low weight of plastics with the conductivity of metals has prompted intensive development. Since the conductivity can be varied over a very broad area, the commercial applications cover from poor semi-conductors to metallic-level conductivity, such as batteries, condensers, anti-static materials and anticorrosion substances, etc..
The advantage ofplastic is that large, flexible surfaces can be made relatively easily and cheaply. Solar cell plastic could be spread out over large areas and give us environmental friendly electricity in the not too distant future.
UNIT 17 Synthetic Rubber合成橡胶
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Synthetic rubber is a type of artificially-made material which acts as an elastomer. An elastomer is a material with the mechanical (or material) property that it can undergo much more elastic deformation under stress than most materials and still return to its previous size without permanent deformation. Synthetic rubber serves as a substitute for natural rubber in many cases, especially when improved material properties are needed.
The principle synthetic rubber elastomer has applications in carpet and gloves, and coagulated latex is used for the production of tires and mechanical goods. It is of critical importance to know the absolute molar mass and its distribution, as well as to gain insight into the conformation of synthetic rubber-which is indicative of the product's end-use performance.
Natural rubber coming from latex is mostly polymerized isoprene with a small percentage of impurities in it. This will limit the range of properties available to it. Also, there are limitations on the proportions of cis and trans double bonds resulting from methods of polymerizing natural latex. This also limits the range of properties available to natural rubber, although addition of sulfur and vulcanization are used to improve the properties.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
生产的单体可以是纯净的单体，通过设计可以控制杂质或添加剂的加入量，使单体获得选择的性能。纯单体的聚合能更好的得到控制，从而获得预期的顺-反双键的比例。
【课文参考译文】
合成橡胶是一种人造的材料，它们起着弹性体的作用。弹性体是具有特定机械（或物质）特性的一种材料：与大多数材料相比，它在压力下能承受更多的弹性变形，并且不会发生永久的变形，并能恢复到原先的大小。在许多情形下，合成橡胶都可以作为天然橡胶的替代品，特别是需要改进材料特性的时候。
合成橡胶的弹性体主要应用于地毯和手套生产，而凝固乳胶则用于生产轮胎和机械制品。了解合成橡胶的绝对摩尔质量和分布，同时深入观察它的结构是至关重要的，而合成橡胶的结构预示着产品的最终使用性能。
源自于乳胶的天然橡胶主要是由聚合异戊二烯组成，同时含有少量的杂质。这一点限制了天然橡胶能达到的性能范围。同时，天然乳胶的聚合方法也会导致顺式和反式双键的比例有所局限，尽管添加硫和硫化可以改善天然橡胶的特性，但是这一点依然限制了天然橡胶能达到的性能范围。
【练习参考答案】
The monomers can be produced pure. It gains optional properties by the design of controlling the addition of impurities or additives. Polymerization of pure monomers can be better controlled by giving a desired proportion of cis and trans double bonds.
UNIT 18 Synthetic Fibers合成纤维
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
The composition and origin of each type of fiber give it quite definite and specific properties, both physical and chemical, some of which are particularly pronounced and are very valuable for the particular textile application. Because of the different requirements that textile fibers have to meet, various properties are mutually exclusive, for example, high strength and great elasticity. The use of one type of fiber for a particular application is therefore always a compromise between the good, i.e. desirable properties of this fiber and its less desirable properties.
The tensile strength is determined by the force required to break the fiber. For textile raw materials, it is quoted as the breaking length in kilometers, meaning that the weight of this length of fiber would be sufficient to break the fiber. The extension of the fiber by tension make it break. The elongation is quoted as a percentage of the initial length. The water absorption of the fiber is quoted as a percentage after immersing the fiber in water and then centrifuging it.
Before the development of synthetic fibers, the only textile fibers available to man were wool and cotton and to a small extent silk, and man had to be content with the properties of these fibers. The multiplicity of synthetic fiber makes it possible to obtain a greater variation in properties. These properties of synthetic fibers are established during their manufacture and are thus adjusted to satisfy the requirements for particular end uses.
Translate the following paragraphinto English.
很显然，天然纤维无法像合成纤维一样能够满足极端的要求，合成纤维特别适合于极端的要求，这一点已经得到证实，一些例子将有助于加强这一观点。
汽车和飞机轮胎能够满足在启动、刹车和着陆时的苛刻要求，归功于其中含有的纤维帘布，这种帘布是由高强度粘胶纤维和聚酰胺纤维制成的。
【课文参考译文】
每种纤维的组成和来源都会赋予它十分确定和具体的物理和化学特性，其中一些特性在特定的纺织品应用方面尤其明显和有价值。由于纺织纤维必须满足应用领域的不同要求，而不同的特性之间相互排斥，例如，高强度和良好的弹性。因此一种纤维在一个特定应用领域的使用总是在不同属性之间进行平衡，也就是，在这种纤维所需要的特性和不需要的特性之间求得平衡。
拉伸强度是由能够使纤维断裂的力量来确定的。对于纺织品原材料，使用千米断裂长度来衡量，也就是指这一长度的纤维的重量足以使该纤维断裂。纤维通过张力进行拉伸直到断裂。拉伸率通过对比原始长度的百分比来衡量。纤维的吸水率通过将纤维浸泡水对比离心甩干后质量的百分比来衡量。
在合成纤维发明以前，人类唯一可用的纺织纤维是羊毛和棉花以及一小部分的丝绸，人类不得不满足于这些纤维的特性。合成纤维的多样性使得它具有不同的使用性能。这些合成纤维的不同性能在制造环节中形成，这样可以通过调整制备工艺就能满足最终用户的不同要求。
【练习参考答案】
It is clear that no natural fiber can satisfy the extreme requirements just as synthetic fibers have done, which have proved themselves particularly suitable. Some examples will help to emphasize this point.
Automobile and airplane tires have been able to meet the severe requirements of starting, braking and landing, thanks to the textile ply they contained which are made of high strength rayon and polyamide.
UNIT 19 Environmentally Friendly Products环保产品
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Every stage of a product's life cycle has an environmental impact, starting with extraction of raw materials, continuing through processing, manufacturing, and transportation, and concluding with consumption and disposal or recovery. Technology and chemical science are challenged at every stage. Redesigning products and processes to minimize environmental impact requires a new philosophy of production and a different level of understanding of chemical transformations.
Environmentally friendly products require novel materials that are reusable, recyclable, or biodegradable; properties of the materials are determined by the chemical composition and structure. To minimize waste and polluting by-products, new kinds of chemical process schemes will have to be developed. Improved chemical separation techniques are needed to enhance efficiency and to remove residual pollutants, which in tum will require new chemical treatment methods in order to render them harmless.
Knowledge of chemical transformations can also help in the discovery of previously unknown environmental problems. The threat to the ozone layer posed by CFCs was correctly anticipated through fundamental studies of atmospheric chemistry, eventually leading to intemational agreements for phasing out the production of these otherwise useful chemical in favor of equally functional but environmentally more compatible alternatives.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
那些不容易转化为无害物质的放射性元素和重金属污染物，则需要将它们固定在惰性材料中以便安全地存放。最后一点，对环境污染尚无意识的早期遗留下来的污染物，需要进一步用化学和生物修复技术进行处理。
【课文参考译文】
一种产品在其使用周期的每个阶段都会对环境产生影响，起始于原材料选取、经过接下来的加工、制造、运输，终止于消费和处理或回收。在每个阶段都对工艺学和化学提出了挑战。重新设计产品和加工过程来最大程度的减少对环境的影响，需要一种新的生产理念和在不同水平层面上对化学转化的理解。
环保产品要采用可重复利用的、可回收的或可生物降解的新材料。而原材料的特性是由其化学组成和结构所决定的。为了尽可能地减少废弃物和副产品的生成，需要开发新型的化学工艺路线，并改进化学分离技术，高效分离出残余污染物，而这些残余污染物也需要新的化学处理方法使其变得无毒无害。
化学转化过程的知识同样有助于发现先前未知的环境问题。氯氟化碳(CFC)对臭氧层的威胁就是通过对大气化学基础研究所得出的正确预见，最终国际上一致赞同逐步淘汰这些原本有用的化学品，取而代之的是具有同等功效但是与环境更和谐的产品。【练习参考答案】
Pollutants such as radioactive elements and toxic heavy metals that cannot be readily converted into harmless materials will need to be immobilized in inert materials so that they can be safely stored. Finally, the leftover pollution of an earlier, less environmentally aware era demands improved chemical and biological remediation techniques.
UNIT 20 Heat Transfer热传递
Read the text and translate it into Chinese.
Heat, as a form of energy, can not be created or destroyed. Heat can be transferred from one substance to another. Heat always tends to pass from warmer objects to cooler ones. When a warm substance comes in contact with a cold substance, the molecular of the warm substance collide with the molecules of the cold substance, giving some ofits energy to the cold molecules. This is only one way to transfer heat.
In a chemical plant, for example, in a refinery, transfer of heat is very important. The successful operation of most processes is dependent on correct application of the principles of heat transfer. Where we are handling a hot material, we may insulate the system to hold the heat in; where the material is cold, we may insulate to keep the heat out. Efficient equipment, designed to take full advantage of processing heat, is in use in almost all chemical plants.
Convection is the transfer of heat from one place to another within a liquid or gas by mixing one part of liquid or gas with the other. It could be defined as the process by which gases and liquids move about, due to changes in temperature and pressure. A gas or liquid expands when heated. It becomes lighter and moves upward as gravity pulls the heavier, less heated gas or liquid downward.
Three methods of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is the transfer of heat that occurs by direct contact between two objects at different temperatures, or the transfer from one part of an object to another part of the same object, without movement or mixing ofparticles.
Translate the following paragraph into English.
蒸汽散热器是对流加热的一个很好的例子。空气与散热器接触后受热上升，因为它比房间内其余的空气更轻，冷空气就取代了它的位置。
辐射是通过热波或通过电磁波将热量从一个加热的物体传递到一个冷物体。与收音机信号类似，辐射可以通过空间进行能量传递。
【课文参考译文】
作为能量的一种形式，热不能被创造，也不能被毁灭。热能够从一种物质转移到另一物质上。热总是趋向于从热的物体传递到冷的物体。当一个热的物质与一个冷的物质接触的时候，热物质的分子与冷物质的分子相互碰撞，并将自身的部分能量传给冷物质分子，但这只是一种热传递的方式。
对于一个化工装置，比如，一个炼厂，热传递是非常重要的。大多数工艺过程的成功运行都取决于正确的应用热传递原理。当我们处理热物料的时候，我们可能会对系统进行绝热处理，以保存热量；当物料为冷物料时，我们可能也会对系统进行绝热处理，以防止热量进入。用来充分利用工艺热量的高效换热器设备，几乎在所有的化工厂都有所应用。
对流是通过一部分液体或气体与另一部分进行混合，从而使热量在液体或气体内的某个部位传递到另一个部位。对流可以定义为由于温度和压力的改变而引起的气体或液体移动的过程。当受热时，液体或气体会膨胀，并开始变轻且向上移动；同时重力将使较重和受热较少的气体或液体向下流动。
热传递的三种方法是传导、对流和辐射。传导是两个不同温度的物体直接接触，或者同一物体的一部分与另一部分之间发生的热传递，并没有发生颗粒的移动或混合。【练习参考答案】
A steam radiator is a good example of heating by convection. Air in contact with the radiator warms and rises because it is lighter than the other air in the room. It is displaced by cooler air.
Radiation is the transmission of heat from a heated body to a cooler body by heat waves or the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. Similar to radio signals, radiation can transfer energy through empty space.
附录：任职资格英语考试样卷
Sample for EnglishTest Papers of the Qualification
集团公司高级（含教授级）任职资格外语考试试卷（综合）
(120分钟内完成)
一、阅读理解（阅读短文，用英语简要回答问题，共25分）
短文1 (12.5分)
Young people in Britain tend to stay with their family longer these days as accommodation is expensive but, when they move away to a job or college, they rent a room in someone's house. They can also get a bed-sitting room. They can share a rented flat or house with a group of young people. When young people get married or have a steady income, they often buy a house. They do this by taking out a mortgage with a building society or bank. They are the official owners and the mortgage is a financial loan for anything up to 100% of the value of the house, repayable over twenty to forty years. People can find it difficult to repay their mortgage, but at least they know that in the end the house will be theirs.
If people cannot afford to buy their own house, they can rent property from a private landlord. In city areas the problem has been made worse by the bad condition that a lot of council property is in. High-rise flats, for example, have developed structural faults.
Unfortunately, homelessness is an increasingly serious problem all over Britain. It affects all ages; single people, couples with children, even old-age pensioners. In 1984, 83190 households, a term that covers families and single people, were officially listed as homeless. In one year, 170190 households applied to be put on the list, but thousands were tumed down although they were probably living in overcrowded conditions or in housing that badly needed repairing and improving. Questions:
1. What conditions are new blocks ofcouncil flats in?
2. What does the number, 83190 listed in 1984, show?
3. What do young people these days often do in order to have a place to live in?
4. If one has a mortgage, what does the company he borrowed money from do to him?
5. Why does the author think homelessness is an increasingly serious problem all over Britain?
短文2 (12.5分)
The ultimate goal of economic developments is to improve the well-being of people. The building of factories, the terracing of land and the training of engineers are but means toward that end; enhancing the reputation or wealth of political leaders and increasing the prestige or power of nation states are irrelevant. Improving the health of people is fundamental to improving their well-being. This being so, it is important to know what "health" means. Health has long been defined by the 155 member states of the World Health Organization (WHO) as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." The ultimate goal of development can therefore be said to be health, in this broad sense, for all the people of the world. It is simple as that –-- and as complex.
It is complex because when it comes to defining health policies, assigning priorities, allotting funds and planning and operation programs to give effect to the policies, it is not easy for political leaders or technical experts in either the underdeveloped or the developed countries to keep in mind the centrality of human development. There are two conventional ways to view the relation between health and development. One sees health as a prerequisite for development. The other sees health as a concomitant of development. Both views are supported by evidence and both can motivate human development programs. They are not even mutually exclusive; rather they are mutually supportive.
Health is indeed a prerequisite for economic and social advance. Human energy is the fuel that drives development, the source not only of physical work and other economic activity but also of hope for the future, social awareness and the ability to absorb and apply new knowledge, all of which are essential to development. Genuine measures to improve health are likely to contribute to general socioeconomic advance.
Questions:
1. What's essential to improving the well-being of people?
2. What's the definition of health by WHO?
3.Why is it complex to achieve the ultimate goal of development?
4. What are the two views on the relation between health and development?
5. What's the purpose of this passage?
二、英译汉（将下列短文译成汉语，共45分）
短文1 (20分)
From a recent survey, it can be seen that the consumption of water all over the world has been remarkably raised compared with that of last year. Statistics also show that a lot of water resources such as lakes, rivers and oceans have been polluted seriously. As a result, there is less and less space for people to obtain enough healthy water. With the economic development and the increase of the population, we are faced with the lack of water supply. So it is high time for us to find a solution to the problem.
There are two main ways to solve the problem. First, with the development of high technology new resources may be found and the present ones can be preserved effectively. Second, measures should be taken to restrain the increase of water consumption. For example, we can advocate the recycling of water in industry.
Being one of those whose life has been threatened by the crisis, I would like to do something helpful, such as not wasting water in daily life and spreading the idea of protecting environment. As long as we take it seriously, we will definitely overcome this difficulty.
短文2（25分）
The Microsoft lab is much more than a showcase for how far China has come in computer technology. It also illustrates how.innovation is an increasingly global game. It can involve a worldwide research and development operation like that of Microsoft, or IBM, which has major labs in China, Israel, Switzerland, Japan, and India. Or innovation can be the product of a much more amorphous structure, something that consultants call global innovation networks. These often consist of in-house engineers, contract designers and manufactures, university scientists, and dozens of technology suppliers big and small --- all pulled together for a particular product.
Such blending of technologies will become even more common as innovation networks extend their reach. Many corporations have been obsessed with improving quality in the 1980s, boosting productivity in the 1990s, and slashing costs in the wake of the 2000 tech bust. Now, companies are zeroing in on how to innovate more efficiently. "The fallacy ofinnovation was that it was all about spending on R&D or information technology," says Diana Farrell, director of the McKinsey Global Institute. "Instead, it has more to do with execution and getting products out better and faster." The answers are out there, waiting for the quickest and smartest to find them.
三、汉译英（将下列句子、段落译成英语，共30分）
1．句子翻译（10分）
(1)在当今的市场，成功的海外业务有助于国内的商业活动。
(2)创新的步伐越来越快，要与之齐头并进确实是一种挑战。
(3)为什么化合物与混合物不同？需要用一种理论来帮助我们解释这些事实。
(4)自从上个世纪初开始，电成为我们现代化生活中必不可少的组成部分。
2．段落翻译(10分)
当今全球一体化比以往任何时候都强大，而且可能会进一步加深。推动经济一体化的主要因素并不仅仅发挥单独的影响，而且还以重要和复杂的形式相互作用。
3．段落翻译(10分)
世界的廉价能源供应日趋紧张，人类大量排放的温室气体正在破坏地球气候。这两个制约因素加在一起，最终可能阻碍全球经济增长，并使全球经济的规模达到极限。
集团公司高级（含教授级）任职资格外语考试试卷（油气工程、炼化工程）
(120分钟内完成)
一、阅读理解（阅读短文，用英语简要回答问题，共25分）
短文1 (12.5分)
Young people in Britain tend to stay with their family longer these days as accommodation is expensive but, when they move away to a job or college, they rent a room in someone's house. They can also get a bed-sitting room. They can share a rented flat or house with a group of young people. When young people get married or have a steady income, they often buy a house. They do this by taking out a mortgage with a building society or bank. They are the official owners and the mortgage is a financial loan for anything up t0 100% of the value of the house, repayable over twenty to forty years. People can find it difficult to repay their mortgage, but at least they know that in the end the house will be theirs.
If people cannot afford to buy their own house, they can rent property from a private landlord. In city areas the problem has been made worse by the bad condition that a lot of council property is in. High-rise flats, for example, have developed structural faults.
Unfortunately, homelessness is an increasingly serious problem all over Britain. It affects all ages; single people, couples with children, even old-age pensioners. In 1984, 83190 households, a term that covers families and single people, were officially listed as homeless. In one year, 170190 households applied to be put on the list, but thousands were tumed down although they were probably living in overcrowded conditions or in housing that badly needed repairing and improving.
Questions:
1. What conditions are new blocks of council flats in?
2. What does the number, 83190 listed in 1984, show?
3. What do young people these days often do in order to have a place to live in?
4. If one has a mortgage, what does the company he borrowed money from do to him?
5. Why does the author think homelessness is an increasingly serious problem all over Britain?
短文2 (12.5分)
The ultimate goal of economic developments is to improve the well-being of people. The building of factories, the terracing ofland and the training of engineers are but means toward that end; enhancing the reputation or wealth of political leaders and increasing the prestige or power of nation states are irrelevant. Improving the health of people is fundamental to improving their well-being. This being so, it is important to know what "health" means. Health has long been defined by the 155 member states of the World Health Organization (WHO) as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." The ultimate goal of development can therefore be said to be health, in this broad sense, for all the people ofthe world. It is simple as that —and as complex.
It is complex because when it comes to defining health policies, assigning priorities, allotting funds and planning and operation programs to give effect to the policies, it is not easy for political leaders or technical experts in either the underdeveloped or the developed countries to keep in mind the centrality of human development. There are two conventional ways to view the relation between health and development. One sees health as a prerequisite for development. The other sees health as a concomitant of development. Both views are supported by evidence and both can motivate human development programs. They are not even mutually exclusive; rather they are mutually supportive.
Health is indeed a prerequisite for economic and social advance. Human energy is the fuel that drives development, the source not only of physical work and other economic activity but also of hope for the future, social awareness and the ability to absorb and apply new knowledge, all of which are essential to development. Genuine measures to improve health are likely to contribute to general socioeconomic advance.
Questions:
1. What's essential to improving the well-being of people?
2. What's the definition of health by WHO?
3. Why is it complex to achieve the ultimate goal of development?
4. What are the two views on the relation between health and development?
5. What's the purpose of this passage?
二、英译汉（将下列短文译成汉语，共45分）
短文1 (20分)
From a recent survey, it can be seen that the consumption of water all over the world has been remarkably raised compared with that of last year. Statistics also show that a lot of water resources such as lakes, rivers and oceans have been polluted seriously. As a result, there is less and less space for people to obtain enough healthy water. With the economic development and the increase of the population, we are faced with the lack of water supply. So it is high time for us to find a solution to the problem.
There are two main ways to solve the problem. First, with the development of high technology new resources may be found and the present ones can be preserved effectively. Second, measures should be taken to restrain the increase of water consumption. For example, we can advocate the recycling of water in industry.
Being one of those whose life has been threatened by the crisis, I would like to do something helpful, such as not wasting water in daily life and spreading the idea of protecting environment. As long as we take it seriously, we will definitely overcome this difficulty.
短文2 (25分, A、B两篇, 只翻译一篇,任选其一)
A A better measure of the cost of oil, or any energy source, is the amount of energy required to produce it. Just as we evaluate a financial investment by comparing the size of the return with the size of the original expenditure, we can evaluate any project that generates energy by dividing the amount of energy the project produces by the amount it consumes. Economists call this quantity the "energy return on investment" or E.R.O.I.
The E.R.O.I for petroleum has been falling for decades. The trend is most advanced in United States production, where petroleum resources have been exploited the longest and drillers have been forced to look for ever-smaller and ever-deeper pools of oil.
This basic trend can be seen around the globe with many energy sources. We've most likely already found and tapped the biggest, most accessible and highest E.R.O.I. oil and gas fields, just as we've already exploited the best rivers for hydropower. Now, as we're extracting new oil and gas in more extreme environments - in deep water far offshore, for example --- and as we're turning to energy alternatives like nuclear power and converting tar sands to gasoline, we're spending steadily more energy to get energy.
For example, the tar sands of Alberta, likely to be a prime energy source for the United States in the future, have an E.R.O.I. of around 4 to 1, because a huge amount of energy(mainly from natural gas) is needed to convert the sands' raw bitumen into useable oil.
B More than 35 years ago, an offshore drilling rig spilled approximately three million gallons of oil into the waters near Santa Barbara. A massive slick covered hundreds of square miles, the white beaches of California turned black with crude.
The Santa Barbara spill was a galvanizing event that raised support for the first Earth Day, hastened the creation ofthe Environmental Protection Agency and led to state and federal moratoriums on new drilling. Today, drilling for oil and gas is barred off 90 percent of America's coastlines; it is allowed, mainly, in the Gulf of Mexico. The offshore moratoriums, along with a ban oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, are regarded as triumphs of the environmental movement.
As politicians m the White House and Congress are pushing again for exploration in coastal waters and drilling in ANWR, it is worth reconsidering the changes won by the environmental movement, but not only for the supply-enhancing reasons cited by advocates of extracting oil wherever it may be found. The latest battle has not touched upon a depressing fact: every barrel of oil that is not extracted from America must be drilled from someone else's backyard, often with little regard for the consequences. Because our appetite for energy has grown over the decades, new drilling, along with the damage it tends to create, has not been halted; it has been outsourced.
三、汉译英（将下列句子、段落译成英语，共30分）
1．句子翻译(10分)
(1)在当今的市场，成功的海外业务有助于国内的商业活动。
(2)创新的步伐越来越快，要与之齐头并进确实是一种挑战。
(3)为什么化合物与混合物不同？需要用一种理论来帮助我们解释这些事实。
(4)自从上个世纪初开始，电成为我们现代化生活中必不可少的组成部分。
2．段落翻译(10分)
为了获得能源，我们不得不进行更远、更深的勘探，这并不是我们面对的唯一新障碍。气候的变化也会制约经济增长。地球在迅速变暖，这对农业和环境会造成巨大的影响。
3．段落翻译（10分，A、B两段，只翻译一段，任选其一）
A
能源的形式多种多样。有些能源可再生，如太阳能。其他形式的能源是不可再生的，包括矿物燃料如煤、石油、油砂、油页岩和天然气。这些燃料其实可看作是经过几百万年太阳能作用的产物。
B
因为地表地质研究是定井位的一种既便宜又可靠的方法，所以广泛地用了几十年。一些公司勘探非常浅的油藏时，仍然使用这种方法。要找深层构造就必须使用别的定井位办法。
2020年职称英语考试真题及答案(综合类C级) US Signs Global Tobacco Treaty 1 The United States has taken the first step toward approving a global tobacco treaty that promises to help control the deadly effects of tobacco use throughout the world. Health and Human Services Secretary Tommy Thompson signed the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) this week at the United Nations. (46) 2 The FCTC was developed by the World Health Organization and approved by members of the World Health Assembly，including the United States，last year. (47) 3 For instance, cigarettes sold in those countries would have to have health warnings on at least 30% of the front and back of every pack. (48)It also requires bans on tobacco advertising, though there are some exceptions for countries like the United States, where the Constitution prohibits such an outright ban. 4 (49) The World Health Organization estimates that tobacco use kills nearly 5 million people worldwide every year. In the US alone, about 440,000 people die each year from tobacco-related illnesses; about one-third of all cancers in the US are caused by tobacco use. If current trends continue, WHO estimates, by 2025 tobacco will kill 10 million people each year. 5 The treaty must be ratified by at least 40 countries before it can take effect. (50)
试卷一 I. Vocabulary Directions: There are 20 incomplete sentences in this part. For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the ONE answer that best completes the sentence and mark your answer on the Answer Sheet. 1. It is possible to predict how much energy and water a building will consume, how much _______ will be needed. A. matter B. things C. material D. substance 2. They found that the positive thinkers sold 37 percent more insurance than did the_______ thinkers. A. negative B. positive C. active D. passive 3. In labs around the world, bad bugs are undergoing the ultimate rehabilitation, being _______ from life-threatening viruses and bacteria into lifesaving therapeutic agents. A. translated B. transported C. transformed D. transmitted 4. The fresh air is sometimes humid from the _______rainfall of this area. A. numerous B. abundant C. plenty D. substantive 5. We know that many animals _______ the deep seas at pressures of 15,000 pounds per square inch. A. live on B. live in C. live through D. live up to 6. Speakers and writers of the Germanic languages _______for a great deal of the world's output in everything from economics to literature to military to science and technology. A. account B. allow C. apply D. arrange 7. _______of the great state of Illinois, let me express my deepest gratitude for the privilege of addressing this convention. A. On account B. In honor C. In place D. On behalf 8. The companies that are finding ways to hang on to their older workers _______ from an intangible commodity: wisdom. A. obtain B. earn C. develop D. benefit 9. I raced to_______ Jill. A. keep on B. keep up with C. come up with D. come up to 10. Managers need to monitor inflation trends so they can make good _______. A. decisive B. decisions C. decide D. decided 11. Fluency can be _______ defined as "being able to communicate ideas without having to stop and think too much about what one is saying." A. simple B. simply C. similar D. simplify 12. The number of vehicles has been steadily increasing. _______, more than 100 cities in the United States still have levels of carbon monoxide that exceed legally established limits. A. Continuously B. Consequently C. Constantly D. Consistently 13. A(An) _______ is better than the text and may make the point clear. A. interpretation B. representation C. illustration D. draw 14. Some of the world's best mountain _______ is available within the 500-kilometer long chain of the Southern Alps. A. scene B. scenery C. scarce D. scare 15. After a through research, the police __ most of the missing jewels. A. retreated B. refreshed C. recovered D. reminded 16. A gold-rated building is estimated to have reduced its environmental impact by 50% compared with a(an) __ conventional building. A. equivalent B. alike C. uniform D. likely 17. When pessimists __ in their first attempt, they usually say, "I can't do this." A. feel B. fail C. defeat D. lost 18. Six years __ before she got another note from Teddy. A. went into B. went around C. went by D. went on 19. The company owns a large number of _______ stores. A. export B. bargain C. retail D. trade 20. The cost of self-education has fallen with the multitude of sources of knowledge and information _______ on CD-ROMs and the Internet. A. preferable B. ready C. available D. considerable II. Grammatical Structure Directions: There are 20 incomplete sentences in this part. For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the ONE answer that best completes the sentence and mark your answer on the Answer Sheet. 21. Put things back _______ you found them.
英语分级测试 第一篇How to be Happy 如何获得幸福 (2) 第二篇City Design 城市设计 (4) 第三篇Population 人口 (6) 第四篇Earthquake 地震 (7) 第五篇The Aftermath of BP Fulf Oil Spill----英国石油公司墨西哥湾原油泄漏 (9) 第六篇Green Computers“绿色’’电脑 (11) 第七篇Cell Phones手机 (12) 第八篇Touch Tech触屏技术 (13) 第九篇Fossil Fuels and Our Life化石燃料与我们的生活 (15) 第十篇Carbon Emissions碳排放 (16) 第十一篇Marine Pollution海洋污染 (17) 第十二篇China's Growth and the Clean Energy Tech中国的经济增长与清洁能源技术 (18) 第十三篇Market Economy市场经济 (19) 第十四篇CPI消费者物价指数 (20) 第十五篇The Internet互联网 (21) 十六篇Apple Expands its Touchy-Feely Vision苹果公司用iPad延续梦想 (22) 十七篇3G Technology技术 (23) 十八篇Carbon Capture and Storage碳捕获和储存 (24) 十九篇GlobaIWarming全球变暖 (25) 二十篇Alternate Energies替代能源 (26) 二十一篇Biofuels生物燃料 (27) 二十二篇Coal Chemicallndustry煤化学工业 (28) 二十三篇Resource Curse资源诅咒 (30) 二十四篇Company Management公司管理 (31) 二十五篇Recruitment Drives Take Talent from Wide Pool人才库 (32) 二十六篇Tips for Job Seekers找工作的秘诀 (33) 二十七篇Chinese Oil Market中国石油市场 (34) 二十八篇0il Trade石油贸易 (35) 二十九篇How I Lost My Head in the Volcanic Ash Cloud令人发疯的火山灰 (36) 三十篇Project Management项目管理 (37)
UNIT 1 How to be Happy如何获得幸福 In the past two weeks we have looked at the happiness formula defined by positive psychologist Martin Seligman, where H (happiness) = S (your biological set point for feeling happy) + C (the conditions of your life) + V (the voluntary choices you make). This week we look at the conditions in life that can improve our happiness quotient. 过去两周我们研究了一项幸福公式，这是由乐观心理学家马丁·塞利格曼定义的。在这个公式中，H（幸福）=S（个人生理幸福感受的固定指数）+C（个人生活状态）+V（个人主观选择）。本周我们将着眼于能提升幸福指数的生活状态。 Step 1: Peace and quiet Jonathon Haidt in his excellent book, The Happiness Hypothesis, notes that research shows that we can never completely adapt to new or chronic noise pollution. Loud noises trigger one of our most primitive fear responses (the other is the fear of falling) and we can never fully relax if we are surrounded by intrusive noise. It is essential to have some peace and quiet every day. If you are unfortunate enough to live somewhere noisy, persist with complaining to your local council. Additionally, try wearing wax earplugs to have some respite. If you need your TV, radio or music up loud, wearing headphones demonstrates altruism to your neighbours, which will make you and them feel good. 第一步：平和宁静乔纳森·海迪在他的优秀著作《幸福假说》当中提到，研究调查显示，我们不可能完全适应噪音污染，无论是新近的还是长期的。巨大噪声会引发我们面对恐惧的某种本能反应（另一种是对于坠落的恐惧），如果周遭噪音喧闹，我们不可能完全放松。每日保持平和与宁静事关重要。如果你不幸生活在比较嘈杂的环境中，请一定要坚持去居委会投诉。另外，尝试使用耳塞，可能会缓解噪声。如果你需要用大音量看电视、听收音机或放音乐的话，记得戴上耳机，别影响邻里，这样可以使双方都感到舒适。 Step 2: Relationships This is the most important of all the external conditions that can improve your happiness quotient. Often our deepest sources of unhappiness are found in poor relationships with others. A cruelly conflictual relationship with a partner or lover leaves us feeling betrayed and abandoned. A relationship with our parents or children which is not based on compassionate, unconditional regard creates isolation and misery. When faced with such relationships, the most positive thing we can do is to either mend the relationship by confronting what is going wrong or learn to move on. 第二步：人际关系这是增加幸福指数的一条至关重要的外部条件。我们感到不快乐的最深层原因，往往就是人际关系欠佳。与搭档或者爱人的关系陷入激烈的冲突中，会让我们产生遭到背叛和遗弃的感觉。父母和孩子之间如果缺乏同情心和无私关怀，会产生隔阂与痛苦。当我们面临这类问题时，最好的办法就是直面难题，修复关系，或者学着继续前行。 Step 3: Share If you have discovered conditions or choices in life that have significantly improved your wellbeing, remember to share them with friends. Passing on what works is essential to improve the wellbeing of our own and others. 第三步：分享如果你发觉生活状态或者做的某项决定对幸福生活有重大帮助的话，记得与你的朋友们分享。将有用的发现与更多人分享，这对增进自己的幸福和他人的幸福都有积极作用。 1.What's the happiness formula according to the passage?(The formula refers to H (happiness) = S (your biological set point for feeling happy) + C (the conditions of your life) + V (the voluntary choices you make).) 2. Why can we never completely adapt to new or chronic noise pollution?(Loud noises trigger one of our most primitive fear responses and we can never fully relax if we are surrounded by intrusive noise.) 3. How could we make both ourselves and the neighbors feel good?(If we need our TV, radio or music up loud, wearing headphones demonstrates our kindness and can do is to either mend the relationship by confronting what is going wrong or learn to move on.) 1．吵闹的邻居的确对我们家庭不和(domestic upset)有很大影响。Noisy neighbors are one of the major causes of domestic upset. 2．在职场上，如果一个同事对我们表示威吓的话，会造成难以言表的抑郁情绪(unwretchedness)。A colleague at work who bullies or dismisses us creates untold wretchedness. 3．我们不可能适应这种敌对关系，这种不良的人际关系会损害身心健康。We can never fully adapt to hostile relationships, which inevitably damage our wellbeing. 4．如果这种坏情绪长时间留在人们的心里，会让人陷入无法解决的恶性心理困境。If this bad mood stays inside our mind, it will lead us to an unresolved destructive depression. 5．我们不应当回避这些问题，而是要正确面对它们。We should not avoid these problems but face them instead. There are many benefits to being happy. Happier people tend to be healthier, live longer and eam more. They also tend to volunteer more, be better at relationships and smile more of w hat psychologists call “Duchenne" or genuine smiles. What is less well understood is why happiness is contagious. 幸福有许多好处。越幸福的人往往越健康、越长寿、挣的钱越多。他们通常也会从事更多的志愿工作、更善于处理人际关系、发出更多心理学家所说的“杜兴微笑”，即真诚的微笑。我们了解不深的是，为什么幸福可以传染。 According to James Fowler and Nicholas Christakis, authors of the international bestseller Connected, people surrounded by many happy friends, family members and neighbours who are central to their social network become significantly happier in the future. More specificallyi they say we will become 25 per cent happier with our life if a friend who lives within a mile of us becomes significantly happier with his or her life. 全球畅销书《关联》的作者詹姆斯·福勒和尼古拉斯·克里斯塔基斯发现，如果你身边那些重要的人际网络中有许多幸福的朋友、家人与邻居，那么你将也会很幸福。他们表示，更准确地说，如果居住在离你1英里内的一个朋友生活幸福感得到显著提升，你的生活幸福感就会增加25%。 Similar effects are seen in co-resident spouses (8 per cent happier); siblings who live within a mile of each other (14 per cent); and next-door neighbours (34 per cent). What this implies is that the magnitude of happiness spread seems to depend more on frequent social contact (due to physical proximity) than on deep social connections. Alas, for some reason this doesn't translate to the workplace. 具有同样效果的还有同居配偶（幸福感提升8%）、居住在1英里之内的兄弟姐妹(14%)和邻居(34%)。这意味着，幸福传播的强度似乎更取决于交往的频繁度（与地域邻近相关），1而不是社会关系的深度。可惜由于某种原因，这并不适用于工作场合。 So, why is happiness contagious? One reason may be that happy people share their good fortune with their friends and family (for example, by being pragmatically helpful or financially generous). Another reason could be that happy people tend to change their behaviour for the better by being nicer or less hostile to those close to them. Or it could just be that positive emotions are highly contagious. 那么，为什么幸福能够传染？一个原因或许是，幸福的人会与亲朋好友分享好运气（例如，提供实际的帮助，或在经济上慷慨解囊）。另一个原因可能是，幸福的人往往会改善自己的行为，会对周围的人更加友好，或减少敌意。又或许只是因为正面情绪具有高度传染性。
高化公司2009年初级任职资格外语考试试卷 英语 （120分钟内完成） 单位：姓名： 一、阅读理解（每题3分，共30分） 短文1（15分） A breakthrouth in the provision of energy from the sun for the European Economic Community (EEC) could be brought forward by up to two decades,if a modest increase could be provided in the EEC’s research effort in this field,according to the senior EEC scientists engaged in experiments in solar energy at EEC’s scientific laboratories at Ispra,near Milan. The senior West German scientist in charge of the Community’s solar energy program,Mr.Joachim Gretz,told journalists that at present levels of research spending,it was most unlikely that solar energy would provide as much as three per cent of the Community’s energy requirements even after the year2,000. But he said that with a modest increase in the present sums,devoted by the EEC to this work it was impossible that the breakthrough could be achieved by the end of the next decade. Mr.Gretz calculates that if solar energy only provided three per cent of the EEC’s need,this could still produce a saving of about a billion pounds in the present bill for imported energy each year.And he believes that with the possibility of utilizing more advanced technology in this field it might be
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一. Shopping Around the Web网上购物 1. A Saturday afternoon in mid-December: not a good time to be hanging around San Francisco's Union Square, the city's premier shopping district. Hundreds of people laden with purchases battle along the pavements, search despairingly for scarce taxis or struggle to get through Macy's doors. It is enough to put anybody off shopping for life. 1. 在十二月中旬的周六下午，去旧金山的主要商业区联合广场逛街可不是件轻松的事。成百上千的人带着大大小小的购物袋拥挤在人行道上，有的在拼命地寻找着出租车，有的在尽力地挤出莫西商场的门口。这种经历足以让所有人从此对购物望而却步。 2. But wait: surely Christmas shopping in l999 was different? After all, this is close to Silicon Valley, the center of the Internet revolution and the new economy, the land of the tieless billionaires who bought all their presents online at midnight the day after Thanksgiving. Yet the crowds in Union Square last December were as bad as ever. They seemed oblivious of a large billboard advertisement above their heads for one of the Bay Area's many https://www.doczj.com/doc/b95289465.html,s, which flashed the message: "Say Goodbye to the Mall." And they paid no attention to the advertisement on many of their shopping bags that pointed a way out of their predicament: "Online Shopping. No Experience Needed." 2．但是且慢，1999年的圣诞购物应该有所不同吧？毕竟靠近网络革命和新经济的中心棗硅谷。在这里那些不戴领带的百万富翁们早在感恩节第二天的午夜就把礼物买好了。然而去年的联合广场依旧是人潮如涌。他们似乎根本就看不见头顶上一家海湾地区的网络公司所做的大幅广告，上面闪烁着“对商场说再见吧”的字样。许多购物袋上印着的“在线购物，勿须经验”的广告给人们指明了摆脱购物困扰的途径，但他们也熟视无睹。 3. Electronic commerce, it seems, still has its limited, even in California. For all the feverish excitement about the tripling of electronic shopping last holiday season, the total spent by American consumers online still amounted to only about l% of all retail sales-- barely a tenth of the revenues from another method of distance selling that has been in use for a century: the catalogue. And the electronic shopping was concentrated on quite a narrow range of goods: mainly books, toys and music. Worse, the holiday season threw up as many stories of failed and late deliveries as of explosive growth. And, more recently, a string of hackers' attacks have temperedly disabled some of the best-known e-commerce websites. Perhaps retailers in the physical world need not lose much sleep over the Internet, or at least not yet? 3．看来即使在加州，电子商务也存在着局限。虽然上一个假日人们为电子购物营业额增长了两倍而欣喜若狂，但所有美国人在线购物额也不过是总零售额的1％，仅是目录购物棗已有一百多年历史的另一种远程购物方式棗的十分之一。另外，电子购物仅仅局限于某些商品，主要是书籍、玩具。音乐等。更为糟糕的是，假日期间伴随着业务增长的喜讯的是一起又一起的投递失败和晚点的事件。近来一系列的黑客攻击事件导致一些著名电子商务网站暂时关闭。或许现实世界中的零售商还用不着为因特网失眠，或者至少现在不用？ 4. Yet they are losing sleep, and are right to be doing so, for three reasons. The first is that mighty oaks from tiny acorns do grow. Electronic commerce may not amount to much at the moment, but it is growing very fast. In business-to-business transactions, in particular, the advantages and cost savings to be had from dealing on the Internet have caused e-commerce to mushroom. At present, such transactions account for as much as 80% of all e-commerce, which, according to Forrester Research, an Internet consulting firm, added up to over $150 billion last year. Forrester predicts that by 2003 that figure could reach over $3 trillion. But even in the business-to-consumer field, the main subject of this survey the growth of online commerce has been extremely fasl--despite consumers' undoubted attachment to their traditional methods of shopping. 4．然而，他们失眠了。有三条理由使得他们的担心不是妃人忧天。首先，橡果虽小，足以长成参天大树。电子商务目前看来虽不足为虑，但其增长速度很快。尤其在商家对商家的交易模式中，由于因特网交易的优势和成本的降低，使得此类电子商务迅速增长。现在商家对商家的交易模式的交易量占电子商务总交易量的80％。根据一家因特网咨询公司，弗里斯特调查公司的调查，去年电子商务交易总额达1，500多亿美元。弗里斯特调查公司预言到2003年这一数字将达到3万亿美元。即使在这次调查的主要项目，商家对消费者的交易模式中，其增长速度也极为迅速，尽管消费者仍旧对传统的购物方式难以割舍。 5. The second reason concerns critical mass. In many areas of retailing and commerce, the Internet is unlikely to capture more than a few percentage points of the market for several years to come. But even a small share can quickly start to have a big effect. In the travel business, for instance, margins are so thin that a loss of only 3-5% of the market to the Internet threatens to drive large numbers of traditional travel agents out of business. According to https://www.doczj.com/doc/b95289465.html,, an online retailers' group, in l999 online penetration of the American travel market had already reached almost 2%. 5．第二个原因跟临界点有关。在商业和零售业的许多领域，因特网在几年中不会占据太多的市场份额，但是这一部分份额可能会产生巨大的影响。例如在旅游业中，由于利润空间狭小，即使失去3－5％的份额也会使大量的传统旅游代理失去饭碗。根据一家在线零售集团，shop．org的统计，1999年在线旅游业务已占据了美国旅游市场总额的将近2％。 6. The third reason is more worrying still: traditional retailers, for all the strengths of their brand names and their existing relationships with suppliers and customers, have found it extraordinarily hard to compete online. There are formidable obstacles that stand in the off