医学文献翻译
医学文献(medical literature) 就是与医学有关的有参考价值的资料。广义上包括一切有关信息的记录，狭义上指用于流通的资料。
与医学有关的有参考价值的资料。广义上包括一切有关信息的记录，狭义上指用于流通的资料。
人类在历史发展过程中积累了大量经验和知识，在不同的历史阶段用不同的符号和文字，记录在甲骨、金石、竹木、皮革、帛纸等载体上，是为文献。记录手段有刀刻、笔写、印刷等等。医学文献古已有之。现知世界最古老的医学文献之一为古埃及写在纸草上的埃伯斯纸草文稿。这是约在公元前1550年的医学著作，收录巫医处方及民间偏方700个，并颇精确地描述了心脏、血管，认为心脏是血液循环的中心。此纸草文于1873年由德国埃及学家G.M.埃伯斯收集到，故名。最早的医学文献只有抄本，主要为个人自用。以后随印刷术的发展公开出版物日渐增多。在很长一个时期里书籍为文献的主要形式。现在又有了新的非纸载体，如胶片、磁性材料（录音、录相带、电子计算机用磁盘、磁带等）及激光光盘等。但这些新材料还有一定局限性，所以书籍仍处于文献的主要位置。概括地说，凡用文字、图形、符号、声频、视频等技术手段记录人类知识的物质载体都是文献。随着时代的进展，人类知识急剧增加，文献也逐渐分门别类，由记载一般知识的非专业文献逐渐发展为记载专门知识的专业文献。专门记载医学知识的文献则为医学文献。
现代科学技术进展迅速，互相渗透，在医学领域形成了很多分支学科，医学文献的数量逐年以指数级增长，据估计目前全世界每年出版生物医学杂志两万余种，到2000年可达25000种以上。医学文献记载着前人和当代人有关医学的大量实践经验和理论，因此是医务人员及其有关工作人员时刻离不开的知识宝库。不但有重要的历史价值，而且是交流经验，提高医疗水平的重要手段。
2类型
编辑
医学文献可根据内容、形式、应用等作种种分类（表1）。目前大量应用的为印刷型文献，故最实用的为印刷型文献的分类。
期刊
为定期连续出版物，所含资料最多，是最重要的资料来源。大部为未经重新组织的最原始的一次文献，也有三次文献如述评等。中国正式出版的医学期刊约300种。又可分为几类。
①用于检索的（三次文献）期刊，有各种题录、索引和文摘。②原著类期刊，主要刊载科研学术论文、技术报告、实验报告、调查研究材料，如学报（Acta)；或更附有临床病例分析以及一定篇幅的述评或译文，如杂志。③综合述评类期刊，如《北美内科临床》和日本的《最新医学》等，年鉴也属此类。
图书联合国教科文组织1964年规定49页以上的印刷品称为书，5～49页的印刷品称为小册子，但各国规定不一。一般指装订成册，文章结构上分章分节系统叙述，内容一般为总结性的经过重新组织过的出版物，属三次文献。内容系统深入，但出版周期长，所以同时期出版的期刊与图书相较，前者所载资料较后者为新。书籍的种类如百科全书、手册、词典、指南、专著（反映某学科的全貌，其中有很多集中的资料）、教科书（有不少研究某一学科的标准书也冠以此名，实际上为参考书，并非教学用书）；其他综述性书籍有最新进展、进
展和当代动向等名称。
特种文献
期刊、图书以外的文献。如专题论文集或会议录（国家或国际召开的专题会议后整理出版的会议资料，反映当代著名科学家的工作，具有较高的参考价值；有的以书的形式出版、有的则附在刊物中或作为专刊和副刊单独出版）、文献汇编（transactions,会议上发表的论文)、科技报告（对某一专题进行研究的正式报告）、政府出版物，专利文献、标准文献，产品资料目录或样本、学位论文、翻译文献（如中国将“Science“翻译出版的《科学新闻》和选译出版的《美国医学杂志》等）、技术档案（科研部门和临床部门在工作中形成的技术文件，如研究记录、调查材料、病案资料等）
医学文献翻译技巧和要求
、
英文医学文献翻译除应透彻理解原文以外，还要考虑到医学本身的特点，即翻译时要正确选择词语，更要注意对一些常用句型如被动语态、各种从句以及长句和图像资料的处理。
翻译英文医学文献，不是从英文直接到中文，而是通过理解之后，再用准确、流畅的中文把它表达出来。完全拘泥于原文的对号人座式的翻译是译不出高质量的译文的。那样译出的文章必然刻板、生硬，甚至文不从，意不顺。要避免这些问题的出现，就要注意中文和英文之间的某些细微而又非常重要的差别，并掌握一些基本的翻译方法和技巧。
(一)透彻理解原文
这是翻译原文的前提。对原文理解得透彻与否，对表达原文的意思至关重要。翻译时，要把原文先看二三遍，做到:1.弄清原文的主题思想，明确原作者的写作目的。主题、目的明确了，才能从总体上把握译文，不会出现大的偏差，也才能使译文连贯通顺。2.弄清原文的文体风格。文体风格明确了，才能使译文的文体接近原文的文体，将原作者的风格再现。3.弄清原文的整体结构，由哪几部分组成，每部分主要表达什么意思以及各部分之间的关系如何。弄清了以上几点，再着手翻译，这样头脑里有了文章的全局和整体概念，以此来指导具体翻译，才有可能译出高质量的译文。
(二)正确选择词语
英译中词语的正确选择取决于对原文词义的确切理解，而对原文词义的确切理解又取决于对原文上下文的反复推敲。有些词看起来很简单，其实除了用在普通英语外，还有专业意义，如the first attack不是“首次攻击”，而是“初次发病”，又如a change of air不是“空气变化”，而是“转地治疗”。Influenza is an acute self-limited infection and is characterized by constitutional symptoms, although the infection is restricted to the respiratory tract普通词self-limited“自身限制的”，在这里要加以引伸，译为“定期自愈的”，此句可译为:流感是一种定期自愈的急性传染病，虽然传染只限于呼吸道，但其特征却是全身性症状。以上实例说明，只有正确选择词语，才能正确表达原文的内容。
(三)被动语态的翻译
英文医学文献常出现被动语态的句子，而中文较少采用被动语态，故多将被动语态译为主动语态，但在有些情况下，也可把英文的被动语态译为中文的被动语态。具体翻译时，可采用以下几种方法。
1.译为中文主动句
如果英文被动句的主语(即受动者)为无生命的东西，而施动者又不十分具体时，就宜直接译为中文主动句，即把原文被动句中的主语保留下来，作为中文主动句中的主语，后面
直接跟上谓语。
Urine is formed in the kidneys.
尿在肾内形成。
All the signs were restricted to glossitis.
所有的体征都没有超出舌炎的范围。
The operation was performed under general anesthesia.
手术是在全身麻醉下进行的。
The digested food is absorbed almost entirely from the small intestine.
消化过的食物几乎全部地由小肠吸收。
The incidence has been reduced to 0. 5 percent as compared with before.
和以前比较，发病率已降到千分之五。
2.译为中文被动句
如果动词表示的动作不利于受动者的场合，就可译为“被”字，以及“由、让、爱、给、遭、加以、为…所”等结构。
The brain is regarded as one of the most important organs influencing behaviours.
脑被视为影响行为最重要的器宫之一。
Fever may be brought on by infection.
发烧可由感染引起。
3.以形式主语为前导结构的译法
It is estimated that lesions 3 cm in size can be detected.
据估计，可以测出三厘米大小的病灶。
It has been shown that some bacteria under the right conditions may grow to full size and reproduce two new bacteria every twenty minutes, capable of destroying tissues or producing toxin.
已经证明某些细菌在适宜的条件下可以长得很大，而且每二十分钟能再繁殖为两个新菌体，能破坏组织或产生毒素。
(四)定语从句的翻译
英语定语从句分为限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句两大类。一般都置于被修饰的名词或代词之后，但在翻译时，具体处理的方法并不完全相同。
1.限制性定语从句对所修饰的名词或代词起限制作用和明确作用，一般译为定语结构，置于被修饰词之前
All the poisons that are absorbed in any part of the body are sooner or later brought to the liver.
机体各部分所吸收的全部毒物迟早都会被带到肝脏。
A patient who is in profound shock from acute blood loss should have emergency blood replacement and surgical treatment immediately.
凡因急性失血发生深度休克的病人，应立即给以紧急输血和手术处理。
The factors which make for the formation of gall stones are apparently periodic rather than continuous in their mode of action.
显然，胆石形成因素的作用方式呈周期性，而不是持续性。
Such use as we are able to make of helpful bacteria and such control as we have of harmful ones depend upon our knowledge of their habits.
我们对有益细菌的利用和对有害细菌的控制都有赖于我们对细菌习性的了解。
2.非限制性定语从句对被修饰词起描述作用和补充作用，一般译为并列分句
In any case, its activity is profoundly modified by various factors, which may be of either nervous or chemical origin.
无论如何，它的活动受到各种因素的强烈影响，这可能是神经因素，也可能是化学因素。
Around each alveolus there are capillaries, which are very small blood vessels.
在每一肺泡周围有许多毛细管，它们是很小的血管。
But the response was not always regular, as was often the case with dogs.
但是，反应并不总是有规律的，就如同在狗身上经常出现的情况那样。
形式上的限制性定语从句，一般也译为并列分句。
Some pathogenic bacteria live constantly in the body but cause no trouble unless there are changes in body which lower its resistance, such as local irritation, fatigue, heat or cold, or hunger or thirst.
有些致病菌一直生活在人体内而不致病，除非是体内发生了像局部刺激、疲劳、冷孤饥饿或干渴等变化，降低了抵抗力。
Suppression of a portion of the microflora inevitably results in proliferation of other organisms of which some may have pathogenic potentiality.
一部分细菌受到抑制势必导致其他细菌的增殖，其中有些可能具有致病的潜在能力。
(五)长句的处理
医学文献，出于叙事说理的需要，其中的长句很多，并且长句大多为并列句或复合句或并列复合句。在理解全句的前提下，经过化整为零步骤时，据此组成的各个主句、分句和从句大多可化为简单句。
Among all these, with the exception of water, sugar, fat and protein account for the greater part in quantity, and therefore, they are also called the three major nutritious substances.
这个长句是由第二个and连接2个并列分句，所以应该先译第一分句，而在第一个分句里有1个介词短语with the exception of water，主语是sugar, fat and protein，谓语则是account for,整个长句可译为;在这些营养物中，除水外，糖、脂肪及蛋白质所占份额较大，所以把它们叫做三大营养素。
(六)图像资料的处理
在翻译过程中，还要对原文中的图像资料进行适当的处理。原则是能删节的就把它去掉;确有较大参考价值的就将其“转化”为文字形式，或者编译成一个小的自然段，或者穿插到适当的字里行间中去。
除了上述介绍的一些翻译方法和技巧，当然还有许多办法都能处理好英文医学文献的翻译问题。但总的来说，由于中外文化的明显差异，英文医学文献的翻译是一个较为复杂的问题，需要我们通过学习建立起对汉英两种语言的转换意识，避免汉化英语和英化汉语，努力从实践中探寻出规律性的东西，从而全面提高翻译水平和译文质量。
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译 Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails
forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.
常见职位、职务英文译名 Accounting Assistant 会计助理 Accounting Clerk 记帐员 Accounting Manager 会计部经理 Accounting Stall 会计部职员 Accounting Supervisor 会计主管 Administration Manager 行政经理 Administration Staff 行政人员 Administrative Assistant 行政助理 Administrative Clerk 行政办事员 Advertising Staff 广告工作人员 Airlines Sales Representative 航空公司定座员 Airlines Staff 航空公司职员 Application Engineer 应用工程师 Assistant Manager 副经理 Bond Analyst 证券分析员 Bond Trader 证券交易员 Business Controller 业务主任 Business Manager 业务经理 Buyer 采购员 Cashier 出纳员 Chemical Engineer 化学工程师 Civil Engineer 土木工程师 Clerk/Receptionist 职员／接待员 Clerk Typist & Secretary 文书打字兼秘书 Computer Data Input Operator 计算机资料输入员 Computer Engineer 计算机工程师 Computer Processing Operator 计算机处理操作员 Computer System Manager 计算机系统部经理 Copywriter 广告文字撰稿人 Deputy General Manager 副总经理 Economic Research Assistant 经济研究助理 Electrical Engineer 电气工程师 Engineering Technician 工程技术员 English Instructor/Teacher 英语教师
NET-BASED TASK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Hector Garcia-Molina, Jeffrey D. Ullman, Jennifer Wisdom ABSTRACT In net-based collaborative design environment, design resources become more and more varied and complex. Besides com mon in formatio n man ageme nt systems, desig n resources can be orga ni zed in connection with desig n activities. A set of activities and resources linked by logic relations can form a task. A task has at least one objective and can be broken down into smaller ones. So a design project can be separated in to many subtasks formi ng a hierarchical structure. Task Management System (TMS) is designed to break down these tasks and assig n certa in resources to its task no des. As a result of decompositi on. al1 desig n resources and activities could be man aged via this system. KEY WORDS : Collaborative Design, Task Management System (TMS), Task Decompositi on, In formati on Man ageme nt System 1 Introduction Along with the rapid upgrade of request for adva need desig n methods, more and more desig n tool appeared to support new desig n methods and forms. Desig n in a web en vir onment with multi-part ners being invo Ived requires a more powerful and efficie nt man ageme nt system .Desig n part ners can be located everywhere over the n et with their own organizations. They could be mutually independent experts or teams of tens of employees. This article discussesa task man ageme nt system (TMS) which man ages desig n activities and resources by break ing dow n desig n objectives and re-orga nizing desig n resources in conn ecti on with the activities. Compari ng with com mon information management systems (IMS) like product data management system and docume nt man ageme nt system, TMS can man age the whole desig n process. It has two tiers which make it much more flexible in structure. The lower tier con sists of traditi onal com mon IMSS and the upper one fulfills logic activity management through controlling a tree-like structure, allocating design resources and
常见职务职位英文翻译 希望对你有帮助哦!总公司Head Office分公司Branch Office营业部Business Office人事部Personnel Department(人力资源部)Human Resources Department总务部General Affairs Department财务部General Accounting Department销售部Sales Department促销部Sales Promotion Department国际部International Department出口部Export Department进口部Import Department公共关系Public Relations Department广告部Advertising Department企划部Planning Department产品开发部Product Development Department研发部Research and Development Department(R&D)秘书室Secretarial PoolAccounting Assistant 会计助理Accounting Clerk 记帐员Accounting Manager 会计部经理Accounting Stall 会计部职员Accounting Supervisor 会计主管Administration Manager 行政经理Administration Staff 行政人员Administrative Assistant 行政助理Administrative Clerk 行政办事员Advertising Staff 广告工作人员Airlines Sales Representative 航空公司定座员Airlines Staff 航空公司职员Application Engineer 应用工程师Assistant Manager 副经理Bond Analyst 证券分析员Bond Trader 证券交易员Business Controller 业务主任Business Manager 业务经理Buyer 采购员Cashier 出纳员Chemical Engineer 化学工程师
当前常用政治术语的英文翻译 作者：夜孔守望| 来源：沪江博客 新民主主义革命new-democratic revolution 民族独立和人民解放national independence and the liberation of the people 经济体制改革和政治体制改革reforms in the economic and political structure 社会主义制度socialist system 社会变革social transformation 建设有中国特色的社会主义事业the cause of building socialism with Chinese characteristics 中华民族的伟大复兴the gre at rejuvenation of the Chinese nation 党在社会主义初级阶段的基本理论、基本路线、基本纲领the basic theory, line and program of our Party in the primary stage of socialism 改革开放政策the policies of reform and opening to the outside
中国共产党十一届三中全会The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 马克思主义政党Marxist political Party 党的第一（第二、第三）代中央领导集体the collective leadership of the Party Central Committee of the first (second\third)generation 人民民主专政the people's democratic dictatorship 国民经济体系national economic system 综合国力aggregate national strength 国内生产总值the annual gross domestic product(GDP) 独立自主的和平外交政策an independent foreign policy of peace 马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合the fundamental principles of Marxism with the specific situation in China 加强和改进党的建设，不断增强党的创造力、凝聚力和战斗力，永葆党的生机与活力strengthen and improve Party building, continuously enhance the creativity, rallying power and combat capability of the Party, and always maintain its vigor and vitality. “三个代表”就是必须代表中国先进生产力的发展要求，代表中国先进文化的前进方向，代表中国最广大人民的根本利益，是我们党的立党之本、执政之基、力量之源，是我们党始终站在时代前列，保持先进性的根本体现和根本要求。
原文来源：李海宏《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》[A].2012中国旅游分销高峰论坛.[C].上海 Marketing Customer Satisfaction 顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 Since the 20th century, since the late eighties, the customer satisfaction strategy is increasingly becoming business has more customers share the overall business competitive advantage means. 自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 First, customer satisfaction strategy is to get a modern enterprise customers, "money votes" magic weapon 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝 With the changing times, the great abundance of material wealth of society, customers in the main --- consumer demand across the material has a lack of time, the number of times the pursuit, the pursuit of quality time to the eighties of the 20th century entered the era of the end consumer sentiment. In China, with rapid economic development, we have rapidly beyond the physical absence of the times, the pursuit of the number of times and even the pursuit of quality and age of emotions today gradually into the consumer era. Spending time in the emotion, the company's similar products have already reached the same time, homogeneous, with the energy, the same price, consumers are no longer pursue the quality, functionality and price, but the comfort, convenience, safety, comfort, speed, jump action, environmental protection, clean, happy,
Commercial Buildings Abstract: A guide and general reference on electrical design for commercial buildings is provided. It covers load characteristics; voltage considerations; power sources and distribution apparatus; controllers; services, vaults, and electrical equipment rooms; wiring systems; systems protection and coordination; lighting; electric space conditioning; transportation; communication systems planning; facility automation; expansion, modernization, and rehabilitation; special requirements by occupancy; and electrical energy management. Although directed to the power oriented engineer with limited commercial building experience, it can be an aid to all engineers responsible for the electrical design of commercial buildings. This recommended practice is not intended to be a complete handbook; however, it can direct the engineer to texts, periodicals, and references for commercial buildings and act as a guide through the myriad of codes, standards, and practices published by the IEEE, other professional associations, and governmental bodies. Keywords: Commercial buildings, electric power systems, load characteristics 1. Introduction 1.1 Scope This recommended practice will probably be of greatest value to the power oriented engineer with limited commercial building experience. It can also be an aid to all engineers responsible for the electrical design of commercial buildings. However, it is not intended as a replacement for the many excellent engineering texts and handbooks commonly in use, nor is it detailed enough to be a design manual. It should be considered a guide and general reference on electrical design for commercial buildings. 1.2 Commercial Buildings The term “commercial, residential, and institutional buildings”as used in this chapter, encompasses all buildings other than industrial buildings and private dwellings. It includes office and apartment buildings, hotels, schools, and churches, marine, air, railway, and bus terminals, department stores, retail shops, governmental buildings, hospitals, nursing homes, mental and correctional institutions, theaters, sports arenas, and other buildings serving the public directly. Buildings, or parts of buildings, within industrial complexes, which are used as offices or medical facilities or for similar nonindustrial purposes, fall within the scope of this recommended practice. Today’s commercial buildings, because of their increasing size and complexity, have become more and more dependent upon adequate and reliable electric systems. One can better understand the complex nature of modern commercial buildings by examining the systems, equipment, and facilities listed in 1.2.1. 1.2.2 Electrical Design Elements In spite of the wide variety of commercial, residential, and institutional buildings, some electrical design elements are common to all. These elements, listed below, will be discussed generally in this section and in detail in the remaining sections of this recommended practice. The principal design elements considered in the design of the power, lighting, and auxiliary systems include: 1) Magnitudes, quality, characteristics, demand, and coincidence or diversity of loads and load factors 2) Service, distribution, and utilization voltages and voltage regulation 3) Flexibility and provisions for expansion
常见职位职务英文翻译 Accounting Assistant会计助理 Accounting Clerk记帐员 Accounting Manager会计部经理 Accounting Stall会计部职员 Accounting Supervisor会计主管 Administration Manager行政经理 Administration Staff行政人员 Administrative Assistant行政助理 Administrative Clerk行政办事员 Advertising Staff广告工作人员 Airlines Sales Representative航空公司定座员 Airlines Staff航空公司职员 Application Engineer应用工程师 Assistant Manager副经理 Bond Analyst证券分析员 Bond Trader证券交易员 Business Controller业务主任 Business Manager业务经理 Buyer采购员 Cashier出纳员 Chemical Engineer化学工程师 Civil Engineer土木工程师 Clerk/Receptionist职员／接待员 Clerk Typist&Secretary文书打字兼秘书 Computer Data Input Operator计算机资料输入员Computer Engineer计算机工程师 Computer Processing Operator计算机处理操作员Computer System Manager计算机系统部经理 Copywriter广告文字撰稿人 Deputy General Manager副总经理 Economic Research Assistant经济研究助理 Electrical Engineer电气工程师 Engineering Technician工程技术员 English Instructor/Teacher英语教师 Export Sales Manager外销部经理 Export Sales Staff外销部职员 Financial Controller财务主任 Financial Reporter财务报告人 F.X.(Foreign Exchange)Clerk外汇部职员 F.X.Settlement Clerk外汇部核算员 Fund Manager财务经理 General Auditor审计长 General Manager/President总经理
本科毕业设计（论文） ( 2012届) （外文翻译） 题目： 学院:__________ ____________ 专业:_________ 市场营销_____________ 班级:_________ ___________ 姓名:___________ ______________ 学号:________ __________ 指导老师:___________ ___________
原文题目：《市场定位策略》 作者：Powpaka Samart 原文出处:1999,Sasin Journal of Management,5,79-97 市场定位策略 定位的战略性角色 营销策略由两部分组成：目标市场战略和营销组合战略。目标市场战略三个过程组成：市场细分，目标（或目标市场选择），市场定位等。营销组合战略指的是创造一个独特的产品，分销，促销和定价策略（4PS）的过程，旨在满足客户的需求和希望。目标市场战略和营销组合策略有密切的联系，有很强的相互依存关系。目标市场战略是用来制订营销组合策略方针。 市场细分是把一个市场当中具有相似需求和特点、可能会对特定产品和特定的营销程序产生相似回应的人们，分成不同的客户的子集的过程。目标或目标市场的选择是一个或多个，通过评估每个细分市场，寻求利益的相对吸引力，而且该公司业务的相对优势。最后，定位是设计产品和发展战略营销计划，共同在目标市场建立一个持久的竞争优势的过程。 目标市场定位战略的概念是众所周知的，尤其是被大多数消费品营销从业者在制定市场营销组合策略有用作为非理论概念的方式。然而在实践中，营销人员往往绕过正式的定位，直接制定营销组合策略。这可能是由于这样的事实，这些经理们不知道如何获取感知图---表明这是一个客户原始需求的产品的位置。 本文的目的是展示营销从业者能够获得定位和营销组合策略制定的感知图的现实途径。具体来说，感知映射及其关系的定位总是被第一时间注意到。这是通过统计技术的讨论，可以遵循用于创建感知图。最后，通过因子分析定位过程的例子是证明。 目标市场战略 目标市场战略是确定一个（或多个目标市场）的过程和它的（或他们）独特的定位。目标市场策略包括：（1）市场细分，（2）市场选择，（3）市场定位。 市场细分。市场细分是一个分割成几部分或几个同质异构的潜在市场的进程。换句话说，在一个潜在的市场客户可能有不同的偏好。因此，使用产品和产品计划并不是一个有效和高效的办法。为了有效和有效率，管理者需要根据顾客的喜好对潜在顾客进行整合，根据该公司的实力，用独特的服务来满足其中一个或多个组别细分市场。另一种看待市场细分的方式是测试市场是否存在同质偏好或者需求差异性。良好的市场细分结果应具有以下特征的部分：（1）实体性（即：每个细分市场的容量足够大），（2）可盈利/可辨识/可测性（即每个段可在人口或消费心理特征方面的描述）（3）无障碍性（即媒体消费和
PA VEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES By Sandra L. Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE (Reviewed by the Highway Division) ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com- mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation. Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils. A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented. Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used. INTRODUCTION When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume, increase in volume, or do nothing. A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil. The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting. Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be- ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs. The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials. Each project will have different design considerations, economic con- straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account. However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made. For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include: (1) In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash; (2) seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems; or (3) a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod- ification of the design to "accept" the anticipated expansion. In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change (especially non- uniform volume change) must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data. Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem. The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple methods for: (1) Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible; and (2) estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst. Prof., Ctr. for Advanced Res. in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287. Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one month,