英语专业语用学考试笔记

【优质文档】职称英语考试的学习笔记（二）-优秀word范文本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！== 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ ==职称英语考试的学习笔记（二）第二讲怎样做词汇题在上一讲中我们已经谈到，大纲对申报不同级别的考生要求认知的词汇量不等， C 级是4000， B 级是5000， A 级是6000.这只是认知词汇量。

所谓认知，就是指碰到这些词能够认识，并不一定要求每个词都能运用。

但是，对于其中的一些词汇，则必须能够运用，至于哪些词要求能够运用，大纲里并没有列出。

试题中的词汇部分实际上就是检查考生对各个级别要求认知的词汇中的某些单词或短语是否会运用。

考试采用两种方式去检查，一种是要求考生根据题目句子的意思从所给的四个选项中选出一个最佳答案，然后填入句中的空白处，共10小题;另外一种题型要求对题目句子中的一个划有底横线的词进行替换选择，即从句后所给四项选择中，先出一个最佳的词来替换句子中的划线部分，共10小题。

虽然采用了两种形式，但考核的不外乎是词汇的意义和用法。

可以这样讲，空格这部分题目既考词义，又考用法;划线部分则主要考查词义。

下面我们看几个实例：Its hot out on the beach . Lets sit in the( A ) shadow ( B ) shade ( C ) dark ( D ) darkness这是99年综合 C 级中的一道题。

个句子想表达的意思：海滩上很热，让我们坐到阴凉处去。

最佳答案为 B shade 的意思是阴凉处。

其他几个选项也都有阴、黑的意思。

但放到句子中去都不合适。

比如，选项 A ) shadow 的意思是影子;背光处。

Chapter 9 Second Language Acquisition (SLA)l What is SLA?n What is language acquisition?u The natural process of children’s language development.u It is different from language learning.u Four stages of language acquisitionl Babbling – holophrastic – two-word – telegraphicn What is second language acquisition (SLA)?u SLA is learning a language in F2 (the language being learnt) language environment.u It is different from foreign language learning, which is learning a language in F1 language environment. u The major difference is the environment.n Foreign language teaching (FLT) and second language teaching (SLT)n SLA theoryl Factors affecting SLAn External factors: social factorsu Social demandu Language policyn Internal factors: learner factorsu Motivationl Instrumentall Integrativeu Ageu Learning strategyl Cognitiven Repetitionn Translationn Note-takingl Metacognitiven Organizingn Self-monitoringn Self-evaluationu Personalityu Attitudel Analysis of learners’ languagen Why analyze?u Learners’ language provides data for research into the nature of the learning process. In order to gain insight into the process, researchers have engaged in the analysis of learners’ language.n How to analyze?u Contrastive analysisl Compare the target language with the mother tongue.u Error analysisl Identifying errorsn Errors are due to the fault in knowledge of the speaker, while mistakes are because of unsuccessful performance. l Describing errorsn Omission- He came into _ classroom with a book in _ hand.n Addition/wordy- My child goes to his school.n Selection- I hope/wish…n Disordering- I yesterday went to … (I, yesterday, went to …/I went to … yesterday)l Explaining errors and analyzing reasonn Interlingual factors- Mother tongue’s influencen Intralingual factors- Overgeneralization- Simplification- Cross-associationl Limitation for error analysisn Fail to see what learners’ language will be like if we focus on the errors.u Interlanguagel Approximate language systeml Transitional languagel Language transfer – to borrow language from L1n Positive transfer: L1 does helpn Negative transfer: L1 misleadsl Learners extend patterns by analogy – overgeneralized mistakes (overextension).l Communicative strategyl Explaining SLAn Nativist theoriesu Chomsky: LAD systemu Krashen: monitor theoryu Input hypothesis (i + 1 hypothesis)n Environmentalist theoriesu Cultural awarenessu Theoretical perspective (language outlook) u Confidence and competencen Functionalist theoriesu Language useu Communicative strategies (CS)。

英语语言学笔记Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。

The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。

胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。

胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。

Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writi ng (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g.Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLan guage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo. The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort –lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.Functions of language – three meta-functions by HallidayThe ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information.The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community.The textual functionTo form a text.Functions of languagePhatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.Directive: get the hearer to do something.Informative: give information about facts.Interrogative: get information from others.Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention. V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed theirwriting systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ?new‘. In one exper iment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sentoff to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. Theyflow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cann ot create a ?new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④A linguistic theory is cons tructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studiesthe characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentratesprimarily on what speakers do with languagewhich led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In H alliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖ and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. d e Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language./doc/4215996376.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondary34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BChapter 2 PhonologyLanguage is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Phonetics----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Three branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics----from the speakers‘ point of view, ―how speakers produce speech sounds‖the production of speech sounds. It is of our major concernAuditory phonetics----from the hearers‘ point ofview, ―how sounds are perceived‖the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.the physical properties of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the three cavities?Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.Transcription of speech soundsA standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. ], [ pit ] ?clear [ Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:V oicing---- voiced & voiceless (Two consonants sharing the same place and manner of articulation become a pair, which is distinguished by voiceless or voiced. )Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasalAspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedClassification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels and ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.Classification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:The manner of articulationThe place of articulationThe manner of articulationstops/plosives: [p],? , [t], [d], [k], [g];],?], [v], [s], [z], [? fricatives: [? ], [h];?], [?], [?[];??], [?? affricates: [?liquids:? ];?[l](lateral), [];?], [?], [? nasals: [?].?glides/semivowels: [w], [The place of articulationbilabial: [p], ], [w];?, [], [v];?? labiodental: [ ?];?], [? dental: [alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l],? [r];];??], [ ??], [??], [?], [? palatal: [?velar: [k],? ?];?[g], [glottal: [h].?The place of articulation1. Bilabial;2. Labiodental;3. Dental or interdental;4. Alveolar;5. Palatoalveolar;6. Palatal;7. Velar;8. Uvular;9. Glottal.The description of English consonants Page 20 (textbook)Classification of vowelsDifferent vowels are determined by the position of the tongue and the relative opening of the lips.The criteria of vowel description1. the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back2. the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open3. the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded4. the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧，松)Monophthongs or pure/single vowels?Diphthongs or gliding vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front? ?]?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??vowels: [],?], [?? central vowels: [? ];?[].??], [?], [??], [?], [?? back vowels: [?According to the openness of the mouth].?], [??], [?], [?? Close: [?];??], [?Semi-close: [];?], [? Semi-open: [?],? Open: [? ];?], [??], [?], [?[According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding ];?], [??], [?], [?? rounded: [?].??], [?], [?], [??], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??unrounded: [According to the length of the vowels],??], [?? long: [? ]??], [??], [??[],?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [? short: [? ].?[Diphthongs/gliding vowels?],??], [??], [?? [? ].??], [??], [??], [??], [??[Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad? had ladA velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod?Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat patAn alveolar? consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quickA palato-alveolar? consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zipA dental consonant: lie buy? thigh thy tie ryeA glide: one war yolk rush?Underline the words that end with a sound as required:A fricative?pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave messageA nasal?train bang leaf limbA stop?drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tipAn affricate: rack such ridge booze?Underline the words that contain the sound as required:A central vowel:?mad lot but boot wordA front vowel:?reed pad load fate bit bed cookA rounded vowel:?who he bus her hit true boss bar walkA back vowel:?paid reap fool top good fatherDescribe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:vd/vl place mannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobberEitherPhonologyPhonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different inperspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Phonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phonemePhoneA phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The? speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‘t, e.g. t ]??[ b & t]?t ], [sp?[ b & t].?[spPhonemeA? phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently t].?p] and [sp?t], [t?in [pAllophoneAllophones ---- the phones? that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic? contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. t].?t ] and [p? /b/ and /p/ in [ b Complementary? distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].Minimal pairMinimal pair----when two different forms? are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.Some rules of phonologySequential rules?Assimilation ruleDeletion rule?Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sound s in a particular language, e.g. in English, ―k b i I‖ might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.。

第一章名词名词复数Stimulus stimuli 促激因素Crisis crisesPhenomenon phenomena没有单数形式的名词clothes; jeans; pajamas（睡衣）scissors; scales; handcuffsphysics; maths; politics; economicsgoods; whereabouts; remains; findings; belongings可数与不可数I’d like a coffee, please. Do you drink coffeeI’ll buy a chicken for dinner tonight. Would you like some chicken for dinner? tea/a tea; beer/ a beer; lemonade/ a lemonade;ice cream/ an ice cream集体名词familyclassthe United Nationsthe Olympic Gamespolice; cattle; people (人民；人们)量化一群一个一件一条一组Groups一层灰 a film of dust一缕烟 a wisp of smoke一线希望 a ray/glimpse/thread of hope 一绺头发 a lock of hair一点怀疑 a shadow of doubt一片面包 a piece/slice of bread一件家具 a piece/an article of furniture 群星 a constellation of stars狮群 a pride of lions一粒沙子 a grain of sand专四考点–名词辨析The economic recession has meant that job ___ is a rare thing.A. securityB. safetyC. protectionThere was a soft ____ from the polished brass in the deserted building.A. flashB. glareC. glistenD. glow第二章形容词和副词定语形容词和表语形容词ablaze; afloat; afraid; alight; alive; alone; aloof; ashamed; asleep; awake; aware; askew content; glad; ill; pleased; ready; sorry; sure; (un)wellglad tidings The world is certainly in a sorry state.There was a ready supply of drink.表语alive afraid alike asleep ill定语living frightened similar sleeping sick形容词位置和意义concernedThe meeting was full of concerned residents.The students concerned were a small minority.presentThe present chairman is getting on a bit.We took a vote of all members present.专四考点：比较含比较概念的词和词组be inferior/ superior tobe junior/ senior to1、He is three years senior to his cousin.Intellect is to the mind ____ sight is to the body. (TEM4-2001)A. whatB. asC. thatD. likeA is toB whatC is to DThe feet are to a man what the wings are to a bird.2、Fat cannot change into muscle ____ muscle change into fat. (TEM4-1999)A. any more thanB. no more thanC. no less thanD. much more thannot…any more than 正如同…不能…, …也不能…no more … than 两者都不…；A home without love is no more a home than a body without a soul.not…any less than/no less … than 两者都…；John is no less hardworking than his sister, but he failed in the exam.3、It is not so much the language _____ the cultural background that makes the book difficult to understand.A. butB. norC. asD. likenot so much…as…与其…不如…The great use of a school education is not so much to teach you things as to teach you the art of learning. 授人以鱼不如授人以渔。

1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学)Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions,which is prior in modern linguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actualuse): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modern linguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds thatoccur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音)close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰发音)e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black birdtone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbsclosed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional …-mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languagesuch as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con)Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elementsthat make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, awareNouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstract category encodedin a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8 do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface:NP VPDet Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be movedlimits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C positionno element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, which are relatedbut different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.”refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father),syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning) polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalerelational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEpredication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication(meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austin in late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果) John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five general types of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Will you close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee.Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy.The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other. The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be brief and orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic changemorphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词),Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch),Acronyms (首字构词e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over several generationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday = holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the pastsemantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years agorecent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English,influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.) causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changes and needs,the way children acquire language, grammar simplification, elaboration &complication, etc. No single causeChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of languagelive. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself fromthe rest of the community by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age ,of the ethnic affiliation of its members.speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect (characteristic of a particular socialclass---different social conditions), language and gender (female speech is less assertive andthus sounds more polite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like usingold words more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect of a languagecutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation): field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono. & gramm. features), tenor of discourse (语旨who the participants are and the relationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing) Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu. institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech of political or commercial centers,for official purposes or any formal occasions)Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang.of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together.Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is and affects a culture’s way ofthinking. Language is to culture what part is to whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talking Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are bound with cultural encodings orassociations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers, words andcultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors Culture contact--- acculturation(文化移入political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收immigration), amalgamation (合并ethnical mix / synthesis rather than the elimination orabsorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguistic nationalism Chap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively and according to their ownunderstanding of the sounds or patterns, which is based on what the children have alreadyknown instead of what is “available” in the environment. This theory fails to explain howthey acquire more complex grammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain.It is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical systemChildren ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter andsimpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways:First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, theirlanguage development also helps in the formation and enhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic systemhimself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulated at the righttime—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty ----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisitionStages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stage before proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extensionVocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of the environment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it. likely to occur later Grammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering(口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreignlanguage (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreign language in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate target language learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Analysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and compare the two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interferenceat different levels—phonological, lexical…), intralingual errors (语内错误result from faultyor partial learning of the TL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situationsCross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciationEA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become apermanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. fossilized pronunciation leads to accent) Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious effortsLearners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personalitymotivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish toidentify with the target culture), resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsicmotivation (for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitive strategies (元认知策略the techniques inplanning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning), affect/social strategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by either side of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干shared by all animals to keep the body alive by maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstemneuron神经元Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissure The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse” of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the。

英语学习笔记知识点归纳总结
1. 词汇研究
- 提高词汇量对于英语研究至关重要，可以通过背单词、阅读和听力练来扩大词汇量。

- 熟练使用英汉词典可以帮助理解单词的意思及用法。

- 注意词汇的拼写和发音，可以使用英语在线词典进行查询和练。

2. 语法知识
- 掌握基本的句型结构，如主谓宾、并列句、从句等。

- 注意使用正确的时态、语态和语气，并理解其在句子中的用法。

- 研究常用的语法规则，如动词变化、名词性质等。

3. 句子构建
- 研究如何使用连接词和过渡词来使句子更连贯。

- 使用适当的修饰词和介词来表达自己的观点和描述事物。

- 注意句子的结构和顺序，避免重复和冗长。

4. 阅读和听力技巧
- 阅读英文材料可以提高词汇量和理解能力，建议选择适合自己水平的材料进行阅读。

- 听力练可以帮助提高听力理解和口语表达能力，可以使用听力材料和英语研究软件进行练。

5. 写作技巧
- 研究如何写作不同类型的文章，如议论文、说明文、记叙文等。

- 练写作，注意语法和拼写错误，并寻求他人的反馈和建议。

- 使用合适的过渡句和段落来使文章结构更清晰。

以上是英语学习笔记的知识点归纳总结，希望对你的英语学习有所帮助。

不断积累知识，勤加练习，相信你会在英语学习中取得好成绩！。

第一章【2 】Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么进修说话A tool for communication交换的对象An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生涯和人道中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.假如不能完整懂得说话的本质和构造,我们就会对人类的本质一窍不通.1.2 What is language?什么是说话1.2.1 different senses of language 说话的不赞成义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 经由过程言语来交换的才能c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning isattributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交换思惟和感到的一套声音及这些声音互相联合的体系d. the written representation of such a system 体系的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简练的界说:说话是言语交换的一种方法.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiosticand communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broadunderstanding of human interaction including such associated factors asnonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes usfrom animals.因为说和写的交换方法是一种有目标的行动,所以说话是适用性的;因为说话是社会符号,说话的交换只能在所有参与者广泛懂得了人类的那些非言语的暗示,念头,社会文化脚色等等互相接洽关系的身分之后才能有用进行,是以说话又是社会的,商定俗成的.说话使人类差别于动物.1.2.2 definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitraryvocalsymbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal(receiver or listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically,rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the tablecleaned. (×) bkli (×)Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which thesesounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that differentlanguage have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of thearbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance andconcept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. Atypical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotationfrom shakepeare’s play:” Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name wouldsmell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样喷鼻的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms tosymbolize what they wish to refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later thanthe spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn tospeak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language isprimarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 说话的构造特点Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决议了人类说话性质的特点.例如随意率性性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?随意率性性a. arbitrariness【 'ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】---- arbitrariness(随意率性性): one design feature of humanlanguage,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.(人类说话的本质特点之一,指说话符号的情势与意义之间没有天然的接洽.) It was discussed by Saussure first.The linkbetween them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning说话的音和义之间的随意率性性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 说话的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系.A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language therefore is largely arbitrary.b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang ” ”crash” ”roar ” ” rumble ” ”cakle”, which are motivated in a certain sense.”onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描述的声音的词c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either.“type ” and ”write ”are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type -writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say “arbitrariness”is a matter of degree.arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.随意率性性和拟声可以同时起感化.Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏季傍晚,群蝇嗡嗡地非.(2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的随意率性性According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于体系功效说话学家和美国功效说话学家来说,说话在句法上长短随意率性的.Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.句法就是根据语法安排造句之法.(3) Aribrtary and convention随意率性性和商定性The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.说话学上的符号和它的意义之间是商定俗成的关系.The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.随意率性性的相不和,即商定性.conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.随意率性性付与说话潜在的创造力,而说话的商定性又使进修说话变得辛苦.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash) For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality【djuː'ælətɪ】 (二重性):--- one design feature of human language, which refers tothe property of having two levels of structures , such as units of the primary levelare composed of elements of the secondarylevel and each of the two levels hasits own principles of organization.(人类说话的本质特点之一,指失去两层构造的这种特点,底层构造是上层构造的构成成分,每层都有自身的组合规矩.)duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f ” )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number ofsound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economy经济原则Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.). At the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two sets of structures or two levels, one of sound and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic words /units, and these units of meaning can be arrangedand rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.这些意义单位构成很多个句子.(Note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No anmial communication system enjoys this duality.To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.说到说话的二重性,我们必须留意说话的等级性.lic. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretationof new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-humansignals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. (指说话的能产性,因为说话有二重性和递归性.)productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language , including those that has never heard before , but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.人们可以或许应用说话华夏有的规矩来懂得从未碰着过的说话符号的特点.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the lo cation is really ‘new’ .In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source,and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message wasconveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the freefood. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’t locate the food. Theproblem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set ofsignals, all of which related to horizonta distance. The bee cannot create a‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.No one has never said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he canunderstand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, productivity never goes outside the language, thus productivity is also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky) Productivity is unique to human language. 创造性是人类说话的举世无双的特点.d. displacement(移位性): one design feature of human language, which means humanlanguage enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts whichare not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.(指人类说话可以让应用者来表示在措辞时(时光和处所)并不消失的物体,时光和不雅点.) Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of thisnectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The otherbees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Beecommunication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, itmust be the most recent food source.Displacement , as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does thingspresent. In other words, one can refer to real or unreal things, things of thepast, of the present, of the future.人类说话可以被用来指不在当时当地产生的工作,这就使得人类可以或许谈论很多工作而不受时空限制.Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that means language has the feature of displacement.Language itself can be talked about too. When a man , for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something thatis occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however,you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now andthere. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’ssystem, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it’s anunspeakable tiny sharee. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next isdescribed as cultural transmission.This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic bas is, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system.（人类进修说话的才能有遗传基本,但任何具体的说话体系都必须经由过程传授和进修才能获得,这解释说话具有文化传递性,它不是靠人类的本能而获得的.）If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫体系的.f. interchangeability 交换性interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog /dogs is /are “speaking” and which listening.What features of human language have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?Arbitrariness----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of.Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.Displacement----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation. Cultural transmission-----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them.Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did no t make the linguists circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he is taken back and taught to do so.1.4 Origin of language 说话的来源1.5 functions of language 说话的功效Jakobson defined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact. 雅科布逊界说了言语行动的六个要素：措辞者,受话者,语境,信息,语码,接触.Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:Referential function-----to convey message and information所指功效：传达信息Poetic function -----to indulge in language for its own sake 诗学功效：完整就说话而说话Emotive function ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions 情感功效：表达立场.感到和情感Cognitive function ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties 意动功效：经由过程敕令和请求去说服和影响他人Phatic function ----to establish communion with others 交感功效：与他人建议交换Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings 元说话功效：弄清意图.词语和意义They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee, contact and code. 它们与一些交换运动的元素相对应,如语境,信息,措辞者,受话者,接触和语码等.Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:韩礼德提出说话元功效的理论,即说话有：Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;概念功效：建构了经验模子和逻辑关系Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships 人际功效：反应了社会关系textual functions----creates relevance to context. 语篇功效：创立了说话与语境的关系Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.他经由过程不雅察儿童说话的成长提出了说话的七种功效,他们是对象功效,掌握功效,表达功效,交互功效,自指性功效,教诲功效和想象功效.Function(功效): the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle informative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.(用说话交换,思虑等.说话功效包括信息功效,人际功效,施为功效,情感功效,交感性功效,娱乐性功效和元说话功效.)language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.According to Wang Gang (1988), language has three main functions:a tool of communications,a tool whereby people learn about the world;a tool by which people creat art.1.5.1 Informative function信息功效What is the informative function?Language serves an “informative function” when used to tell something , characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true or false. According to P. Grice’s “cooperative principle”, one ought not to violate the “maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.Informative function is also called ideational function i n the framework of functional grammar. 在功效语法的框架中,信息功效也被称为概念功效.Halliday notes that “language serves for the expression of ‘content ’”: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 韩礼德指出“说话为表达‘内容’办事：这个‘内容’就是措辞者的真实的经验世界,包括他自我意识的内部世界.“It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us. 它须要人类的批示从其他的不同角度对待事物,而不是按照说话提醒给我们的那样去做.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功效1.5.3 Performative function 施为功效This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration , etc, are perfomatives.1.5.4 Emotive function 情感功效1.5.5 Phatic communion 交感性谈话phatic communion(交感性谈话): one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.(人类说话的功效之一,指说话的社会交互性.)broadly speaking, phatic function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.概况地说,交感性功效是指那些有助于解释,保持人际关系的表达,如俚语,打趣,行业话,礼仪性的外交,社会地域方言的转化等等.The phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather in English and cloting in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language(e.g., “how are you?” “fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don’t say “hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “hi” , you ruin your friendship.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐性功效What is the evocative function? 什么是娱乐性功效？The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e. you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issuer but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元说话功效metalanguage(元说话): certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.用以讲述或描述另一说话等的说话或一套符号.What is the direct function?The “direction function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Mos t imperative sentences perform this function. E.g. “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J.Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”What is the interrogative function? 什么是疑问功效？When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc. according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g. “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s /listener’s answer.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!”;Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative funciton to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evoluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.6.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general. 说话学是对说话进行科学地研讨的学科.它所研讨的并不是某种特定的说话,而是人类所有的说话的共性.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conductedwith reference to some general theory of language structure.Observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryA linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of language, but toinvestigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a languag varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how aperson learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.Explain the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language, but language in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principle: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.(1)Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study andgive them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned.(2) Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of thetotal statement.(3) Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when is is possible.(4). Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguistshould be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguistics说话学的重要分支Lingusitics should include at least five branches, namely:phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, senmantic and pragmatic.说话学至少包括五个分支：语音.形态.句法.语义.和语用.General lingusitics 通俗说话学-------the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods appliable in any linguistic study. 把说话作为一个整体来研讨的学科被称为通俗说话学,它是说话学研讨中摸索人类说话的广泛性质和纪律的学科.1.7.1 phonetics 语音学-----studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech , the description and classification of speech sounds , words and connected speech, etc. 研讨语音,包括言语的产生（也就是言语在实际中如何形成,传递和接收）,言语的声音,语音的描述和分类,词语和话语衔接等等.Phonetics----The study of sounds used in linguistic community led to establishment of a brach of linguistics called phonetics. How speech are produced and classified.1.7.2 phonology 音系学（音位学）-----studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes. 研讨的是语音和音节的构造,散布和序列,它将音位视为起止点,来处理说话的语音体系.音位是语音的最小的说话学单位,它可以或许区分意义的不同.英语精确有45个音位.Phonology------how sounds form systems and unction to convey meaning in communication.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.语音学是研讨在言语中人类嗓音所能发出的语音,而音系学则是研讨这些语音中能形。

语⾔学笔记《简明英语语⾔学》笔记Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?●Definition: the scientific study of language.● A discipline that data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation;that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remaina muddled mass of things.●The scope of linguistics:General linguistics: study language as a wholeSpecific aspects:1)Phonetics: the study of sounds2)Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning3)Morphology: how symbols are formed and combined to form word4)Syntax: study the rules of how to form grammatically correct sentence5)Semantics: the study of meaning6)Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language useInterdisciplinary branches:1)Sociolinguistics2)Psycholinguistics3)Applied linguistics●Important distinctionsPrescriptive and descriptive:1)Descriptive: Describe and analyze the language that people actuallyuse2)Prescriptive: Lay down rules for correct and standard behavior inusing language3)Modern language is mostly descriptive. Modern language, which isscientific and objective, describes language people actually use, be itcorrect or not.Synchronic and diachronic1)Synchronic: describe language at some point of time in history, al-ways in its current existence.2)Diachronic: the description of language as it changes through time; it3)In modern linguistics, synchronic approach enjoys priority.Speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing in linguistics, for it is more natural and reveals more true feature of language.Langue and parole1)Langue: abstract system shared by all members of language com-munity; it is the set of conventions and rules that language users have abide by2)Parole: Concrete use of language.3)Saussure: 1) parole is simply a mass of linguistic language facts; 2) linguist should abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regu-larities governing the actual use of languageCompetence and Performance-American linguist Chomsky1)Competence: knowledge of rules of language2)Performance: the realization of this knowledge in linguistic commu-nication3)The imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1)Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2)Modern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.3)Modern linguistics does not force languages into Latin-based framework.What is language?●Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.1)Language is a system, which means elements of language are com-bined according to rules.2)Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.3)Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound.4)Language is human-specific.1)Arbitrariness: logical connection between meaning and sounds. While some words are motivated: the first are onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, bang; the second are compound words, e.g. photocopy. This kind of words only make up small percentage of vocabulary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistica-tion of language and make it possible for language to have an unli-mited source of expressions.2)Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its us-ers.3)Duality: basic level: a structure of soundsHigher level: sounds of language can be rearranged into morphemes and words4)Displacement: 不受时空限制的5)Cultural transmission: human have to be learned and taught be acquire language.●Functions of languageDescriptive function: convey factual informationExpressive function: supplies informationSocial function: maintain social relations between people Structural linguist Roman JakobsonAddresser---emotive: addresser express his attitude towards thetopic or situationAddressee---conative: the addresser aims to influence addressee’s actionContext---referential: addresser conveys a message or information Message---poetic: use language to display the beauty of language Contact---phatic communication: it tries to establish or maintain in-terpersonal relationsCode---metalinguistic: make clear the meaning of language itselfIn early 1970 British linguist M.A.K. Halliday7 function in children.Ideational function: organize one’s experience, attitude, evaluation,feeling, and emotionsInterpersonal function: establish and maintain interpersonal rela-tionsTextual function: organize written or spoken English in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particularsituation in which they are usedChapter 2 PhonologyThe phonic medium of languageLimited range of sounds constitute the phonic medium of language.The individual sounds within the range are the speech sounds.Phonetics●What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s languages.Articu latory phonetics: studies the sounds form speaker’s point ofView, i.e. how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate thesoundsAuditory phonetics: studies from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. howthe sounds are perceived by the hearerAcoustic phonetics: the way sounds travel by looking at the soundswaves.Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is it?●Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules the govern the formation of sen-tences.Words categories●In traditional grammar, there are 8 categories (called parts of speech). Non-traditional categories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg), and qualifier (Qua).●Two divisionMajor lexical categories: the heads around which phases are built. Noun, verb, ad-jective, preposition.Minor lexical categories: determiner限定词, degree words, qualifier限定语, aux-iliary, conjunction.Meaning: 1) nouns often designate its entity; verbs often designate action, sensation, and states. 2) the property or attribute of a noun can be elaborated by adjectives, those of verbs, adverbs.Deficiencies: 1) some words do not have entity such as dilemma, friendship.2) some words belong to more than one categories3) words with same or similar meaning belongs to different catego-ries, e.g. be aware of a nd knowInflection: 1) noun → -s or –es indicating plural2)adjectives→-er or –est indicating comparative degree and superla-tive degree3)verb→-ing and –ed indicating progressive and past tenseDeficiency: some words do not take inflectionsDistribution: it is reliable, which indicates what type of elements can co-occur with certain words.Noun co-appear with determiner, e.g. a girl, the penVerbs with auxiliary, e.g. should openAdjectives with degree words, e.g. very coolPhrase categories and their structure●XP ruleXP→Specifier ——head—— complementNP→(Det) N (PP) …VP→(Qual) V (NP) …AP→(Deg) A (PP) …PP→(Deg) P (NP) …●Coordination ruleNo limit on the number of coordinated categories prior to the conjunction.A category at any level (head or XP) can be coordinated.Coordinated categories must be of the same type.The category type of coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of elements being conjoined.Structure: X→X, X, X…Con XPhrase elements:●SpecifiersRole：1) semantically, make more precise the meaning of head; 2) syntactically,●Provide information and location, attached to right of the head Monotransitive: open the doorDitransitive: send me the mailComlex transitive verbs: put it on the wallComplement clauseMiss Herbert believes that she will win.Matrix clause complementizer complement clauseCP complement●ModifiersTo modifier nouns →adj. phrasesTo modifier verbs →adv. Phrases and prepositional phrases Position of modifiersModifiers Positions ExamplesAP PP AdvP Precedes the headFollow the headPrecedes or followA very careful girlOpen with careRead carefully; carefully readSentences (the S rule)Inflp= (s)NP Inlf VP。

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

一、语言学总论1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimer2）Duality（二层性）:定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性、移位性）:定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例：印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive （描述性）vs. Prescriptive （规定性）Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic（共时性）vs. Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue（语言）& parole （言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力）and performance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如meintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=derivational affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级：-er, -est如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。