一、名词解释
1、Psychological distance: it may be that the truly pragmatic basis of special deixis is actually psychological. Physically close objects will tend to be treated by the speaker as psychologically close. Also ,sth that is physically distant will generally be treated as psychologically distant.
2、Reference: reference is an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something.
3、inference: Inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true.
4、Presupposition: a presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance, speakers, not sentences, have presupposition.
5、Entailment: an entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance, sentences, not speakers, have entailments.
6、Face,: face means the public self-image of a person. It refers that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.
7、Politeness: in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person's face.
二、简答题
1、what's pragmatics ? T ypes of it.
P r agmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker( or writer) and interpreted by a listener{or reader}
①pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.
②pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.
③pragmatics is the study of how more gets it communicated than is said.
④pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.
2、what's deixis ?
Deixis is a technical term( from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterance. It means 'pointing' via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this 'pointing' is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be broken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis( me, you), or location via spatial deixis( here, there), or time via temporal deixis( now, then).
3、T ypes of presupposition.
①The existential presupposition is not only assumed to be present in possessive construction ( for example, ' your car '>> 'you have a car)
②The presupposed information following a verb like ' know ' can be treated as a fact, and is described as a factive presupposition, such as …realize? and …regret?..
③General speaking, in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another ( non-asserted ) meaning is understood, such as …stop?, …star?, and…again?.
④In addition to presupposition which are associated with the use of certain words and phrases, there are also structural presupposition. ( for example, when did he leave? >> he left. / where did you buy the bike ? >> you bought the bike. )
⑤A non-factive presupposition is one that is assumed not to be true. ( example, I dreamed that I was rich.>> I was not rich/ we imagined we were in Hawaii.>>we were not in Hawaii. / he
pretends to be ill.>>he is not ill. )
⑥At end of the discussion of deixis, a structure that is interpreted with a non-factive
presupposition. Indeed, this type of structure creates a counter-factual presupposition, meaning that what is presupposed is not only true, but is the opposite of what is true, or ' contrary ' to ' facts'.
( example, if you were my friend, you would have helped me.>>you are not my friend.)
4.Cooperation and implicature.
The cooperative principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at stage it which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
①Quantity,
i.Make your contribution as informative as is required ( for the current purposes of the
exchange).
b)Do you make your contribution more informative than is required.
②Quality. Try to make your contribution one that is true.
a)Do not say what what you believe to be false.
b)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
③Relation. Be relevant.
④Manner. Be perspicuous.
a)A void obscurity of expression.
b)A void ambiguity.
c)Be brief( avoid unnecessary prolixity).
d)Be orderly.
Properties of conversational implicatures
1.Conversational implicatures are deniable. They can be explicitly denied(or alternatively,
reinforced) in different ways.
2.Implicatures can be calculated by the listeners via inference. In terms of their defining
properties, then, conversational implicatures can be calculated, suspended, cancelled, and reinforced.
Speech act
The action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts.
1.Locutionary act, which is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic
expression,
2.The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance.
3.Depending on the circumstances, you will utter on the assumption that the hearer will
recognize the effect you intended. This is also generally known as the perlocutionary effect.
Positive and negative politeness
A positive politeness atrategy leads the requester to appeal to a common goal, and even friendship,
via expressions such as those in the following example(a. how about letting me use your pen? b.
hey, buddy, I?d appreciate it if you?d let me use your pen.)
However, in most English-speaking contexts, a face saving act is more commonly performed via a negative politeness strategy. For example(a. could you lend me a pen? B. I?m sorry to bother you, but can I ask you for a pen or something? C. I know you are busy, but might I ask you if-em-if you happen to have an extra pen that I could,you know-eh-maybe borrow?)
三、论述题
1. Speech act classification.
①Declaration are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance. ( example. Priest: I now pronounce your husband and wife./ Referee: you're out. / Jury Foreman: we find the defendant guilty.)
In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words.
②Representatives are those kind of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not. ( example. The earth is flat. / Chomsky didn't write about peanuts. / it was a warm sunny day.)
In using representative, the speaker makes the words fit the world( of belief)
③Expressive are those kind of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. ( example. I'm really sorry. / congratulations / Oh, yes, great, mmmm, ssahh. )
In using an expression, the speaker makes words fit the world( of feeling).
④Directives are those kinds of speech that speakers use to get someone else to do something. (example. Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black. / could you lend me a pen, please?/ don't touch that.
In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words( via the hearer).
⑤Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action. ( I'll be back/ I'm going to get it right next time/ we will not do that. ) In using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speaker)
These five general functions of speech acts, with there key features, are summarized in Table 6. I.
The role of co-text
1.The co-text clearly limits the range of possible interpretations we might have for a word like
“Brazil”. It is consequently misleading to think of reference being understood solely in terms of our ability to identity referents via the referring expression. The referring expression actually provides a range of reference, that is, a number of possible referents.
2.Of course, co-text is just a linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression I
used. The physical environment, or context, is perhaps more easily recognized as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted.
3.Reference are depends on local context and the local knowledge of the participants. It may
crucially depend on familiarity with the local socio-cultural conventions as the basis for inference (for example, if a person is in a hospital with an illness, then he or she can be identified by nurses via the name of illness). These conventions may differ substantially from one social group to another and may be marked differently from one language to another.
Reference, then, is not simply a relationship between the meaning of a word or phrase and an object or person in the world. It is a social act, in which the speaker assumes that the word or phrase chosen to identify an object or person will be interpreted as the speaker intend.
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
1. The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as _____linguistics. D A. applied B. diachronic C. comparative D. synchronic 2. The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a __C__ formula "S→NP VP". A. hierarchical B. linear C. tree diagram D. vertical 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A A. [p] B.[m] C.[b] D.[t] 4. The words ―make‖ and ―bus‖ are called _____D____because they can occur unattached. A. derivational morphemes B .inflectional morphemes C. bound morphemes D. free morphemes 5. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are____B______. A. gradable antonymy B. relational (converse) antonymy C. synonyms D. co-hyponyms 6. The semantic components of the word ―man‖ can be expressed as ____C___. A.＋animate,＋human,＋male,－adult; B.＋animate,＋human,－male,－adult; C.＋animate,＋human,＋male,＋adult D.—animate,＋human,－male,－adult 7. What kind of function does the sentence ―How do you do?‖ have? B A. Directive B. Phatic C. Informative D. Evocative 8. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______A____. A. lexical words B. grammatical words C. function words D. form words 9. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?______A_. A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use 10. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called __C? A. morphology B. sociolinguistics C. pragmatics D. psycholinguistics 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.
[考研类试卷]英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编14 一、简答题 0 Please disambiguate the following 5 sentences, using the tree-diagram, or any other means that you think is appropriate.（北京交通大学2007研) 1 Jane showed her baby pictures. 2 The old man is drinking in the air. 3 We need more realistic officials to handle the economy. 4 We are sweeping the ground cigarettes on the street. 5 Tom exchanged the money and fell around the corner. 6 What is Halliday's idea on the relationship between the functions performed by language and its structures? 7 What are deep and surface structures? 8 In the following three sentences, the particle "up" stays in different positions, i. e. immediately after the verb; in between the noun phrase and the relative clause; and at the end of the sentence. Can you formulate a syntactic rule to explain the position changes of the particle? (1)She stood up the man who offered her a diamond. (2)She stood the man up who offered her a diamond. (3)She stood the man who offered her a diamond up.（南开大学2010研) 9 What is conceptual meaning? Try to distinguish it from any other types of meaning classified by Leech?（北二外2008研) 10 Explain the notion of hyponym.（北二外2008研) 11 How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic features?（浙江大学2004研) (a)The television drank my water.(b)His dog writes poetry.
英语语用学教程 English Pragmatics: A Coursebook 1. Background and definitions Warming up activity What does the boy still need to learn about using language? A little boy comes in the front door. Mother: Wipe your feet, please. He removes his muddy shoes and socks and carefully wipes his clean feeton the doormat. 1.1Background of pragmatics 1.1Definitions of pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of how the speaker produces and how the hearerunderstands the peculiar uses of language. 1.2Component vs. perspective分相论与综观论 1.2.1Component view of pragmatics Davis points out in his book Pragmatics: A Reader(1991) that pragmatics,likephonetics,phonology,morphology,syntaxandsemantics,isacomponent of linguistics. 1.2.2Perspective view of pragmatics Verschueren(1999) proposes that pragmatics is not a component oflinguistics, but a new way of looking at language. Pragmaticsisspecifiedas“ageneralcognitive,social,andculturalperspective on linguistic phenomena in relation to their usage in forms ofbehavior”(Verschueren,1999)
语言学概论 第一章、绪论 1.语言学定义：专门以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。语言学的任务就是研究语言的性质、功能、结构及其运用等问题，揭示语言存在和发展的规律，使人们理解并掌握语言的理性知识。 第一节、语言研究与语言学 1.神话传说 2.语文学研究 ①语文学：是从文献角度研究语言文字学科的总称。它以文献评审为主，目的在于解释、 注疏和考订。 ②东方语言学：古印度、古中国 古印度语言学：公元前4、5世纪时，口语和《吠陀》时代的语言差别越来越大，甚至许多地方已经不能为一般人所读懂了。为了确保准确无误地理解《吠陀》的宗教内容，就必须对《吠陀》的语言作注释。著名的《巴尼尼经》（Pāninisūtra）正是当时从解说《吠陀》语言开始，进而研究梵语的整个结构的产物。《巴尼尼经》又名《八章书》，是巴尼尼在前人研究的基础上撰写的一部梵语语法。巴尼尼用3，983条经句极其概括地叙述了梵语的语音结构、语词的构成和变化规则。巴尼尼语法是一部汇集了许多世纪的语法学家研究成果的语法法典，对梵语的语音、语法现象分析和描写得十分细致，代表了古代印度语言研究的水平。印度语言研究的最初动力，是必须把梵语文化中最古老的吠陀时期由口头流传下来的一些宗教和礼仪文献保存下去,巴尼尼的工作在一定程度上帮助了后人学习和研究梵语。布龙菲尔德说：巴尼尼的著作是“人类智慧的丰碑之一”。 ③西方语言学：古希腊语言学、古罗马语言学、中世纪至18世纪末的西方语言学 谈谈语文学和语言学的关系： 语言学就是专门以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。语言学的任务就是研究语言的性质、功能、结构及其运用等问题，揭示语言存在和发展的规律，使人们理解并掌握语言的理性知识。语言学还没有成为一门独立的学科之前，人们对于语言的学习和研究只是为了给古代经典文献作注释，我们称那段时期的语言研究为语文学。语文学是从文献角度研究语言文字学科的总称。它以文献评审为主，目的在于解释、注疏和考订。 3.历史比较语言学：威廉琼斯的论文拉开19世纪历史比较语言学研究的序幕 4.现代语言学： ①瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》 索绪尔：现代语言学的历史，是从瑞士语言学家费尔迪南·德·索绪尔开始的。索绪尔的代表作是《普通语言学教程》。索绪尔被誉为“现代语言学之父”，《普通语言学教程》是现代语言学的奠基之作。索绪尔的语言学思想和19世纪以前的语文学最根本的区别在于：把语言看成是由各个符号之间的关系组成的有价值的结构系统。 《普通语言学课程》是一部什么样的书？ 《普通语言学教程》是由索绪尔的两位弟子兼同事根据学生们的听课笔记整理而成的。《普通语言学教程》是现代语言学的奠基之作。索绪尔区分了语言和言语，语言属于全社会，是抽象的；言语属于个人，是具体的。索绪尔认为语言是符号系统，“是一个纯粹的价值系统”。每个符号是由“能指”和“所指”构成的，所指和能指之间的关系是任意的。符号之间存在着线性的句段关系和联想的聚合关系。索绪尔把语言现象分为“共时”和“历时”两种，“共时”是指时间历程中的某一点上的语言状态，“历时”是指以时间历程中的某一点到以后的语言现象。索绪尔认为，语言学的对象是语言，由于语言有它的内部要素，也有它的外部要素，所以语言学也可以分为内部语言学和外部语言学。总之，《普通语言学教程》的语言学
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。
英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编12 (总分：50.00，做题时间：90分钟) 一、填空题(总题数：25，分数：50.00) 1.Sentence meaning is the combination of the meanings of the component words and 1.（分数： 2.00）填空项1:__________________ 2.The hyponyms under the same superordinate are called 1.（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 3.A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the 1 of, or the 2the utterance.（人大2004研)（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 4.When a teacher says "The exam this year is going to be really difficult" , the sentence would have an 1force.（清华2001研)（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 5.There has been a maxim in 1which claims that "You are what you say. "（中山大学2008研)（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 6.The theory of conversational implicature was proposed by 1.（中山大学2008研)（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ 7.Y"s utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of 1.X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 8.Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the 1.（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 9. 1refers to ties and connections which exist within texts. They are also called formal links between sentences and between clauses.（人大2007研)（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 10. 1 is the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee, while 2is the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee.（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 11. 1represents what the utterance is about; 2is what is said about it.（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 12."Linguistic relativity" was proposed by 1and 2.（清华2001研)（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 填空项1:__________________ https://www.doczj.com/doc/aa11751905.html,nguage varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, 1language.（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ 14.A speech 1is a group of people who share the same language or a particular variety of language.（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 15.A 1language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ 16.A linguistic 1refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use.（分数：2.00） 填空项1:__________________ https://www.doczj.com/doc/aa11751905.html,nguage itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the 1attitude connoted in the language that is sexist.（分数：2.00）
Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学 知识点： 1.*Definition: pragmatics; context 2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning 3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory 4.Searle’s classification of speech acts 5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle 考核目标： 识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context 领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts 综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle 一、定义 1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。) 2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。 二、知识点 6.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学 二十世纪初，Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始，同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调，即语言应该作为一个独立的，内在的系统来加以研究。 语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。两者都是对意义的研究。传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的，内在的，是语言本身的特性，不受语境的影响。因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征，不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述，因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。 Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
语言学概论第一节课官方笔记目录 一、课件下载及重播方法 二、本章/教材结构图 三、本章知识点及考频总结 四、配套练习题 五、其余课程安排 一、课件下载及重播方法 二、教材节构图
三、本章知识点及考频总结 第一部分语言和语言学 ◆模块一认识人类的语言 知识点一语言的性质和类型 （一）语言的概念 语言是一种符号系统，是由语音和语义构成的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。 （二）人类语言与其他动物鸣叫系统的区别是： 1、内容更多： 表达无极限（时间、空间），想说、可说、能说。 2、用处更大： 交际、标志、记录、思维、认知等功能。 3、能够创造： 极强的生成能力和极高的运转效率。
注意：只有人类才有语言人类具有语言能力，是人跟其他动物区别的最重要的标志 （二）语言和民族、国家的关系 确定不同的语言，首先涉及的是语言跟民族和国家的关系 1.语言是识别民族和国家的标志——“相互能够听懂”（欧洲国家） 相同民族——相同语言；同一国家——同一语言 2.语言并非识别民族和国家的标志（欧洲以外的国家） 犹太人的语言与民族身份；海外华人的民族身份与语言；满族与满语 3.西方学界的双重标准——“相互能够听懂” 弱国——用语言识别民族；对“汉语”的看法。 强国——不用语言识别民族，美国、英国、澳大利亚和加拿大 （三）语言的特点和语言类型 1、语言的特点 不同的语言有自己的特点，各种语言在语音、词汇、语法方面差距显著。根据语言的特点，把语言进行分类，主要有“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类” 2、语言的类型 （1）语言的谱系分类
从语言的“历时”角度划分不同的语言，建立“语言的谱系分类”, 即语言的亲属关系分类。根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。 谱系分类是一个层级系统：语系—语族—（语支）—语言—方言—次方言（土语） 语系：语系是谱系分类中最大的类，语系、语族、语支、语群这种谱系分类的层级体系，反映了原始基础语随着社会的分化而不断分化的历史过程和结果。 世界上的语言大致分为七、八个语系。印欧语系和汉藏语系（区别在于是否有区分意义的声调和词的形态变化）语族：语系的下一级叫语族，同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源，相似点也更多，如印欧语系下分印度语族、伊朗语族、日耳曼语族等。 （2）语言的形态分类 即语言的结构类型分类。主要分为两种： ①形态语（综合性语言） 通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言，主要有屈折语（词的形态变化丰富，如德语、俄语）、黏着语（词的形态变化为前后词缀，如维吾尔语、日语） ②孤立语（分析性语言）——汉语 语法手段无需谓词词形变化表现“时、体、态”；无需
1. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do nobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language 答：On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means OK/YES for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying NO. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant. 2. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them (1)Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind. (2)colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people. (3)civilized : This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world. 答：They are undoubtedly descriptive, Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way antisexist advocators speak and write. 3.(1)What organs are involved in speech production 答：Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the luns, the trachea, the throat, the nose, and the mouth. (2)Why did George Bernard Shaw say he could spell the word ‘fish’ as ‘ghoti’ 答：This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in ‘enough’, o as [I] in women, and ti as [?] in nation. (3)How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels 答：Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. (4)To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ 答：Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (5)’Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulation’. Discuss. 答：Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation,
英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编23 (总分：48.00，做题时间：90分钟) 一、判断题(总题数：5，分数：10.00) 1.Metonymy involves using the familiar to stand for the unfamiliar. (对外经贸2005研) （分数：2.00） A.真√ B.假 解析：解析：转喻是一种一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法。 2.The utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. （分数：2.00） A.真√ B.假 解析：解析：话语意义随着话语情境的变化而不同。 https://www.doczj.com/doc/aa11751905.html,nguage acquisition refers to the process involved in creating and expressing meaning through language. （分数：2.00） A.真 B.假√ 解析：解析：语言产出是一个通过语言来表达意义的过程。 4.Structural metaphor means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc. , as entities and substances. （分数：2.00） A.真 B.假√ 解析：解析：实体隐喻是指人类以自身经验和生理实体为基础，把事件、行为、情感、思想等抽象概念转换为实体。 5.Superordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level. （分数：2.00） A.真√ B.假 解析：解析：上位范畴是最具概括性的范畴，各成员没有足够的共性构成一个共同的完形。 二、单项选择题(总题数：5，分数：10.00) 6.How does the top-down approach differ from the bottom-up approach in language processing? (对外经贸2005研) （分数：2.00） A.Bottom-up processing is more effective than top-down processing in speech synthesis. B.Bottom-up processing utilizes all information one has in speech perception. √ C.Top-down processing uses one's existing knowledge and the incoming speech signal. D.Top-down processing is more efficient than bottom-up processing in speech comprehension. 解析：解析：在语言处理加工过程中，有两种方法，即从一般到具体的自上而下的方法和从具体到一般的自下而上的方法。其中自下而上的方法会用到言语感知中的所有信息。 7.______is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. （分数：2.00） https://www.doczj.com/doc/aa11751905.html,petence