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外文翻译

一个实用的冲压模具排样优化系统的开发

Z. Zhao ,Y. Peng

中国上海交通大学

摘要:排样是冲压模具设计中的一个重要工序。板料冲压的主要成本之一是材料成本,因此节省材料的本质是最大限度的减少废料,这不仅体现在板料冲压过程中,而且也体现在整个生产过程中。本文旨讨论通过使用AutoCAD的ObjectARX开发工具,为冲压模具设计开发一个实用的排样优化系统。这个排样优化系统的基本原理还是被首次描述,并且也提出了此系统的一般结构。该系统不仅是一个排样算法的计算问题,还要一个要充分考虑制造要求和用户操作的问题。最后,以一个毛坯形状补偿法去解决补偿曲面的自交问题,这种方法是对传统的“一步转换”法的一种改良,它可以协调排样过程中的效率与精度问题。

关键词:排样;优化;冲压模具。

1.引言

冲压工艺是制造业中发展最早的工业技术之一。冲压工艺一直在不断的发展,冲压产品也是随处可见。排样是冲压模具设计中最重要的工序之一,它可以被定义为冲压毛坯在板料和条料总面积中所占的最大比例。排样的目的是提高材料利用率和减少废品的数量,以满足冲压工艺要求。板料冲压的主要成本之一是材料成本,因此节省材料的本质是最大限度的减少废料,这不仅体现在板料冲压过程中,而且也体现在整个生产过程中。此外,排样的结果是条料设计和冲压模具设计如模板设计的基础。

在过去,排样完全是靠手工操作的,它高度依赖于设计师的经验和技术。当然,这种方法经历了一个长时间的经验积累,它解决了许多工艺设计中的实际问题,这是从书本和手册中所得不到的。为了提高设计工作者的设计质量和缩短设计周期,开发一款计算机辅助设计软件是很有必要也是很实用的。基于这种需求,本文主要是讨论用AutoCAD的ObjectARX开发工具为冲压模具开发一个实用的排样优化系统。

为板材提供了三种方案,被描述为数学建模过程的排样算法,已经被很多工人推荐使用,并且被证实在提高材料的最大利用率方面具有很大的潜力。Chow 1为单排类型和双排类型。Adamowicz和Albano 2,Dori 和Ben-Bassat3,Qu和Sanders 4,共同提出了一个“两次趋近”的方法,也就是把最初复杂不规则的形状转换成像矩形、凸多边形等形状,然后再嵌入。Dagli 和Tatoglu 5,提出了一种具有启发性的方法,也就是依据不同的类型的形状进行优先划分。Nee 67,Nee 和Foong8,已经开发了一种实验数据包,包含算法和评价功能。这种算法的发展是基于一种双线串口,它可以详尽地搜索以180°转角为增量的所有配对。该算法包括一般的同一坐标系的转换和平移转换,从而区别任何重叠的形状。Ismail和Hon 9,提出了一种基于边缘信息优化选取的优化阵列,它是用来识别可能包含的方向并且获取最佳的配对。Lin和Hsu 10,介绍了一

种优化配置方法,可以获取最优的排样方法 ,并且把排样图形用 AutoLISP 显示在屏幕上 。Tang 和Rajesham11,提出了一种算法,排样方法接近所有变数的多边形。纤维的流动方向是被考虑进去的,特别是对于弯曲类型 。Singh 和 Sekhon12,介绍了一种基于计算机图形和矩阵的方法。Cheok 和Foong13, 开发的 IAPDie 系统 ,可以把选定的一系列角度相互转换,并且把每一部分相同的角度设为前进的方向 。Choiet al. 14 开 发出了一种基于AutoCAD 的系统 ,可以用于不规则形状的金属板材,这种算法能计算出两度倾角范围内的变化。这一切先进的算法都有望提高我们自动排样的能力,可是很少有人关注如何建立一个切实可行的优化排样系统,这不仅仅是一种算法的问题,而且还具有很强的实用价值。基于以上情况,本文首先介绍了排样优化系统的基本原则和原理,然后介绍了排样系统的一般结构。最后,对一些关键的技术,如毛坯形状补偿的算法、排样的一些参数和排样方案的改变等技术进行了详尽的介绍。

2.排样优化的基本原理

一件毛坯可以简单地描述为一个需要进行冲孔或落料的零件的外轮廓线,但是毛坯件还需要拉深或者弯曲,轮廓展开部分还需要留有自由切削区。为了简化问题,以“无限长的条形”毛坯的排样为例,材料利用率可表示如下:

%100n ???=W

P A η (1) 其中,P 是条料或板料的长度,W 是条料或板料的宽度,n 是条料或整个板料上实际冲裁的零件数,A 是一个零件的实际面积。

其中,在冲压工艺中,很多排样方式都可以用如图1所示的类型表示,其中箭头表示毛坯。一个实用的排样系统可以解决多种排样类型,如:一排 ,三最两排,排和混合排等。常用的排样类型如图 2 所示:(a )普通一排 (b )对排一排 (c )普通二排 (d )对排二排 。普通排样(如图2中的a 、c )而(是将所有的毛坯都排布在条料的同一转角内,对排排样如图2中的 b 、d 将临近的毛坯都旋转180°排列 )。

图 1 排样方式类型图

图2 四种常用的排样方式

排样的算法是系统的核心。在实际工业生产中需要选择哪种算法需要做充分考虑。要想在金属冲压操作中获得较好的排样效果,必须遵循以下排样原则:

(1)提高材料利用率。这是需要考虑的最重要的一个因素,特别是当毛坯的质量很大或者价格很高时就更应充分考虑。

(2)对于弯曲件的落料,在排样时还应考虑板料的纤维方向,使弯曲方向和材料的纤维方向一致。这是因为,在冷轧过程中板材将进行塑性变形,从而使纤维方向和轧制方向一致。如果弯曲线的方向和板料的纤维方向平行就容易在弯曲线的边缘出现裂纹。

(3)考虑板材厚度的限制(给定的极大值和极小值)或者送料步距(给定的极大值和极小值)以满足不同厚度和送料步距客户的需求。

(4)保证合适的模具结构设计。

(5)计算送料步距和条料宽度以满足计算误差和精度要求。

(6)在整个排样过程中应保证同一的搭边宽度。搭边宽度是指毛坯与毛坯和毛坯与条料之间最小的宽度。

为了开发解决排样问题的算法,大量的工作已经付诸实施。材料利用率的问题是排样优化的主要目的。该列举算法已被证明是和实践紧密相连的。在种方法中,不同的旋转角度和变换距离都将被统计,并且所有可能的排列类型都会根据材料的利用率自动调节,在这些条件的制约下产生最优的排样方案。为了实现这种列举算法,一些复杂的算法过程将根据毛坯的轮廓线划分成很多小的线性部分;一些算法过程根据排样优化过程只需要分解成几部分线性圆弧或者原始的线性弧;一些算法过程需要根据毛坯的原有轮廓线一步一步平移转换成二次轮廓线,当然一些轮廓线还可以直接转换成二次轮廓线。因为每种算法都有自己的优缺点,所以想选择出最好的解决方案是很困难的。总之,要想开发一个合适的列举算法主要集中在解决以下四个问题:(1)毛坯的轮廓线是否需要分解?

(2)排样需要一步还是多步转换?

(3)如何消除在排样优化过程中精度和效率之间的冲突?

(4)如何使系统适应实际工业生产的限制?

3.排样优化系统的开发

在本文中,一方面,通过改进排样算法计算系统,已经开发了一款实用的排样优化系统;另一方面,也将实际的制约因素纳入了次系统中。该系统是基于个人电脑微机技术,并且使用AutoCAD的objectARX 工具包和Visual C++作为系统的开发语言。AutoCAD 软件是被用来作为系统运行的平台。这个系统的一般结构如图3 所示,详细的解释将在以下的几小节中给出。被称作“排样设计程序”的集成界面,可以为用户提供一个可以方便地处理与排样有关的程序,因此,它可以很容易的被用户执行,一个接一个的单一步骤获得一个最优且实用的排样方式,或者直接跳入规定的步骤。

图 3 排样系统的一般结构

3.1预处理

排样的前处理为排样优化提供初始参数和形状,包括如下内容:

1..输入排样的初始参数。这是为整个排样系统提供所有必要的初始参数,以下是在系统中涉及的所有项目:

(a)预先选择排样方式。九种排样方式已经被定义,这几乎涵盖了单排、双排、三排和混合排等单毛坯排样的所有类型。

(b)角度范围的优化。它缺省范围值是0°—180°,递增量为5°,此这几乎可以包含所有的最优方案。外还专门设定有一些其它特殊角度值,如0°、30°、60°等特殊角。

(c)卸料方向。根据实际制造生产的需要可以分为自左向右或者自右向左两种方向。

(d)板材的弯曲线角。这个系统可以挑出不适合弯曲要求的角度。这可以通过以下方法求得:如果毛坯的弯曲角为Ang1,而板材的弯曲线角为Ang2,那么Ang1 、Ang2 应该在45°–

135°或者225°–315°(规定区域),如图4所示。

图 4 弯曲线的限制示意图

(e)搭边宽。这包括步距宽(零件之间)和边宽(零件和板料边缘之间)。

(f)料宽值和送料步距限制值。

2.毛坯的工艺形状。这主要包括毛坯形状的获取,检查(曲线是否首尾相连)和弥补。主要的困难是毛坯形状的弥补工艺,详细内容描述如下:为了把步距宽控制在预计的范围内,毛坯的外轮廓在法线方向将被放大。在排样的过程中,原来的零件外形将被扩大的轮廓线替代;这个扩大的轮廓线与原来零件之间的最小距离相切(如图5所示)。这种常规的补偿算法是很成熟的,

图5 排样的补偿工艺图

图6 自交形状的补偿

并且很多商业化的CAD平台的API工具包都能提供这种补偿功能,但当形状为下凹形时补偿距离要比预定值大的多,自交也就容易产生,如图 6 所示。当一些商业化的CAD 软件平台在处理这些具有干涉作用的情况下存在很多问题时,本文就提出了一种特别适合排样的非常简单和便利的形状补偿算法。这种算法的基础是计算两个向量之间的角度,并且找出外部元素从而产生补偿曲线。详细的陈述如下:

(a)利用常规的补偿算法获得一个从端点到端点的补偿曲线。这些补偿线用几何方法表示,

如SET0 ,SET0 E01 E02 . . . E0i . . .E 0n,其中E0i可以表示直线、弧线或者圆等;

(b)检查在SET0补偿线中是否有相交的。原理是E0i ∈SET0,如果它们相交或者在一些非起点到终点的曲线中相切,就意味着将有自交现象产生,这时记下所有的自交点Pj,这时就执行(c)和d步,同时终止检查;

(c)分解补偿曲线。将所有元素分解为Pj,并且设定SEP1是不自交的,SET1 E1 E2 . . . Ei . . . En。例如,在图7中,曲线AB和直线CD相交,交点为E,因此AB应该分解为AE和EB,CD应该分解为CE和ED。因此,SET1 . . . AE EB BC CE ED . . ;

图7 自交问题的分解示意图

(a)简单自交(b)实际工艺中的自交

(d)将E1顺时针通过SET1,找出左下角的节点P1,并找出SET1中的所有相关元素(Ei)其中P1是终点或者起点。如果Ei为直线,可以获得从P1到Ei的终点或者起点的矢量Vec1(其中Vec1始终是从P1点向外);如果Ei为弧线,可以得到通过P1点与这个弧线相切的线Vec1。通过这种方法,可以建立矢量VEC T O R 1,并且VEC TOR1Vec11 Vec12 . . . Vec1j . . . Vec1m。定义Vec0(初始参考向量)为X轴方向的单位向量,并且计算VECTOR1中从Vec0到Vec1j 很逆时针方向的所有夹角ej ej∈02。显然,Ei是当ejmaxek时的外轮廓线,此时将Ei复制到解集SET2中,并将Ei从集合SET1删除,定义Vec0 -Vec1k。从中SET1进入到下一个元素,重复上面的步骤直到初始点为止,SET2将是最终的结果。例如,在图7b如那中,如果存在AE并且经被复制到解集SET2中,那么Vec0 V ec11–3可定义为如图所示。很显然,e3和Vec13的交线ED 存在于SET2 中。

这也证明了可以用这种算法求得适合排样优化要求的补偿曲线。

3.2排样参数的计算

利用选定的算法进行排样优化,并且保存每个方案的参数到相应的数据结构,这些参数有材料利用率、料宽、送料步距等。“一步转换法”是一种传统的列举算法,并且已经被应用于一些系统中,送料步距的计算就是基于这种算法。在过去,一组平行等距离的直线段被用来连接补偿形状以此来计算截面线的最大距离,但是两条平行线之间的距离是很难控制的。如果两平行线间的距离很大,送料步距的计算将是错误的,那么搭边宽将不能满足;如果两平行线间的距离太小,在排样的计算过程中将会做很多无谓的计算并且浪费大量的时间。在本文中,“一步转换法”被改进用来解决在排样的计算过程中精度和效率的矛盾。就拿双排对排排样方式为例:设定η=η(a,u ),其中a为转角,u为两补偿轮廓的偏差。首先,设定a为定值,然后根据以下步骤进行:

(1)定义:I 为补偿形状,I 0为初始形状。 设定a 为定值:复制坐标: I I 0;旋转坐标:I I 0;旋转角度:180°;旋转中心: 原点;旋转结果: II II 0; 转换坐标:II II 0 X 轴 ;方向:左 → 右;X 方向移动的距离:XImax XImin Y 轴方向 :下 → 上; Y 方向移动的距离:2YImin ;转换结果:II II 0;结果如图8a 所示 ;

图 8 排样工艺示意图

(a )排样步骤1 (b )排样步骤2、3、4 (c )排样步骤5

(2)将 II 和 II 0沿Y 轴正方向保持Δu 增量转换。Δu 与将毛坯的进一步转换为零件的增量有关。 当偏差为uuY II min-Y I minu ∈ Δya Δya Δya Y I max- y I mina 在Y 轴方向II 和I 的范围内,计算出II 和I 的范围内所有元素截线的极值,定义为P A 如图8b 所示。另外,根据I 0和II 0的几何关系计算料宽W 在u 下,这时搭边宽也就计算出来了;

(3)将II 和II 0向右手方向转换(P A 是一个代数值)可以得到III 和,这((所 III 0 ,个位置就是在拉深排样中的二次形状如图8 b )示);

(4)也在Y 轴方向 I 和III 的范围内,可以计算出I 和III 的范围内所有元素截线的极限值,定义为P 1。同时计算出I 自身截面的距离,定义为P 2 ,可以得到送料步距为PmaxP 1 P 2 ;

(5)复制I 并通过P 进行正确的转换可以得到IV ,这个位置就是在拉深排样过程中的第三次转换的形状(如图8 c 所示),利用u 计算材料利用率η;

(6)重复以上的步骤获得在不同u 角度下的材料利用率η,选取η

max ;重复a , 记下在不

同的计算角度下最佳的排样方案 。

这种算法的主要特征如下:

(1)通过计算两个元素横截面距离的极限值获得准确的送料步距。这种方法可以解决线与线,线与弧和弧与弧之间等情况的问题。获得送料步距的关键是,通过直线、弧线部分的节点和弧线部分的一些固定点创建横截线。弧与弧的情况(如图9所示),关键点是计算固定点。如果,x i , y i ,r i i 12是两个弧线部分的坐标和半径,那么这两个横截面之间的距离就是: ))(())(()(dist 2121212112y y r y y r x x y --±--±-= (2)

如果dist(y)= 0,然后驻点的y 坐标将是:

图 9 两弧线段之间横截线的距离

2/)y y r )/()(y r )/()(y 21*2

1211221*22

1211221*1y r r r y r y r r r r y r y r +==++=≠--=( (3)

(2)在一些情况下原始形状的补偿形状将发生变化,特别是在非圆弧过当渡的地方,用传统的算法进行拉深排样的设计和计算料宽时是很难排列原始形状的。而在排样工艺的算法中,原始形状与原始形状和原始形状之间的关系都被记录在一起,这其中也包括补偿形状,因此就可以方便地生成拉深排样并且准确地计算料宽。

3.3参数修改排样

这个程序的目的是为用户提供方便的操作和友好的界面。为了帮助用户有序地进行排样和选取最优的排样方案,将部分零件的材料利用率和转角制成了表格,由于步距的最大最小值、料宽的最大最小值和弯曲线角的约束,不可能的结果就可以很容易被排除。在这个表格中,不同的颜色表示特定的排样方案,当用户选定一个特定的方案后,各种实际的拉深排样方案就被罗列出来,便可以很容易地比较方案的优劣。

3.4修改排样参数

排样参数修改程序是为了满足用户完成排样设计后的修改要求。它可以自动的计算和协调排样参数,同时更新拉深排样结果。在开发的过程中,重要的修改方法的定义都可以很容易地通过开发商来实现,并且也被用户所接受。这个软件的功能说明如下:

(1)重新选择方案。从菜单中选择另一种方案;

(2)改变送料步距。改变同一排邻近毛坯的距离,改变单排、对排排样方式的步距是很复杂的,如图10所示。关键是找出毛坯Ⅱ的合适位置,从满足步距1变为步距2的过程中毛坯Ⅰ和毛坯Ⅱ在同一方向有几乎相同的距离。这里用“二元分裂法”来控制Ⅱ向左或向右,直到dist1′-dist2′<ε(ε是指与送料步距相符的公差)。

图10 (a)调整前(b)调整后

(3)改变条料宽度。这个程序不能改变不同排中毛坯的位置,但可以改变:

New_top_web=old_top_web+0.5*(new_width-old_width)

New_bot_web=old_bot_web+0.5*(new_width-old_width)

(4)改变侧面的搭边。底端和顶端的侧面搭边可以单独修改,合适的条料宽度就可以计算出来。

(5)改变偏差距离。偏差距离是用来表示两相邻毛坯之间的距离,这个定义简要解释如下:如果origin1和origin2是拉深排样中第一个和第二个毛坯的几何中心,为从origin1 origin2之间创建一个矢量,那么它们的水平线和垂直线上的投影就为轴X12和Y12,则有:

X12=origin2[X]-origin1[X]

Y12=origin2[Y]-origin1[Y]

相邻毛坯之间的关联距离是可以修改的,因此通过改变X12和Y1的值,就可以自由地向左、向右、向上或向下改变相邻毛坯的位置。

4.结束语

这个系统通过一些实践检验测试,已经证明在解决与优化排样有关的问题时具有很好的性能。

(1)对于一个实用的排样优化系统,不仅要有合理的排样算法,而且实际生产需求和方便用户操作等都要考虑进去。

(2)这种毛坯形状补偿的新算法,可以解决毛坯形状补偿过程中的自交问题,并且可以满足排样过程中的预处理要求。改进的排样优化系统可以通过计算两个几何元素之间的截面距离的极限值计算出送料步距,还可以解决在排样优化过程中精度和效率的冲突。

(3)本文所描述的排样的完整选择方案和修改结构,为开发一款更加切合实际需要的排样系统做出了重要的一步。

鸣谢

作者衷心地感谢为本文的研究做出贡献的S. Lu和X.Ruan。

参考文献:

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[8]A. Y. C. Nee and K. Y. Foong,“Some considerations in the design and automatic staging of progressive dies”, International Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 29,pp. 147–158,1992.

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毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计(论文)题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄

最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间,工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先,越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关,甚至变得更加活跃:他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作,同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而,这里是机构间差异较大。例如,环境报告的数量变化,每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间,结果是不那么容易诠释。第一,活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的:一些最高审计机关进入,而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二,但是,审计报告数量略有下降,1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变(1994-1996年,20%的规律性审计和44%绩效审计;1997-1999:16%规律性审计和绩效审计54%)。在一般情况下,绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来,再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年,有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年,这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然,这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯,可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来,少数环境审计是规律性审计(560篇报告中有87篇,占16%)。大多数审计绩效审计(560篇报告中有304篇,占54%),或组合的规律性和绩效审计(560篇报告中有169篇,占30%)。如前文所述,绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中,绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施(560篇报告中有264篇,占47%),符合国家环保法律,法规的,由政府部门,部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问(560篇报告中有212篇,占38%)。此外,审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统(560篇报告中有156篇,占28%)。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告:影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10%至20%。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自:S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721

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