2009年12月西安外国语大学学报D ec.2009第17卷第4期Jou rnal of X i.an In ter na tional S tudies Un iversity V o.l17.N o.4
事件语义学理论与汉英句式的语义表征
)))从/王冕死了父亲0说起
黄洁
(复旦大学外文学院上海200433)
摘要:本文以/王冕死了父亲0、/张三追累了李四0、P at sprayed the sta t ue w it h pa i nt等涉及/事件0的汉英特殊动宾结构和歧义结构为研究对象,运用Pa rsons新戴维森理论的思路方法,采用逻辑形式的方法表征不同句式的语义结构,为研究这类句式提供一种新的视角。研究的意义在于,运用事件语义学理论对事件的分解观,可以较好地展现句子成分之间的逻辑关系、不同动词的意义差别、不同句式的语义特征及句式之间的区别和关联。
关键词:事件语义学;论旨角色;句式
中图分类号:H030文献标识码:A文章编号:1673-9876(2009)04-0005-05
Abstrac t:On t he bas i s o f Pa rsons.N eo-D av i dson ian T heory,the paper accounts for a t yp i ca lVO constructions and a mb i guous constructi ons about events i n Ch i nese and Eng li sh,for ex a m ple,W ang M ian si-le fuqin,Zhangsan zhuilei-le L isi,Pat sp rayed the st a t ue w it h p ai nt.In ter m s o f log i ca l for m,w e e laborate on the se m anti c struc t ures of t hese construc tions fro m the perspec-ti ve o f/event0.T he si gn ifi cance o f this analysis lies i n t he fact that the event-based approach to constructi ons m ay de m on-strate the log ica l re lati ons among components o f a constructi on,t he se m an ti c d ifferences bet w een var i ous verbs,the sem antic features of d ifferent constructi ons,and the d ifferences and connecti ons bet ween constructions.
K ey word:Event-based Sem antics;them atic ro les;constructi ons
1.引言
针对/王冕死了父亲0的生成方式问题,徐杰(1999, 2001)、韩景泉(2000)、潘海华、韩景泉(2005)、朱行帆(2005)从生成语法角度进行研究,沈家煊(2006)、刘国辉(2007)从认知语言学角度提出了不同的方案。上述研究为解释不及物动词带宾语这类结构可接受性的原因和来源提供了可行的思路。问题在于,/王冕死了父亲0中/王冕0、/父亲0、/死0之间的关系如何表征?本文关注的焦点是,如何表征这类句子的意义及句子成分之间的逻辑语义关系?
在D avidson(1967)基础上发展而来的事件语义学作为形式语义学的一个重要分支,从/事件0的角度研究句法现象,为我们讨论这类句式及其他经典动宾结构和歧义结构提供了理论基础。
2.事件语义学发展概述
事件语义学的主要目标是用形式化的方式展现动作句的意义。其发展大致可以分为两个阶段,即以Da-vi dson为代表的/戴维森理论0和以P arsons(1990)、Rothstei n(2001)等为代表的/新戴维森理论0。
2.1戴维森理论
Dav i dson于1967年发表了题为/论动作句的逻辑形式(On t he L ogical For m of A ct i on Se nte nces)0的文章,文中处理动作句逻辑形式的思想后来被称为戴维森理论,其核心思想是将事件论元看作谓词的必带论元之一。例如:
(1)Jones buttered t he toast.
(1.)butter(Jones,the toast)
(10)(èe)[Butteri ng(Jones,the toast,e)]
(2)Jones buttered the toast i n the bathroo m at m i d-night.
(2.)butter(Jones,the toast,bathroo m,m idn i ght)
(20)(èe)[Buttering(Jones,the toast,e)&i n (e,t he bathr oo m)&at(e,m i dnight)]
按照传统的方法,(1)和(2)的逻辑形式是(1.)和(2.),(1.)表示动词/涂黄油0带有/琼斯0和/面包0两个论元。(2.)表示动词/涂黄油0带有/琼斯0、/面包0、/浴室0和/深夜0这四个论元。
按照戴维森理论,(1)的逻辑形式是(10),即有一个事件e,这个事件是琼斯往面包上涂黄油。(2)的逻辑形式是(20),即有一个事件e,这个事件是琼斯往面包上涂黄油,事件的处所是浴室,事件的时间是深夜。
通过比较(1)和(2)可以看到戴维森理论的优越性。在(1.)和(2.)中,butter所带论元的数目不一致,但(10)和(20)论元数目则保持一致。而且,(1)和(2)
的蕴涵关系无法通过(1.)和(2.)展现,却能通过(10)和(20)体现。
2.2新戴维森理论
Parsons等在继承D avidson(1967)对动作句处理思路的基础上,提出了新戴维森理论。新戴维森理论最大的特点是对个体参与者的单独量化,将事件看作元素(prm i iti ves),将论旨角色(the m at i c roles)看作事件与个体(i ndivi dua ls)的关系。它与戴维森理论的不同之处在于,论旨角色被引入逻辑式,并单独描述每个个体和事件的关系。按照新戴维森理论,(2)的逻辑式为(2.0),即:
(2)Jones buttered the toast i n the bathroo m at m i d-n i ght.
(2.0)èe[Butteri ng(e)&A gent(e,Jones)& T he me(e,the toast)&i n(e,the bathroo m)&at(e, m i dnight)]
这个逻辑式的意思是,存在一个事件e,它是关于涂黄油的,事件的施事是琼斯,客体是面包,事件发生的地点是浴室,时间是深夜。
比较(20)和(2.0)可以看出,按照新戴维森理论,事件e涉及的各个论元被分离出来,单独描述他们与事件的关系。这样处理的好处是,能更好体现句子之间的蕴涵关系,不被提及的论旨角色可以在逻辑式中不予描述,不至于使必带论元不被提及时也要被描述。
(3)和(4)的区别体现出新戴维森理论的优越性。按照戴维森理论,(3)和(4)的逻辑形式分别是(3.)和(4.)1。按照P arsons的新戴维森理论,引入论旨角色,将各个独立而关联的角色用合取的关系连接起来,(3)和(4)的逻辑形式分别改为(30)和(40),(4)中因不涉及客体x,故逻辑形式中对客体不予描述,这样,(3)和(4)的蕴涵关系能通过(30)和(40)体现。
(3)Brutus stabbed Caesar.
(3.)(èe)[Sta bb i ng(e,Br utus,Caesar)]
(30)(èe)[Sta bb i ng(e)&Cu l(e)&A gent(e, Brutus)&T he m e(e,Caesar)]
(4)Brutus stabbed.
(4.)(èe)[Sta bb i ng(e,Br utus,x)]
(40)(èe)[Stabbi ng(e)&Cul(e)&Agent(e, Brutus)]
新戴维森理论的另一个代表是Rothstei n(2001, 2004a,2004b),她主要用加合操作(su mm i ng operati on)的形式处理次级谓语(secondary predicate)的问题,包括描述性谓语(depictive predication)(例如,T he po li ce ar-rested Johni drunk.i)和结果性谓语(resultative predica-t i on)(例如,M ary pa i nted the housei red.i)。因R othste i n 和P arsons在处理动作句的逻辑形式问题上采取类似的处理方法,这里不作详细论述。
3.事件语义学对各类句法结构的解释力
事件语义学理论的特点在于,可以通过逻辑形式的方式,清晰展现句子的意义。运用新戴维森理论的思想,可以用逻辑形式表征汉语和英语中许多句式的语义结构,由此展现不同类型动词的用法区别、句子成分之间基于/事件0而形成的关联、及不同句式的意义差别和联系。
3.1不及物动词带宾语结构
不及物动词带宾语在汉语中很常见。吕叔湘(1980:60)指出,/动词和宾语的关系更加是多种多样,有的得用许多话才说得清楚。同一个-跑.字,-跑街、跑码头、跑江湖、跑天津.是说在哪些地方跑来跑去,-跑买卖.是为什么目的而跑,-跑警报.是为什么原因而跑, -跑单帮、跑龙套.是以什么身份而跑,-跑马.是让马为自己服务,-跑腿.是自己为别人服务,-跑电、跑水.是拦不住某种东西跑掉,-跑肚.是拦不住肚子里的东西跑掉0。
汉语中/死0、/来0、/坏0等不及物动词可带宾语,例如,(5)(6)(7)中的句子分别表示消极意义、积极意义和中性意义。
(5)a.王冕死了父亲。
b.他坏了两个牙。
(6)a.他家来了客人。
b.他长了几分勇气。
(7)a.他起了一身鸡皮疙瘩。
b.北京城来了个李自成。
针对/王冕死了父亲0这类句式的生成问题,徐杰(参见图1)、朱行帆(参见图2)提出了移位的观点,认为是/王冕0或/死0
移位的结果。
图1
.
图2.
潘海华、韩景泉(2005)认为这类句子不涉及移位,指出/王冕0是话题,而非主语。即:
[CP王冕[TP e[VP死了父亲]]]
沈家煊指出从生成语法角度分析存在的问题,并提出/王冕死了父亲0是/王冕丢了某物0和/王冕的父亲死了0糅合(blending)的结果,如下所列:
a.王冕的某物丢了
b.王冕丢了某物
x.王冕的父亲死了y.)))
xb y王冕死了父亲
图3.
刘国辉(2007)在构式语法理论框架下剖析/王冕三岁死了父亲0的认知基础,认为考察这类构式时不仅要考虑行为动词/死0的语义,而且要考虑/死0前后的微观论元组合。作者将其放在宏观构式中进行考察,指出这类构式隐含的特定意义是特定时间与论元结构搭配方面产生特殊完型组合的结果,让人们感到出乎一般常规认知期待。
以上形式和认知视角的研究为解释不及物动词带宾语这类结构可接受性的原因和来源提供了可行的思路,问题在于,/王冕死了父亲0中/王冕0、/父亲0、/死0之间的关系如何体现和表征?
从事件语义学的视角看,以上三种类型的不及物动词带宾语的结构都可以看作是两个事件,一个是宾语经历的事件e.,另一个是主语经历的事件e,两个事件是因果关系。运用事件语义学的思想分析不及物动词带宾语结构的优点在于,从句子涉及的/事件0出发,通过逻辑形式展现事件之间的联系,从而展现句子中成分之间的关系。
按照新戴维森理论,(5a-b)(6a-b)(7a-b)的逻辑形式分别为(5a.-b.)(6a.-b.)(7a.-b.):
(5a.)(èe)(Experiencing(e)&Experiencer(e, W ang M ian))&(èe.)(D yi ng(e.)&Experiencer(e., father))&CAU SE(e.,e)
(5b.)(èe)(Experi enci ng(e)&Experie ncer(e, he))&(èe.)(D ecay i ng(e.)&The me(e.,teeth))& CAU SE(e.,e)
(6a.)(èe)(Experienc i ng(e)&Experie ncer(e, he))&(èe.)(Co m ing(e.)&Agent(e.,guests))& CAU SE(e.,e)
(6b.)(èe)(Experi enci ng(e)&Experie ncer(e, he))&(èe.)(G ro w ing(e.)&Experiencer(e,cour-age))&CAU SE(e.,e)
(7a.)(èe)Experiencing(e)&Experiencer(e, he))&(èe.)(G etti ng(e.)&The me(e.,goose bumps)&Cul(e.))&CAU SE(e.,e)
(7b.)(èe)(H appeni ng(e)&Location(e,Be-i ji ng))&(èe.)Co m ing(e.)&Experiencer(e,L i Z icheng))&CAU SE(e.,e)
(5a.)表达的是,/王冕死了父亲0是由表示/父亲死0的事件e.和表示/王冕经历某事0的事件e构成,e.和e是致使(cause)关系。其中,e的经历者是王冕,e.的经历者是父亲。/王冕死了父亲0表丧失的消极意义来自e.,因为亲人的去世总是一件令人伤感的事情,所以e.导致e时就衍生e的经历者经历的是一件消极事件的意思。其他五个句子也可以用类似的方法处理。
除了/王冕死了父亲0这类结构外,致使-运动构式(Caused-M otion Construction)也往往涉及不及物动词带宾语的情况。例如,在(8)中,原本是不及物动词的sneeze、l augh等都带了宾语。致使运动构式表示的是主语发出的动作导致宾语发生运动。这类句子的语义可以通过逻辑式的形式展现。
(8)a.F rank sneezed the tissue off t he table.
b.T hey laughed the poor guy out of the roo m.
(8)中两句的逻辑形式分别是:
(8a.)(èe)(Sneezi ng(e)&Agent(e,F ra nk))& (èe.)(The me(e.,the tissue)&off(e.,the table))& CAU SE(e,e.)
(8b.)(èe)(L aughi ng(e)&A ge nt(e,they))& (èe.)(The m e(e,the poor guy)&out o f(e.,the r oo m))&CAU SE(e,e.)
(8a.)表达的是,Frank sneezed the tissue off the ta-ble.涉及两个分事件,一个是表示富兰克打喷嚏的事件e,e的施事是富兰克;另一个是纸巾从桌上掉下的事件e.,e.的客体是纸巾,e.是关于某物从桌上掉下,e和e.是致使关系。同样,(8b.)表达的是,句子They laughed t he poor guy out of the roo m涉及两个分事件,一个是他们笑的事件e,e的施事是他们;另一个是可怜的家伙跑出房间的事件e.,e.的客体是可怜的家伙,e和e.是致使关系。
汉语中的宾语有许多不同的类型,例如,(9)中三类宾语可以分别用逻辑形式表示为(9a)(9b)和(9c):
(9)a.他睡地板。(处所宾语)
b.他写毛笔。(工具宾语)
c.他飞上海。(目的宾语)
(9)的逻辑形式分别为
(9a.)(èe)(Sleeping(e)&Agent(e,he)&on(e, the floor))
(9b.)(èe)(W riti ng(e)&A gent(e,he)&w ith(e, br ush pen))
(9c.)(èe)(F lyi ng(e)&Agent(e,he)&to(e, Shangha i))
(9a.)表达的是睡觉事件,事件的处所是地板; (9b.)表达的是写字事件,事件的工具是毛笔;(9c.)表达的是坐飞机事件,事件的目的地是上海。
3.2动词在不同句式中的用法
把同一个动词放在汉语和英语的不同句式中,句子
的意思就会存在差别。例如,描写/开门0和/花瓶破碎0的事件就有多种表达方式,他们的逻辑形式也有所不同。
(10)a.开门了。
b.门开了。
(10]中各句的逻辑形式分别为
(10a.)(èe)(O peni ng(e)&The m e(e,the door) &Cul(e))
(10b.)(èe)(Ope n i ng(e)&The me(e,the door) &Cul(e))&(ès)(Bei ng-open(s)&The m e(s,the door)&H old(s))
(10)中两句都是表示开门事件,它们的逻辑式能体现出各自的意义差别。(10a.)是(10a)的逻辑形式,表达的是门从关到开的变化事件e,事件的客体是门,Cul 表示事件结束了。因句中未强调施事,故逻辑式中对这一事件的施事未予以描述。(10b.)是(10b)的逻辑形式,表达的/开门0涉及两个事件,一个是门从关到开的变化事件e,事件的客体是门,事件结束了。另一个事件是门保持开的状态(s),Ho l d表示这种状态持续。
(11)a.The chil d broke the vase.
b.The ball broke the vase.
c.The vase is broken.
d.The vase br ok
e.
e.This ki nd of vase breaks easily.
(11)中各句的逻辑形式分别如下:
(11a.)(èe)(Breaki ng(e)&A gent(e,the chil d)& Cul(e))&(èe.)(Breaking(e.)&The m e(e.,the vase)&Cul(e.))&CAU SE(e,e.)&(ès)(Bei ng-broken(s)&The me(s,the vase)&H old(s))
(11b.)(èe)(Breaking(e)&I nstru m ent(e,the ball)&Cul(e))&(èe.)(Breaki ng(e.)&The me(e., the vase)&Cul(e.))&CAU SE(e,e.)&(ès)(Bei ng-broken(s)&T he m e(s,t he vase)&H old(s))
(11c.)(ès)(Bei ng-broken(s)&The m e(s,the vase)&H old(s))
(11d.)(èe.)(Breaki ng(e.)&The m e(e.,the vase)&Cul(e.))
(11e.)(èe)(Break i ng(e)&The m e(e,the vase)& easil y(e))
(11)中各句都表达花瓶破碎的事件,各句的逻辑式能分别体现各句的意义差别。(11a.)表达的花瓶破碎事件由三个分事件构成,一个是关于小孩打碎花瓶的事件e,事件的施事是小孩,事件结束了;第二个事件是关于花瓶从完好到破碎的变化事件e.,事件的客体是花瓶,事件结束了。e和e.是致使关系;第三个事件是花瓶保持破碎状态的s,状态的客体是花瓶,这个状态保持着。
(11b.)涉及三个分事件,一个是球打花瓶的事件
e,第二个是花瓶破碎的事件e.,第三个是花瓶保持破碎的状态s。它和(11a.)的区别在于,前者强调事件e的工具/球0,不强调事件e的施事/小孩0,故(11b.)中没有对施事的描述。
(11c.)只强调花瓶保持破碎状态的s。它与(11a.)的区别在于,前者不涉及花瓶是怎么被打碎的这个事件e和e.,故逻辑式中没有对事件e和e.的描述。
(11d.)描述的是花瓶破碎的事件e,事件已结束。它与(11a.)的区别是,前者只强调花瓶从完好到破碎的变化事件e.,故逻辑式中没有对涉及施事或工具的事件e的描述,也没有对花瓶破碎状态s的描述。
(11e.)描述的是花瓶破碎的事件e,频率副词/eas-ily0修饰的是事件e,而非动词破碎。
3.3不同结构的用法
不仅特定构式、词语的不同用法可以通过相应的逻辑形式展现,不同句法结构的意义差别也可以通过逻辑形式加以区分。因为不同结构中各个名词性成分与动词的关系不同,这可以体现在逻辑形式中。例如,
(12)a.T o m stole50do ll ars fro m M ary.
b.To m robbed M ary of50dollars.
(12a)和(12b)的逻辑形式分别为(12a.)和(12b.):
(12a.)e)(Steali ng(e)&Agent(e,To m)&The me (e,50doll ars)&fro m(e,M ary))
(12b.)èe)(Robb i ng(e)&Agent(e,To m)&Pa-tient(e,M ary)&of(e,50doll ars))
(12a.)达的是汤姆从玛丽那里偷50美元的事件e,其中,事件的客体是50美元,来源(source)是玛丽。(12b.)达的是汤姆抢了玛丽50美元的事件e,玛丽是受事,50美元是客体。
沈家煊运用认知语言学的凸显(pr o m i nence)观解释/偷0和/抢0的区别,认为前者凸显的是偷窃者和失窃物,后者凸显的是抢劫者和遭抢者。(12a)和(12b)区别可以通过逻辑式中/玛丽0和/50美元0涉及的不同论旨角色体现。
(13a)和(13b)区别也可以通过/油漆0和/塑像0涉及的不同论旨角色体现。(13a)和(13b)的区别在于,前句中的油漆是客体,塑像是处所(locat i on),后句中的塑像是受事,油漆是工具。(13b)表达的塑像整体(holis-tic)被涂漆的意义由此而体现,(13a)则没有这一意义。
(13)a.Pat sprayed pai nt onto the statue.
b.Pat sprayed the statue w ith pa i nt.
(13a)和(13b)的逻辑形式分别为(13a.)和(13b.):
(13a.)(èe)(Spray i ng(e)&Agent(e,Pat)& The m e(e,paint)&onto(e,the statue))
(13b.)(èe)(Sprayi ng(e)&A gent(e,Pat)&Pa-tient(e,the statue)&w ith(e,pai nt))
3.4歧义结构
吕叔湘先生注意到/胜0和/败0的表达,/中国女篮大败南朝鲜队0可以表达两种意义,这种意义差别可以通过逻辑形式表示。
(14)中国女篮大败南朝鲜队。
(14.)(èe)(D efeat i ng(e)&Agent(e,Chi na)& Patient(e,South Korea))
(140)(èe)(Defeat i ng(e)&Patie nt(e,Chi na)&
A ge nt(e,South K orea))
(14.)和(140)的共性在于,都是关于/败0的事件e,二者的区别是,前者表示的/打败0事件的施事是中国队,受事是是南朝鲜队,后者正好相反。
汉语歧义句多种意义的差别可以通过逻辑形式体现。例如,(14)的两种理解可用逻辑形式分别表征为(14.)和(140)。
(14)老王答应我再写一篇。
(14.)(èe)(Consent i ng(e)&A gent(e,Lao w a ng) &R ecipie nt(e,m e))&(èe.)(W rit i ng(e.)&A gent (e.,Lao wang))
(140)(èe)(Consent i ng(e)&A gent(e,Lao w ang) &Pat i ent(e,me))&(èe.)(W rit i ng(e.)&A gent
(e.,I))
(14.)和(140)的共性在于,都涉及/老王答应我0的事件e。二者的区别是,对于/再写一篇0这个事件e.,第一种理解的施事是老王,第二种理解的施事是我。
/张三追累了李四0也是经常讨论的汉语歧义句,可以从事件的角度表征其多种语义结构。
(15)张三追累了李四。
(15.)(èe)(Chasing(e)&Agent(e,Zhangsan)& Patient(e,L isi))&(ès)(Being tired(s)&Exper-i encer(s,L isi))&CAU SE(e,s)
(150)(èe)(Chasi ng(e)&A gent(e,Zha ngsa n)& Patient(e,L isi))&(ès)(Being-tired(s)&Exper-i encer(s,Zhangsan))&CAU SE(e,s)
(15.0)(èe)(Chasi ng(e)&A ge nt(e,L isi)&Pa-t i ent(e,Zhangsan))&(ès)(Bei ng tired(s)&Exper-i encer(s,L isi))&CAU SE(e,s)
(15)有三种解读方式,他们的共性是都涉及一个追赶的事件e和一个由追赶致使的表疲惫的结果状态s。区别在于,(15.)表达的是,存在一个追赶的事件e,施事是张三,受事是李四,表达的是张三追赶李四的事件。存在一个结果状态s,历事是李四。e和s是致使的关系。(150)和(15.)的区别在于,前者涉及的是状态s 的历事是张三。(150.)和(15.)的区别在于,前者涉及的追赶事件的施事是李四,受事是张三。
4.结语
本文主要讨论了汉语和英语的四类结构:1)/王冕死了父亲0等不及物动词带宾语的结构;2)T he ball br oke the vase,The chil d broke t he vase,The vase i s bro-ken,T he vase broke等由及物动词和不及物动词组成的不同句式;3)Pat sprayed pai nt onto the statue和Pat sprayed the statue w it h pa i nt两种不同类型的句式;4) /张三追累了李四0等歧义结构。
从以上的讨论可以看出,运用事件语义学的理论,可以很好地分解句子的语义结构,清晰地展现句子成分之间的逻辑关系、动词的用法区别、句子的语义特征、以及句子之间的关联。
注释:
1(30)和(40)中的Cu l是cu l m i nate的缩写,表示事件e已结束。
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作者简介:黄洁,复旦大学外文学院在站博士后,研究方向:语义学、认知语言学。
收稿日期2009-01-23
责任编校孙毅
Semantics 1. What is Semantics? Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科 2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型: ①Conceptual meaning概念意义 ②Connotative meaning内涵意义 ③Social meaning社会意义 ④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥） ⑤Reflected meaning反射意义 ⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义 ⑦Thematic meaning主位意义 3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系 Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary. 4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the word Associative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies. 5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的 6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）： ① The Referential Theory ② The Semantic Triangle ③ Sense and Reference 7.The referential theory指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论 8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的 9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name. 10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object. 11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it represents Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. 12. Sense Relations涵义关系 ①Synonymy（同义关系） ②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse） ③Hyponymy（上下义关系） 13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.
从认知语言学的角度看一词多义现象 摘要：一词多义指一个词项具有多个相关义项的语言现象。新义项的产生不是随机的, 也不是盲目的, 而是人类认知参与下语言历时变化的结果, 因此认知角度的一词多义研究能够比较清楚地揭示一词多义的根源与本质。新义项以基本义项为核心, 按照辐射型或链接型方式排列, 构成一个词项意义的原型范畴。人们总是从基本义项出发, 主要利用隐喻和转喻思维等方式, 将新义项赋予现有词项, 从而使一词多义现象表现出明显的认知理据性。 关键词: 认知; 一词多义; 范畴化; 隐喻; 转喻 Abstract:Polysemy is the linguistic phenomenon in which a lexical item has more than one related meaning. It is the diachronic result of language development facilitated by human cognition. New meanings, centering on the basic meaning and arranged in a radiant or linear manner, form the prototypical category of a w ord. People tend to attach new meanings to a lexical item by w ay of categorization, metaphor and metonymy, which results in the striking motivational features of polysemy. Key words: cognition, polysemy, categorization, metonymy, metaphor 几乎所有的语言中都存在一个普遍现象, 即一个词可能会承载二种以上的意义, 语言学家将此语言现象称为一词多义现象。通过赋予同一词形以更多的词义来减少词的数量, 它极大地丰富了我们的语言，减轻了人们词汇记忆的负担，是人们进一步认知世界的简便、有效的途径,是优于造词、构词和借词的语言手段。因而，一词多义现象一直成为了语义学研究的热点。传统的理论对于一词多义现象做过众多的研究, 其中主要有: K atz 和Fo rdo r( 1963) 基于组词间的类似性提出的语义成分分析法(semantic feature analysis); 由德国学者J. Trier 提出的词在语义上是互相联系的完整的词汇系统语义场理论以及传统的真值语义分析。传统的语义学理论更多地将它归于历史的、社会的因素。这些固然是词义变化的重要因素, 但它们只是外部因素, 传统的语义学理论终究没有看清词义变化和一词多义的关系, 也未能充分地解释一词多义现象形成的缘由。本文试图从认知语义学的角度运用范畴化的型理论对一词多义现象的形成方式，发展模式以及认知手段进行研究。 1.认知语言学的语义观 认知语言观承认客观世界的现实性及对语言形成的本源作用, 但更强调人的认知的参与作用, 认为语言不能直接反映客观世界, 而是由人对客观世界的认知作用之。所谓“心生而言立” , 其认知模式是: 客观世界—认知加工一概念生成一语言符号(赵艳芳,20 0 1 : 3 5 )。Lakof与Jo h n s o n (1 9 8 0 : 1 9 5 : 1 9 9 9 ) 以及L a k o f (19 8 7 )根据他们提出的体验哲学认为: 人类的认知、概念、意义、推理和语言等均源于对客观外界的感知和经验, “体验哲学和C L (cognitive linguistics ) 认为认知来源于实践, 语言是体验和认知的结果” (王寅, 2 0 0 5 : 1 6 )。认知是和语言不可分的, 认知是语言的基础和发端。语言是由客观世界, 人的认知体验, 社会、文化历时与共时价值观及其语用因素促动形成的、具有动态演绎、延异性质和形态的象征符号系统和精
第一章作为语言学一个分支的语义学 语义学的建立以法国学者米歇尔·布勒阿尔1897年7月出版《语义学探索》为标记。 该书1900年翻译为英文“语义学：意义科学的研究（Semantics:Studies in the Science of Meaning）”。 这本专著材料丰富，生动有趣，重点在词义的历史发展方面，兼顾词汇意义和语法意义。 全书共三编：1，讲词义变化的定律，介绍变异、扩散、类推等概念；2，讲如何确定词义，介绍释义、比喻、多义、命名等；3，讲词类、词序、组合规则等，涉及语法意义。 除了语言学的语义学，还有逻辑学的语义学，哲学的语义学，还有心理学家对语义的研究。 a,逻辑学的语义学是对逻辑形式系统中符号解释的研究，又称“纯语义学”，对象并非自然语言的语义。 b,哲学的语义学围绕语义的本质展开涉及世界观的讨论。“语义学”或“语义哲学”又是本世纪前半叶盛行于西方的至今仍有影响的一个哲学流派的名称。 c,心理学家研究语义，主要是想了解人们在信息的发出和接收中的心理过程。 d,语言学的语义学把语义作为语言（乃至言语）的一个组成部分、一个方面进行研究，研究它的性质，内部结构及其变异和发展，语义间的关系等等。 布勒阿尔的书给语义的发展以重要地位，声称研究语义的变化构成了语义学。同时它把语义限制在“词语”的意义上，主要是词义上。这两个特点一直贯穿在他以后半个多世纪的若干代表性著作里。 继布勒阿尔之后，一部有世界影响的语义学专著是两位英国学者奥格登和理查兹合写，1923年出版的《意义的意义》（The Meaning of Meaning）。这两位学者还曾共同创制了后来遭到各种非议的“基本英语”(Basic English).
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
Semantics Semantics Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. Semantics = Theory of Meaning Its goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language. Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words. Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences. History of Semantics 1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖. 1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning. 1900 – Its English version came out. 1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China. One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三角 Concept（meaning） refers to symbolizes Symbol Thing （word）（referent） stands for The Referential Theory 指称论 Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind. Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression. Concept VS. Referent (Thing) A referent may exist in the physical world. The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word. Sense 语义 Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context. It’s abstract and de-contextualized. Sense Relations Sense relations between words
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？ 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.
《产品语义学》教学大纲 一、课程的的性质、任务及适用专业 （一）课程性质 《产品语义学》是工业设计专业的一门必修课。课程从设计符号的基本理论出发，对意义、传达、语境、修辞等概念进行了阐述，使学生通过学习了解并掌握新的设计思考的角度和敏锐的观察能力，使学生从感性认识提升到理性认识，并且引导以产品语义学在设计中广泛扩展思路，帮助学生提高设计的创新能力。 （二）教学任务 本课程的主要任务是：使学生通过符号的关联性和语言学中的修辞方法展开发散思维与联想，以期觅得产品预定概念和意义的最佳传达途径，并对后续的专业课程学习起辅助作用。 （三）适用专业 适用于工业设计本科专业。 二、课程教学基本内容、基本要求及学时分配 （一）基本内容(含章节的重点、难点等) 第一章设计符号理论概 述 基本要求：了解设计符号的理论意义、符号理论发展简史、设计符号的特性以及文化与符号之间的关系。 重点:设计符号的特点。 难点:文化与符号之间的联系。 第二章产品语义学概述 基本要求：了解产品语义学的概念、产品语义学的缘起与发展、影响产品语义理论的诸多新观念以及产品语义学对我国设计发展的价值。 重点:产品语义学的缘起与发展。 难点:产品语义学与现代主义及后现代主义的关系。 第三章产品的语义 基本要求：了解产品语义的外延意义与内涵意义，以及两者之间的关系，从而掌握产品语义的诉求层面。 重点：外延意义与内涵意义。 难点：产品语义的诉求层面。 第四章产品语义的传达 基本要求：了解意义的来源，学习人的要素、环境的要素和生活方式的约定。进而对产品语义有一个更高层次上的理解，使学生以使用者的角度认知产品、以及了解使用者心理模型和产品语义实现的条件。 重点：传达的概念与过程、语义传达的类型。 难点：使用者心理模型和产品语义实现的条件、产品语言的局限性。 第五章产品语义学在设计中的运用 基本要求：了解产品使用情景语境，产理解产品的合理性说服、情感性说服以及产品语义设计程序，了解修辞在产品语义表达中的应用及价值。 重点：产品说服功能与语义设计程序、产品语义传达的有效思维方法。
The relationship between semantics and pragmatics As a branch of linguistics, semantics can be simply defined as the study of linguistic meaning, which studies literal, structural or lexical meaning conveyed by words, phrases and sentences. What we concerned with is the denotation of the word, namely the relationship between words , phrases and sentences not the possible connotations. It is context independent, de-contextualized.and it deals with what is said. while pragmatics is a study which can be defined as the analysis of meaning in a particular context, which studies non-literal, implicit meaning. It deals with the relations between language and context that are basic to language understanding. pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized. What we concerned is what is communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener. Through the definition of semantics and pragmatics, we can see that semantics and pragmatics both concern the meaning of language. But they research the different sides of language, and they have different study methods. The study objects of semantics is words, phrases and sentences, what we need to know is their meaning, sense , reference and presupposes. Different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. And one word may belong to another word. So we can conclude the words to these relations, Such as synonymy, polysemy, homonymy,hyponymy and antonymy. And when we talk about the sense relations between sentences ,we may think of presupposes. Whether it is right under the presupposes. All those are semantics. It would not change with the
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
Final Examination for Cognitive Semantics Course Student No______________ Name______________ Directions: Discuss any two from the following topics and develop your ideas into a passage within 500 words for each topic. 1.The metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY is a conventional way of conceptualizing love relationships. Is there any corresponding metaphor in Chinese culture? Try to find our conventional ways of conceptualizing love relationships and illustrate them within the framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory. . 2.The metaphor TIME IS MONEY forms a systematic way of talking or thinking about time in the Western culture. Is there any different corresponding metaphor in Chinese culture? Try to find our conventional ways of conceptualizing TIME and illustrate them within the framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory. 3.Illustrate and comment on THE INV ARIANCE PRINCIPLE. 4.Collect some conventional metaphorical expressions of EDUCATION in Chinese culture and illustrate them within the framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory, for example, EDUCATION as GROWTH and NURTURE. 5.What’s the role of IMAGE SCHEMA in Cognitive Linguistics?
作者简介:蒋勇(1966— ),讲师,语言学博士,研究方向:认知语言学,神经语言学,文学收稿日期:2000103126(修改稿) 2000年第7期 总第135期 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching 2000,№7Serial №135 分解语义学与认知语义学的对比分析 蒋 勇 (复旦大学外文系,上海 200433) 提 要:本文对比分析了两种主要的语义学流派。分解语义学认为语义就在言语容器之中,语义与认知者的百科知识 和理解过程无关。认知语义学吸收分解语义学认为概念可以解析的观点,提出语义与认知者的概念结构和解读策略有关。依据这种认知论,本文提出言语信号在与认知者的相互作用过程中发挥借代的功能。 关键词:分解语义学;认知语义学;框架理论;言语的借代功能 Abstract :This paper offers contrastive analyses of two main schools of semantics.Decompositional Semantics proposes that meaning is objectively right there in the linguistic container and that meaning has nothing to do with the cognizants πencyclopedic knowledge and their understanding.Cognitive Semantics incorporates the idea of Decompositional Semantics that concepts can be dismantled ,and argues that meaning is relative to cognizants πconceptual structures and processing strategies.Based on this cogni 2tive point of view ,this paper finally draws a conclusion that language plays a metonymic function in its interaction with cognizants πconceptual systems. K ey words :decompositional semantics ,cognitive semantics ,frame theory ,metonymic function of language 中图分类号:H030 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1004-6038(2000)07-0002-04 1.Katz 的语义分解理论简介 较早在生成语法框架内进行语义分析的的方法是成分分析法(Componential Analysis )。(Katz &Fodor ,1963;Katz &Postal ,1964;Katz ,1972)我们将以Katz 的分解语义学(Decompositional Semantics )为主要评述对象。该理论的两个最主要的观点是: 语义规则的生成性:语义规则如句法规则的原理一样,是循环规则。如同用有限的句法规则解释无限多样的句子结构的思路一样,分解理论也是用有限的语义规则通过循环反复使用,可以生成无限多样的语义结构。 语义的构建性:句子的语义是通过语法和语义规则从词、词组到句子层层累建起来的。 Katz 的分解理论从这两个观点出发,建构复合句子的语法成分和语义词典的规则。Katz 的理论有三大目标: (1)确定词项的语义; (2)给出由词语的意义到词组的意义,再由词组的意义到句子的意义的建构规则; (3)用一种分析所有语言都适用的元语言(metalan 2 guage )来进行语义分析。上述的第一个目标通过给词项建 立语义词典得到实现。第二个目标通过投射规则和选择限制将词语的语义组合成句子的语义而得到实现。第三个目标试图使用一种分析各种语言时通用的语义成分(semantic components )或语义原初元素(semantic primitives )得以部分实现。这三大目标的具体实现方法如下: 1.1 Katz 的语义词典让我们用“bachelor ”来观察Katz 的语义词典。(Katz &Fodor ,1963;Katz &Postal ,1964)“Bachelor ”的词典信息包括如下: bachelor {N} a.(human )(male )[one who has never been married ](单身汉) b.(human )(male )[young knight serving under the stan 2dard of another knight ](青年侍从骑士) c.(human )[one who has the first or lowest academic de 2gree](学士)