当前位置:文档之家› SSPC PA1中文

SSPC PA1中文

SSPC PA1中文
SSPC PA1中文

SSPC PA-1

2004年11月1日修订版本

SSPC:美国涂装协会

油漆应用技术规范第1部分

钢铁的车间、现场及维护喷漆

1.范围

1.1本规范覆盖钢材表面的油漆所用的程序。本规范的范围是相当广泛的,包括了涂装的具体和通用的要求。

本规范没有为表面处理,预处理,底漆和面漆的选择提供详细的说明。本规范为选择涂料之后的涂装程序和方法提供了详细的说明。

2.说明

2.1车间、现场和维护喷漆的规范适用于清洁和喷涂很高质量的钢铁,因为它的曝光条件,将经受腐蚀性攻击,

无论是从天气或从服务环境。可想而知,本说明书中的要求对不会受到腐蚀性攻击的清洁和油漆的钢不是必要的。以下是总结了本规范的主要部分。

1 范围

2 说明

3 参考标准

4 定义

5 预涂

5.1材料运输和使用

5.2表面处理

5.3预处理

5.4涂装材料准备

6影响涂装的因素

6.1温度

6.2水分

6.3湿度

6.4盖

6.5缺陷

6.6条纹

6.7连续性

6.8厚度

6.9重涂

6.10着色

6.11层间附着力

6.12接触面

6.13诱导时间,贮存期

7 涂装方法

7.1通用要求

7.2刷涂

7.3辊涂

7.4喷涂(通用)

7.5空气雾化喷涂

7.6无气喷涂

7.7空气辅助无气喷涂

7.8热空气喷涂

7.9热无气喷涂

7.10双组分喷涂

7.11高容量低压喷涂

8 车间涂装

8.1适用范围

8.2涂料的数量和涂装类型

8.3车间涂装的损坏

8.4接触面

8.5焊接要求

8.6防锈剂

8.7安装标志

9 现场涂装

9.1适用范围

9.2表面处理

9.3车间涂装表面的补涂

9.4现场涂装程序

10 修复损坏的完整涂层

10.1适用性

10.2表面处理,再涂装

10.3不兼容

10.4要执行的工作

11 通用涂料的涂装

11.1概述

11.2干性油固化涂料

11.3乙烯和氯化橡胶涂料

11.4沥青涂料

11.5环氧和煤焦油环氧涂料

11.6富锌涂料

11.7聚氨酯涂料

11.8水性热塑性涂料

12 涂料的固化和搬运

12.1涂料干燥

12.2涂装钢铁的搬运

13 检查

14 安全和环境问题

15 免责声明

16 注意事项

附录A – 附加的参考材料

3. 参考标准

3.1投标邀请书之日起,以最新的发行,修订或修正参考标准为准,除非另有规定。

3.2如果任何引用的参考标准的要求和本规范之间有冲突,以本规范的要求为准。

3.3 SSPC:涂装协会的标准:

PA 2 使用磁测厚仪测量干膜厚度

PA指南3 涂装安全指南

SP 1 溶剂清洗(此技术规范中未引用)

3.4美国测试和材料协会(ASTM)的标准:

D 16 油漆,相关涂料,材料与涂装的标准术语

D4285压缩空气中的油或水的指示方法

3.7 NACE国际标准:

* RP0178浸没服务的油罐的船制造细节,表面处理的重复要求,适当的设计注意事项。

4. 定义

4.1车间、现场和维修涂装:在工厂或现场进行的钢铁表面的涂装。

4.2油漆:在一般意义上,涂料包括底漆,瓷漆,清漆,乳剂,催化型涂料,沥青涂料,和其他有

机涂层。无机涂料,用液体薄膜涂装,也都属于这个定义。这个定义是最常用的工业词汇相吻合。

4.3 车间涂装:发货到安装工地前的在工厂的表面处理和涂装。

4.4现场涂装:安装之前或之后的新的或以前涂装的钢结构现场涂装。

4.5维护涂装:正在服务的已经涂装的钢结构需要涂装或重新补涂。

4.6制造商的指导和建议:这些(或类似条款)是指设备供应商或涂料制造商最新公布的或书面的指示

和建议。设备或涂料生产商的口头建议或指示是不能接受的,除非制造商的技术人员以书面形式备份。

5. 预备涂装程序

特定的通用涂料的程序,请参阅第11节。

5.1材料的搬运和使用

5.1.1所有涂料应是未开封的原装的容器并且标签完整运输到车间或工地。容器轻微损坏,是可以接

受的,只要没有被刺破或容器的盖子密封没有破。

5.1.2每个油漆桶应有清楚地标示,或贴上标签,表明涂料的ID品名,生产日期,批号,和其他所

需信息,以满足行业要求。每一种类型的涂料应该带有制造商的材料安全数据表(MSDS)和产品数据表包含的信息,如基本的化学成分,涂装、适当的储存和混合所需的天气条件。

5.1.3所有容器的涂料,直到需要使用的时候,应保持未开封的。涂装的当天,不应该打开过多的油

漆桶。标签信息在使用时应清晰,应检查。

5.1.4 涂料受损,凝胶化,或以其他方式在储存过程中恶化,不得使用,但是,摇溶材料,可搅拌达

到正常的一致性,是可以使用的。

5.1.5最旧的各种涂料在尽可能的条件下,应先使用。在任何情况下,涂料是要在贮存期之前使用。

在使用保质期到期的涂料之前,制造商应验证其质量,然后证明它能够在一个时间段内使用。

5.1.6涂料应储存在原装未开封的容器,在防风雨的空间,温度保持在40°F和100°F(4°C和38°C),

除非另有制造商的书面建议,涂装的温度应依据生产商的书面建议的使用温度。(见注16.1涂料存储的更多信息。)

5.2表面处理

5.2.1必须达到采购文件中指定的清洁。在任何情况下,表面处理是不能低于油漆制造商的预期的服

务环境中的建议。

5.2.2在涂装的时候,喷涂表面应具有指定的表面处理状态。表面处理后涂层前如果表面退化或污染,

表面应恢复到指定的条件之前,才能喷涂(见16.2)。

5.2.3为了控制清理过的表面的劣化或污染、预涂或没有预涂、底漆喷涂尽快完成。后续的涂装应赶

在有任何污染发生之前。

5.2.4以前涂装的涂层,应在涂装前使其粗糙,以保证涂层间的附着力(见第

6.11节)。

5.2.5清洁和涂装的日程安排好应尽量减少灰尘和其他污染物的量,减少可能会落在新喷涂的湿膜

上。不打算涂装的表面须有适当维护,达到清洁和涂装的效果。

5.3预处理

5.3.1如有规定,喷涂底漆前表面应进行预处理。

5.3.2 。5.1和5.2条的规定也适用于预处理表面和材料。

5.3.3当使用化学预处理,预处理和喷涂底漆之间,允许足够的时间来完成化学作用,及表面干燥。

双组分混合后在有指定的时间间隔才喷涂。如有专项的预处理要求,应遵循制造商的指示。

5.3.4喷涂前的抑制水清洗,以防止生锈,不被视为预处理。这需要特别授权,仅当它们不会不利地

影响涂层的长期性能的时候才能使用。测试局部可以用来检查涂层的粘附性,然后才能喷涂整个表面。

5.4涂料的准备

5.4.1单组分涂料应充分混合,以获得均匀的组合物。对于多组分涂料,每一个组分都应当充分混合,

然后再混合和进一步的搅拌。在任何情况下,应执行制造商的书面说明;并应检查产品的完全的一致性。

5.4.2以下是可以接受的方法,用于大多数涂料的混合:

5.4.2.1手动搅拌:大多数油漆桶倒进一个干净的容器中。涂层的颜料应从容器的底部用一个平铲举

起,块状物须捣碎,颜料并与容器的其它充分混合。倒出之油漆桶应返回到涂层的同时搅拌,或盒装,直到该组合物是均匀的。“盒装”是从一个容器到另一个的过程中的涂料的混合。为“盒装”的最大容器尺寸应为五加仑。

5.4.2.2电搅拌:这通常在更短的时间比用手工搅拌会得到更好的混合。

5.4.3所有颜料的油漆应在混合后过滤,除非设备提供滤器。过滤器的大小,只除去皮和不良物质,

但不去除颜料。

5.4.4凡在容器中形成一块皮,皮应切断从容器移除并丢弃。如果皮的体积目视估计是超过2%,涂

料应不能使用。

5.4.5溶剂的涂料的搅拌,应该在敞开的容器中,在通风良好的地方,远离火花或明火。

5.4.6使用涂层表面下方的气流泡的方法,涂料不得搅拌或保持在悬浮液中。

5.4.7干颜料单独包装,混入涂料应以这样的方式:均匀地混合并将所有的干粉末颗粒充分润湿。

5.4.8浆料制成涂料应以这样的方式:均匀地混合,所有的块体和颗粒破碎,形成均匀的涂层。

5.4.9涂层没有贮存期,或静置不恶化;在任何时间都可以搅拌再使用,但如果发生沉淀或分离,它

必须使用前立即搅拌。

5.4.10涂料,不得留在喷雾罐,油漆工的桶等过夜,应存放在有盖的容器,使用前再搅拌。

5.4.11分开包装的催化剂,快干剂,或固化剂应在基料充分混合后,再加入。正确的量的催化剂应

慢慢倒入正确的量的基料中,不停搅拌。整包的混合是最好的,以避免不正确的量的混合。不要倒出从颜料分离的液体,然后添加催化剂到沉淀的颜料,以帮助混合。须使用制造商规定的贮存期内的混合涂料。例如,混合后超过20分钟,不到8个小时是化学固化涂料的贮存期(见第6.13节)。

因此,只有足够的涂料应催化后及时使用。大多数混合的催化的涂料不能被储存,而这些未使用的部分应放置在适当的储存容器,以后适当的处置。如有指定,应根据制造商的指示,使用特殊的连续混合设备。

5.4.12稀释涂料应只在必要时为了适当的喷涂,它不会导致违反空气污染控制法规。用刷子将涂料

通常不需要稀释。喷涂,如果不是专门配制用于喷涂的涂料,可能需要喷涂设备和空气压力的适当调节,才会有令人满意的喷涂。在任何情况下稀释,不得多于制造商的书面建议。

5.4.13稀释剂的类型应符合制造商的说明。

5.4.14当允许使用稀释剂时,稀释剂应缓慢地加入到正在混合的涂料。所有稀释应在懂行的人[熟悉

正确的数量和类型添加到涂料中、熟悉有关规定溶剂的排放法规]的监督下进行稀释。稀释剂应与涂料在相同的温度。在非常低的温度下,稀释剂可以对震动敏感的涂料,导致凝胶。

6. 涂料施工的影响因素

只适于特定涂料的因素,请参阅第11节。

6.1温度:只有当空气和基板温度在制造商的书面说明的喷涂和固化时所指示的范围内,并且可以

预计将保持在该范围内,才能够喷涂。特殊的涂料,使在60°F以下喷涂不管进一步调整与否都行。

(见注16.3)。

6.2水分:下列情况不能喷涂:有雨,风,雪,雾或雾,或当钢板表面温度没有高出露点5°F(3°C)。

潮湿的表面不能喷涂,除非有涂料制造商的设计并认证。涂料不得用于结霜或结冰的表面(见16.4)。

6.3湿度:涂料的固化,可能会受到湿度太低或太高的不利影响,必须满足制造商的书面湿度的要

求的情况下才能喷涂。

6.3.1某些涂料(例如,一些无机锌和聚氨酯涂料)固化是通过与水的化学反应,所以需要一个最

低湿度完全固化。

6.3.2高湿度可能导致湿气凝结或与不固化的涂膜反应,造成白化或其他不良影响。

6.4 盖:在潮湿或寒冷的天气中必须喷涂时,喷涂钢构件和周围的空气必须被加热到适宜的温度。在这

种情况下,第6.1节和6.2节的温度和湿度条件必须得到满足。当需要盖的掩护才能达到这些状态的时候,钢构件就必须保持在盖下,直到干燥或天气条件允许的情况下才能暴露。

6.5缺陷:合同规范不允许的缺陷,必须用业主满意的方式予以纠正。

6.6 条带油漆:条带油漆在采购文件中有指定,角落,缺口,铆钉,螺栓,焊接,尖锐的边缘应条纹涂

装涂底漆,然后钢材在进行完整的底漆喷涂。这种条带化应从边缘延伸最小为1英寸(2厘米)。

预涂应设置为底漆前。然而,预涂不得允许时间太长,导致没有油漆的钢生锈。等同的方法是,预涂可能会在彻底底漆后进行。

预涂的边缘,边角,铆钉,焊接等,在很强的腐蚀性的环境中,有利于防止掉漆。条带油漆是一个昂贵的操作,当被认为是合理的成本才做。要防止的底漆后没有做预涂,条纹涂层和完全的底漆都应该有足够的时间。但是,如果感到条纹的干燥周期长,全部的底漆可能先做,然后预涂。着色的条带涂层是很好的建议,以促进对比度(见第6.10节)。预涂前进行打磨圆的边缘,是最有效的。

6.7连续性:为了最大的实际程度,涂装的每一层的视觉应是连续的膜、厚度均匀、无孔。所有薄的地

方或区域,应重涂,并允许在喷涂干燥之后再进行下一层涂装。

6.8厚度:除非另有规定,在采购文件,所有干膜厚度的确定应执行SSPC-PA 2,磁力测厚仪的测量干

涂层厚度的规定。涂层厚度通常指定最低标准。不会不利地影响涂层的外观或使用寿命,允许更大的厚度,除非另有说明。

6.8.1 如果没有另外指明,底漆应为1.5密耳(38微米)至2.5密耳(64微米)的干膜厚度的范

围内。中间和面漆应为1.0密耳(25微米)至2.0密耳(51微米)的厚度范围内。如第11节所指,乙烯漆、乳胶漆、厚浆型涂料,沥青涂料通常偏离从这些的厚度。

6.8.2没有达到指定的最小的干膜厚度,应根据制造商的说明重新涂装,直到获得所需的厚度。无

机富锌涂料应不能以这种方式校正,必须依据制造商的说明,除非明确允许这种做法。

6.9重涂:各涂层应在一个适当的状态固化或干燥一段时间,才能进行随后的涂装,以便它不会不利的

影响面漆。请咨询涂料生产商重涂的间隔。

6.10着色:已经明确在连续的相同颜色的涂层时,从实际角度,涂层应有着色,产生足够的对比度来

表示表面有完全覆盖。着色的方式不应影响最终涂层的颜色。工地调色须必须使用同一制造商。当底漆是钢的颜色,底漆就应着色。着色材料应与涂料相容,并不会有损其使用寿命。有人建议,由制造商来着色并适当标签。单组分涂料应充分混合,然后着色,接着搅拌。对于多组份,需要将两种不同的颜色的相似的组分混合在一起,然后合并和搅拌这些混合物。

6.11层间附着力:采用多道涂层的双组分热固性系统时,面漆的喷涂应符合制造商指定的复涂窗口,

才能获得良好的层间附着力。如果因任何原因,超过这段时间内,底表面应按照制造商的建议经过特殊处理才能做面漆。这种处理方法包括轻度打磨,溶剂处理和使用的雾漆。

6.12接触面:除非合同的规范另有规定,应遵循以下做法。

6.12.1预埋、装入或完全封闭在砖砌或石砌的钢应至少有一层涂层,与砌体材料相容。

6.12.2与木材接触的地区,在装配前应当进行完整的指定涂料系统。

6.12.3现场安装后的接触表面,装配前应进行完整的指定涂料系统。

6.12.4钢表面不是直接粘合接触,但组装后不能进入,应在装配前接受指定的涂层系统。

6.12.5摩擦连接的高强度粘合的接触面是一种特殊情况。除非特别授权,相反,他们应无涂层,无

油,油脂和涂料。然而,摩擦连接的搭接面可涂有认可的涂料,按照美国钢结构协会(AISC)和结构连接研究委员会(RCSC),它不恶化接触面之间的摩擦系数。

6.13诱导时间和贮存期:诱导时间(有时也被称为“出汗时间”),贮存期;油漆制造商的要求必须要满

足。

7. 涂装方法

请参阅第11章,特种涂料的涂装方法。

7.1 总则

7.1.1这个规范所涵盖的涂装方法:刷涂,滚涂,空气喷涂,无气喷涂,多组分喷涂,热喷

涂,或这些方法的组合。当没有其它方法是可行的,天然的或合成的羊毛手套或其他涂装工

具可用于在难以进入的地方。使用任何涂装方法,每一层干膜厚度应符合规范或制造商的建

议,由业主和承包商同意的优先级。也见注16.5。

7.1.2下面的方法不包括本规范的应用:浸涂,流涂,静电喷涂和流化床。如果指定了这些方法的应用,应按照采购文件,如果不存在,与制造商的建议。

7.2 刷涂:刷涂应按照如下:

7.2.1刷的款式和质量,能够使得适当的涂装。圆形或椭圆形的刷子通常被认为最适合与铆钉,

螺栓,不规则的表面,和粗糙或有坑钢。宽的平刷适合与大的平的区域,但宽度不应超过五

英寸。

7.2.2刷涂应该尽可能获得均匀的厚度。

7.2.3涂层应用在所有缝隙和边角。

7.2.4所有流挂应刷出来(见7.3.4)。

7.2.5必须尝试,以尽量减少刷痕和其他表面的不规则。

7.3滚涂:滚涂应如下:

7.3.1滚涂应实现厚度均匀。

7.3.2滚涂盖应选择纤维不要脱落到油漆。细毛应该是适用于特定的表面粗糙度。

7.3.3滚涂可能会持平或略有弯曲的表面上使用,应根据涂料生产商和辊子制造商的

建议。涂辊达到风格和质量,取得6.7节和6.8节要求的连续性和涂层厚度。

7.3.4滚涂,不得用于不规则表面,如铆钉,螺栓,缝,焊缝,角落或边缘,除非另有规定。但

是,如果允许,这些不规则的表面上辊涂后要刷好,形成一个连续的,不间断的膜(见16.6)。

7.4喷涂(总则):所有喷涂的方法,无论是空气喷涂,无气喷涂,多组分喷涂,热空气喷涂或无气喷

涂热的,应按照下列:

7.4.1使用的设备应适合于预期的目的,应能够正确地雾化涂料,并应配备合适的压力调节器

和表。设备应保持正常的工作状态。喷涂设备应符合当地的空气污染或空气质量管理区的要

求。

7.4.2涂料的成分应在喷雾罐或容器中保持均匀混合,需要连续机械搅拌或频繁的间歇搅拌。

7.4.3喷涂设备应保持足够的干净,使污垢,干燥的涂层,和其它异物没有淀积在涂膜中。留下任

何溶剂的设备,应完全去除,然后再使用。

7.4.4涂料应涂层均匀,喷雾具有重叠的边缘。涂装期间,枪须保持垂直于该表面,距离将保证湿

膜在表面上沉积。在每枪结束应当释放扳机

7.4.5所有流挂,应立即刷好,如果没有,涂层应被去除和表面重新涂装。湿膜可除去或等其干燥

和固化后再除去。

7.4.6所有铆钉和螺栓,和所有其他涂装不便的地区如,裂缝,缺口,盲区应涂用刷子或抹涂工具

7.4.7应予特别注意观察稀释剂的类型、数量、涂装温度和操作技术,避免太粘稠,过于干燥,或

过薄的涂层。使用经认可的不同的涂料或其它设备,以解决这些问题,这可能是必要的。

7.4.8配制的涂料的应用到热表面可能不适合用于设计温度以下的表面。相反,涂料在室温或较低

的温度下的涂装可能不适合用于热表面。因此,涂料未经书面批准,在制造商和业主推荐的温度

范围外不得使用。

7.5空气雾化喷涂:压缩空气雾化喷涂,应执行第7.4节的规定,并除应当符合下列:

7.5.1空气帽,喷嘴,和针头应符合涂材料的制造商和制造商使用的设备的建议。

7.5.2分离器消除空气中的任何油或冷凝水。分离器必须有足够的尺寸,必须持续排出或在操作

过程中定期排水。从喷枪的空气照射在干净的表面应无冷凝水或油。 ASTM D4285,提供了一

个测试程序,指示压缩空气中的油或水的存在。

7.5.3在油漆罐和空气在喷枪上的压力应进行调整,以获得最佳喷涂。必要时更改枪和罐的相对高

度,以调整油漆罐上的压力。在喷枪的雾化空气的压力应足够高,保证适当的雾化涂料,但

不要太高,有可能导致过度的雾化,过度蒸发溶剂或由过喷损失。

7.6 无气喷涂施工:无空气喷涂或高压喷涂,应按照第7.4节的规定,并符合下列:

7.6.1流体应有适当的孔口尺寸和角度,流体控制枪,要按喷涂的材料和设备制造商的推荐。流体嘴应是安全型号,有盖,防止高压意外渗透肌肤。

7.6.2泵的空气压力应进行调整,使压力枪获得最佳的喷涂有效性。此压力应足够高,以正确雾

化涂料。高于所必需的适当的雾化涂料的压力是不能使用的。

7.6.3喷涂设备应保持清洁,应在高压路使用合适的过滤器,以免污垢,干燥的涂层,和其它杂

质沉积在涂膜中。设备留下任何溶剂,都应完全清除前使用涂料。

7.6.4枪应该是全面拉开的,并在整个喷涂中都是保持拉开的,确保适当的喷涂。喷涂期间,枪

须保持垂直于该表面的距离,这将保证湿层在的表面上沉积。每枪结束,应当释放扳机。

7.6.5无气涂料喷涂设备,必须提供用接地线连接枪和泵之间的高压线。另外,应适当地将的泵

送设备接地,枪上的任何静电电荷,避免积聚。要遵循制造商的说明有关的设备的正确使

用。 PA 3提供有关如何使用无气喷涂设备的安全。

7.7 空气辅助无气喷涂,空气辅助无气喷涂是液压和气压的油漆雾化相结合。空气辅助无气喷涂,

应按照第7.3节和7.4节的所有规定。

7.8热空气喷涂施工:热空气喷涂施工,应按照规定的第7.4和7.5。

7.9热无气喷涂:热无气喷涂施工,应按照第7.4节和7.6节。

7.10多组分喷涂:多组分喷涂应按照第7.4节的规定,根据成分的比例可以是固定或可变比率系统。

多组分喷涂主要用于快凝的厚膜涂料。

7.11高容量低压喷涂:高容量低压喷雾,应按照第7.4节的规定。

高容量的低压喷雾具有高的传动效率,不允许其他设备传动效率很低的地方,以及限制较少的

条件下,可以使用。

8. 车间涂装

8.1适用范围:本规范的所有规定应适用于车间涂装除了第9条和第10条。

8.2涂层的数量和类型:涂料的数量,类型和表面应在采购文件中指定。如果涂层厚度没有被指定,

执行6.8.1节。所有施工阶段应有计划安排涂装(见16.7)。

8.3在车间的制作、搬运和储存对涂料的造成的损坏,离开车间前,应进行修理。如果车间涂层在运

输,装卸或现场搬运造成损坏,必须在现场涂装开始前修理好。

8.4接触面:接触面应按采购文件中规定涂装或不涂装。需要涂装时,规范要求车间或现场至少有一

层漆域,后续涂层在现场完成,除非另有规定(见第6.12节)。

8.5焊接要求:

8.5.1如果指定的涂层对焊工是有害(通常的情况),或者“是不利于焊接操作或成品焊缝,钢的焊接

的区域内的4英寸(100毫米)以内的区域内不得涂覆,除了当使用无机富锌底漆,可施加到焊缝

区域的1英寸(25毫米)。

8.5.2车间的焊缝和在4英寸的焊缝地区,应向结构件其他地方一样清洁的。所有焊缝应进行喷砂清

理,彻底电动工具清洗,化学擦洗,或水洗的所有有害的焊接存积。

8.6防锈化合物:机加工的表面或类似的表面不应该涂装,但确实需要维护,应按规定。

8.7安装标识:安装和重量应在车间标记,除非另有规定。必须使用兼容和不掉色的记号笔或涂层棒

9. 现场涂装

10. 修复损坏的涂层

10.1适用范围:本规范的所有规定应适用于维护涂料,除了第8和第9条不适用的部分。

10.2重涂的表面处理

10.2.1仅松脱,破裂,脆性的,或者非粘的涂层应在清洁时去掉,除非另有指定。在所有方向上,

两英寸(50微米)的损坏区域要进行清洁,直至紧密的粘合涂层。剩余的涂层很厚的地方,所有暴

露的边缘有羽状。锈斑应彻底清洁和所有旧涂层的边缘应刮掉回到钢材的本体(见16.9)。

10.2.2按合同规范,承包商有权选择删除所有大面积的涂层。

10.3不兼容:只有兼容现有的涂料和服务环境的涂料才能使用。所有不兼容所产生的缺陷,应予以

修复。

10.4要执行的工作:清洁和涂装的量应在采购文件有描述。重要的是,采购文件刚好覆盖要执行的

工作,以避免误解。在没有这样的具体规定的情况下,可用于指引附注16.9。

11. 通用组别涂料的涂装程序

12. 涂料的固化和处理

12.1涂层的干燥

12.1.1现有的涂层喷涂之前,最小和最大的固化时间应符合底漆和覆涂制造商的指示。如果超过

最大时间,固化的涂层应先粗糙,或以制造商推荐的其他方式处理再进行另外一层外涂装。

12.1.2从不外力干燥油漆,这将导致起皱,起泡,气孔,或不利于涂层的防护性能。外力干燥涂层

之前,请务必与涂料生产商复核。

12.1.3涂料应防止雨水,冷凝,污染,雪和冻结,直到充分固化才可以外观曝光。

12.1.4从不进行浸泡油漆,直到按照制造商的书面说明彻底干燥或固化了。

12.2搬运涂装的钢构件

12.2.1涂装的钢构件不可以搬运,装运或发运,必须涂层干燥,除了必要的翻身或干燥堆叠。

12.2.2损坏的涂层应除,按采购文件的指定,用同一种油漆。.

13. 检验

13.1除非在采购文件中另有规定,承包商,或材料的供应商负责质量,确保满足本文件要求。本

标准的工作和涂料也由买方或其授权代表检验。材料和工作区应允许检查人员进入。

13.2不符合这一标准的条件,应当予以纠正。在争议的情况下,应执行采购文件(项目规范)的

规定的仲裁或和解的既定程序。如果没有诉讼,仲裁或解决程序,然后建立一个程序,,买方和材料供应商(或承包商)的双方都同意。

14. 安全和环境问题

14.1在本规范规定的要求和它的各个组成部分的所有安全和环境,除了任何适用的联邦,州和地方

的规则和要求,还应符合涂料生产商的指示和保险承销商的要求。

14.2涂料可能是危险的,因为他们的易燃性或毒性。应遵守适当的安全预防执行措施,以防止这些

公认的危险。安全搬运作业需要,并应包括,但不限于,PA指南3,“涂装安全指南。”

14.3,这里指定的某些涂料可能不符合一些空气质量的法规,因为其有机溶剂含量。

14.4材料安全数据表(MSDS):有关安全搬运、涂装和涂料处理,可遵从材料安全数据表(MSDS)。

无论他们在哪里存储或使用,都要有MSDS。

15. 免责声明

15.1当采取一切预防措施,确保SSPC标准和规范提供的所有信息是准确的,完整的,SSPC不能

承担责任,也不承担因使用其它材料、涂料、或方法、或规范或标准本身而产生的任何义务。

15.2本规范并不试图解决关于安全性的问题。本规范的用户、以及的所有产品或惯例的用户,负责

制定适当的健康和安全的做法,以确保符合所有政府法规。

16. 注意事项

附录A - 额外的参考材料

下面列出的标准,报告,和出版物都作为本说明书的一部分,但不是必需的,建议的资源(请注意,在第3节中列出的标准,本说明书中的必需部分)。

SSPC出版物和标准:

SSPC-PA 1 April 1, 2000 Editorial Revisions November 1, 2004 SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings

PAINT APPLICATION SPECIFICATION NO. 1

Shop, Field, and Maintenance Painting of Steel

1. Scope

1.1This speci?cation covers procedures for the painting of steel surfaces. The scope of this speci?cation is rather broad, covering both speci?c as well as general requirements for the application of paint. This speci?cation does not provide detailed descriptions of surface preparation, pretreatments, or selection of primers and ?nish coats. This speci?cation does provide detailed coverage of the procedures and methods for application after the selection of the coating materials has been made.

2. Description

2.1 This speci?cation for shop, ?eld, and maintenance painting is intended to be used for steel which, because of its exposure condition, will be subjected to corrosive attack, either from the weather or from the service environment, and where a high quality of cleaning and painting is essential. It is not contemplated that the requirements of this speci?cation are necessary for the cleaning and painting of steel which will not be subjected to corrosive attack. The following is a summary of the major sections of this speci?cation.

1 Scope

Description

2

3 Reference Standards

De?nitions

4

5. Pre-Application Procedures

5.1 Materials Handling and Use

5.2 Surface Preparation

Pretreatments

5.3

5.4 Coating Materials Preparation

6. Factors Affecting the Application of Coatings

Temperature

6.1

Moisture

6.2

Humidity

6.3

Cover

6.4

Defects

6.5

Striping

6.6

Continuity

6.7

Thickness

6.8

Recoating

6.9

Tinting

6.10

6.11 Intercoat Adhesion

6.12 Contact Surfaces

6.13 Induction Time and Pot Life

7 Application Methods

7.1 General

7.2 Brush Application

7.3 Roller Application

7.4 Spray Application (General)

7.5 Air Atomizing Spray Application

7.6 Airless Spray Application

7.7 Air-Assisted Airless Application

7.8 Hot Air Spray Application

7.9 Hot Airless Spray Application

7.10 Plural Component Spray Application

7.11 High Volume Low-Pressure Spray

8. Shop Coating

Applicability

8.1

8.2 Number of Coats and Type of Coating

8.3 Damage to Shop Coating

8.4 Contact Surfaces

8.5 Requirements for Welding

8.6 Rust Preventive Compounds

8.7 Erection Marks

9. Field Coating

Applicability

9.1

9.2 Surface Preparation

9.3 Touch-up of Shop Coated Surfaces

9.4 Field Coating Procedures

10. Repair of Damaged Intact Coatings

Applicability

10.1

10.2 Surface Preparation for Recoating

Incompatibility

10.3

10.4 Work to be Performed

11. Application Procedures for Generic Groups of Coatings 11.1 General

11.2 Drying Oil Curing Coatings

11.3 Vinyls and Chlorinated Rubber Coatings

11.4 Bituminous Coatings

11.5 Epoxy and Coal Tar Epoxy Coatings 11.6 Zinc-Rich Coatings

11.7 Urethane Coatings

11.8 Waterborne Thermoplastic Coatings

12. Curing and Handling of Coatings

12.1 Drying of Coatings

12.2 Handling of Coated Steel

13 Inspection

14 afety and Environmental Concerns 15 Disclaimer

16 Notes Appendix A - Additional Reference Materials

3. Referenced Standards

3.1 The latest issue, revision, or amendment of the referenced standards in effect on the date of invitation to bid shall govern unless otherwise speci ?ed.

3.2 If there is a con ?ict between the requirements of any of the cited reference standards and this speci ?cation, the requirements of this speci ?cation shall prevail.

3.3 SSPC: THE SOCIETY FOR PROTECTIVE COAT

INGS STANDARDS:

PA 2 MeasurementofDryCoatingThick

ness With Magnetic Gages

PA Guide 3 A Guide to Safety in Paint Applica

tion

SP 1 Solvent Cleaning (not referenced

in body of spec)

3.4 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS (ASTM) STANDARDS:

D 16 Standard Terminology for Paint, Related Coatings, Materials, and Applications

D 4285 Method for Indicating Oil or Water in Compressed Air 3.7 NAC

E INTERNATIONAL STANDARD:

* RP0178 Fabrication Details, Surface Finishing Re-quirements, andProper Design Considerations forTanks and Vessels to be Lined for Immersion Servic

4. De ?nitions

4.1 SHOP, FIELD AND MAINTENANCE COATING: The application of coatings to steel surfaces whether in the shop or in the

?eld.

4.2 PAINT: In the general sense, paint includes primers, enamels, varnishes, emulsions, catalyzedcoatings, bituminous coatings, and other organic coatings. Inorganic coatings which are also applied as liquid ?lms are included in this de?nition. This de?nition is compatible with most commonly used industry glossaries.

4.3 SHOP COATING: The surface preparation and coating of steel surfaces inside a shop or plant before shipment to the site of erection.

4.4 FIELD COATING: The on-site coating of new or previously coated steel structures before or after erection.

4.5 MAINTENANCE COATING: The coating of steel structures in service that have been previously coated and require touch-up or recoating.

4.6 MANUFACTURER’S INSTRUCTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: These (or similar terms) are used to refer to an equipment supplier’s or coating manufacturer’s latest published or written instructions and recommendations. Verbal recommendations or instructions from an equipment or coating manufacturer are not acceptable unless backed up in writing by the manufacturer’s technical staff.

5. Pre-Application Procedures

See Section 11 for procedures unique to speci?c generic coatings.

5.1 MATERIALS HANDLING AND USE

5.1.1 All coating shall be delivered to the shop or jobsite in original, unopened containers with labels intact. Minor damage to containers is acceptable provided the container has not been punctured or the lid seal broken.

5.1.2 Each container of coating shall be clearly marked or labelled to show coating identi?cation, date of manufacture, batchnumber,and other information as needed to meet regulatory requirements. Each type of coating shall be accompanied by the manufacturer’s Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) and product data sheet containing information such as basic chemical composition, weather conditions acceptable for application, and proper storing and mixing.

5.1.3 All containers of coating shall remain unopened until required for use. No more containers of coating shall be opened than will be applied that day. The label information shall be legible and shall be checked at the time of use.

5.1.4 Coatingwhichhaslivered, gelled, or otherwise deteriorated during storage shall not be used; however, thixotropic materials which can be stirred to attain normal consistency may be used.

5.1.5 The oldest coating of each kind that is in acceptable condition shall be used ?rst. In every case, coating is to be used before its shelf life has expired. Before using a coating which has exceeded its shelf life, the manufacturer shall verify its quality and then certify its use for a given period of time.

5.1.6 Coatings shall be stored in original unopened containers in weathertight spaces where the temperature is maintained between 40 °F and 100 °F (4 °C and 38 °C) unless otherwise recommended in writing by the manufacturer. The coating temperature shall be brought to the manufacturer’s written recommended application temperature before use. (See Note 1

6.1 for more information on coating storage.)

5.2 SURFACE PREPARATION

5.2.1 The surface shall be cleaned as speci?ed in the procurement documents. Innoevent shall the surface preparation be less than the paint manufacturer’s recommendations for the intended service environment.

5.2.2 The surface to be coated shall have the speci?ed surface preparation at the time of application of the coating. If the surface is

degraded or contaminated subsequent to surface preparation and prior to coating, the surface shall be restored to the speci?ed condition before coating application (see Note 16.2).

5.2.3 In order to control the degradation or contamination of cleaned surfaces, the pretreatments, or, in the absence of a pretreatment, the prime coat shall be applied as soon as possible after the surface has been cleaned and before degradation or contamination has occurred. Succeeding coats shall be applied before contamination of any existing coating occurs.

5.2.4 Previously applied coating shall be roughened prior to coating whenever necessary for the development of proper intercoat adhesion (see Section

6.11).

5.2.5 Cleaning and coating shall be scheduled to minimize the amount of dust and other contaminants that may fall on newly applied wet coating ?lms. Surfaces not intended to be coated shall be suitably protected from the effects of cleaning and coating operations.

5.3 PRETREATMENTS

5.3.1 When speci?ed, the surface shall be pretreated prior

to application of the prime coat of coating .

5.3.2. The provisions of Sections 5.1 and 5.2 shall also apply to pretreated surfaces and the materials used for this purpose.

5.3.3 When chemical pretreatments are used, suf?cient time shall elapse between pretreatment and application of the prime coat to permit any chemical action to be completed and the surface to dry. Two-component pretreatments shall be applied within the speci?ed interval after mixing. When proprietary pretreatments are used, the instructions of the manufacturer shall be followed.

5.3.4 Inhibitive water washes used to prevent rusting of cleaned surfaces prior to coating shall not be considered pretreatments. These may be used only if they do not adversely affect the long term performance of the coating and are speci?cally authorized. Test patches may be used to check adhesion of the coating prior to coating the entire surface.

5.4 COATING MATERIALS PREPARATION

5.4.1 Single component coatings shall be thoroughly mixed to obtain a uniform composition. For multiple component coatings, each component shall be thoroughly mixed before combining and further mixing. In all cases, the manufacturer’s written instructions for mixing shall be followed, and the products shall be checked for complete uniformity.

5.4.2 The following are acceptable methods for mixing most coatings:

5.4.2.1 Manual (Hand) Mixing: Most of the vehicle shall be poured off into a clean container. The pigment in the coating shall be lifted from the bottom of the container with a broad, ?at paddle, lumps shall be broken up, and the pigment thoroughly mixed with the remaining vehicle. The poured off vehicle shall be returned to the coating with simultaneous stirring, or boxed until the composition is uniform. “Boxing” is the process of mixing coating by pouring from one container to another. The maximum container size for “boxing” shall be ?ve gallons.

5.4.2.2 Power Mixing: This will usually give better mixing in a much shorter time than mixing by hand.

5.4.3 All pigmented coating shall be strained after mixing except where application equipment is provided with strainers. Strainers shall be of a size to remove only skins and undesirable matter but not to remove the pigment.

5.4.4 Where a skin has formed in the container, the skin shall be cut loose from the sides of the container, removed and discarded. If the volume of such skins is visually estimated to be more than 2% of the remaining coating, the coating shall not be used.

5.4.5 Mixing of solvent-containing coatings in open containers shall be done in a well ventilated area away from sparks or ?ames.

5.4.6 Coating shall not be mixed or kept in suspension by means of an air stream bubbling under the coating surface.

5.4.7 Dry pigments which are separately packaged shall be mixed into coatings in such a manner that they are uniformly blended and all particles of the dry powder are wetted by the vehicle.

5.4.8 Pastes shall be made into coatings in such a manner that the paste shall be uniformly blended and all lumps and particles broken up to form a homogenous coating.

5.4.9 Coating which does not have a limited pot life or does not deteriorate on standing may be mixed at any time before using, but if settling or phase separation has occurred it must be remixed immediately before using.

5.4.10 Coating shall not remain in spray pots, painters’ buckets, etc., overnight, but shall be stored in a covered container and remixed before use.

5.4.11 Catalysts, curing agents, or hardeners which are separately packaged shall be added to the base coating only after the latter has been thoroughly mixed. The proper volume of the catalyst shall then be slowly poured into the required volume of base with constant agitation. Mixing of complete kits is preferred to avoid mixing incorrect ratios of components. Do not pour off the liquid which has separated from the pigment and then add the catalyst to the settled pigment to aid mixing. The mixture shall be used within the pot life speci?ed by the manufacturer. For example, more than 20 minutes and less than eight hours after mixing are the pot life limits for some chemically cured coatings (see Section

6.13). Therefore only enough coating should be catalyzed for prompt use. Most mixed, catalyzed coatings cannot be stored, and unused portions of these shall be placed in proper storage containers for later appropriate disposal. When speci?ed, special continuous mixing equipment shall be used according to the manufacturer’s directions.

5.4.12 Thinning of the coating shall be done only when necessary for proper application and when it will not result in violation of air pollution control regulations. Coatings to be applied by brush will usually require no thinning. Coatings to be sprayed, if not speci?cally formulated for spraying, may require thinning when proper adjustment of the spray equipment and air pressure does not result in satisfactory coating application. In no case shall more thinner be added than that recommended by the manufacturer’s written instructions.

5.4.13 The type of thinner shall comply with the manufacturer’s instructions.

5.4.14 When the use of thinner is permissible, thinner shall be added slowly to coating during the mixing process. All thinning shall be done under supervision of a knowledgeable person acquainted with the correct amount and type of thinner to be added to the coating and familiar with pertinent regulations relating to solvent emissions. Thinner should be at the same temperature as the coating material. At very low temperatures, thinners can shock sensitive coating materials, resulting in gelling.

6. Factors Affecting Application of Coatings

See Section 11 for factors unique to speci?c generic coatings.

6.1 TEMPERATURE: The application of a coating system shall occur only when the air and substrate temperature is within the range indicated by the manufacturer’s written instructions for both application and curing and can be expected to remain in that range. Special coating materials are available that would allow for application below 60°F with or without further adjustment. (See Note 16.3.)

6.2 MOISTURE: Coating shall not be applied in rain, wind, snow, fog, or mist, or when the steel surface temperature is less than 5 °F (3 °C) above the dew point. Coating shall not be applied to wet or damp surfaces unless the coating is formulated and certi?ed by the manufacturer for this type of application. Coating shall not be applied on frosted or

ice-coated surfaces (see Note 16.4).

6.3 HUMIDITY: Because curing of coatings may be adversely affected by humidities that are too low or too high, no coating shall be applied unless the manufacturer’s written requirements for humidity are met.

6.3.1 Some coatings (e.g., some inorganic zinc and polyurethane coatings) cure by chemically reacting with water, and so require a minimum humidity for complete curing.

6.3.2 High humidities may cause moisture to condense on or react with uncured coating ?lms to cause blushing or other adverse effects.

6.4 COVER: When coating must be applied in damp or cold weather, the steel must be coated when the surrounding air and the steel are heated to a satisfactory temperature. In all such cases, the temperature and moisture conditions of Sections 6.1 and 6.2 must be met. Where cover is required to achieve these conditions, the steel shall remain under cover or be protected until dry or weather conditions permit its exposure.

6.5 DEFECTS: Defects in ?lms that are not permitted by the contract speci?cation shall be corrected in a manner satisfactory to the owner.

6.6 STRIPING: If stripe coating is speci?ed in the procurement documents, all corners, crevices, rivets, bolts, welds, and sharp edges shall be stripe coated with the priming coating before the steel receives its ?rst full prime coat of coating. Such striping shall extend a minimum of one inch (2 cm) from the edge. The stripe coat shall set to touch before the full prime coat is applied. However, the stripe coat shall not be permitted to dry for a period long enough to allow rusting of the unprimed steel. Alternatively, the stripe coat may be applied after a complete prime coat.

Stripe coating of edges, corners, rivets, welds, etc., is advantageous in preventing breakdown of coating on such edges in very corrosive surroundings. Striping is an expensive operation and may only be justi?ed when it is believed the cost will be compensated for by extra life. To prevent removal of the stripe coat of coating by later application of the prime coat, the striped coating should be allowed to at least set to touch before application of the full prime coat; a longer drying period is advantageous, however. Where it is felt that a long drying period of stripe is necessary, but the precoated steel will deteriorate in the interval, the full prime coat of coating may be applied, allowed to dry, and the stripe coating then applied. Tinting of the striping coating is advisable to promote contrast (see Section 6.10). Stripe coating is most effective on edges that are rounded by grinding.

6.7 CONTINUITY: To the maximum extent practical, each coat shall be applied as a visually continuous ?lm of uniform thickness free of pores. All thin spots or areas missed in the application shall be recoated and permitted to dry before the next coat of coating is applied.

6.8 THICKNESS: Unless otherwise speci?ed in the procurement documents, all dry ?lm thickness determinations shall be performed as speci?ed in PA 2, Measurement of Dry Coating Thickness with Magnetic Gages. Coating thickness is usually speci?ed (or implied) as a minimum. Greater thickness that does not detrimentally affect the appearance or service life of the coating is permitted unless otherwise speci?ed.

6.8.1 If not otherwise speci?ed, each prime coat shall be within a thickness range of 1.5 mils (38 micrometers) to 2.5 mils (64 micrometers) when dry. Each intermediate and ?nish coat shall be within a thickness range of 1.0 mils (25 micrometers) to 2.0 mils (51 micrometers). As indicated in Section 11, vinyls, lacquers, emulsions,high-build coatings,and bituminous coatings usually deviate from these thicknesses.

6.8.2 In the event the required minimum thickness is not achieved as speci?ed, additional coats shall be applied in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions until the required thickness is obtained. The inorganic zinc-rich coatings shall not be corrected in this manner unless the manufacturer's instructions speci?cally permit this practice.

6.9 RECOATING: Each coating layer shall be in a proper state of cure or dryness before the application of the succeeding coat so that it is not adversely affected by topcoating. Consult the coating manufacturer for the appropriate time interval before recoating.

6.10 TINTING: When successive coats of coating of the same color have been speci?ed, alternate coats of coating shall be tinted, when practical, to produce enough contrast to indicate complete coverage of the surface. Tinting shall be performed in such a manner that it will not be necessary to tint the ?nal coat. Field tinting shall be done only with coatings of the same type from the same manufacturer. When the coating is the color of the steel, the ?rst coat to be applied shall be tinted. The tinting material shall be compatible with the coating and not detrimental to its service life. It is suggested that the coating be tinted by the manufacturer and appropriately labeled. Single component coatings to be blended for tinting shall be thoroughly mixed separately before combining and further mixing. For multiple-components, it is necessary to blend similar components of the two different colors together before combining and mixing these blends.

6.11 INTERCOAT ADHESION: When applying multiple coats of two component thermosetting systems, topcoats shall be applied within

the recoat window speci?ed by the manufacturer of the undercoat in order to obtain good intercoat adhesion. If, for any reason, this time period is exceeded, the undercoat surface shall be specially treated as recommended by its manufacturer before topcoating. Such treatments include mild abrasion, solvent treatment, and use of a fog coat.

6.12 CONTACT SURFACES: Unless otherwise required by the contract speci?cation, the following practice shall be followed regarding coating of contact surfaces.

6.12.1 Steel to be embedded, encased or completely enclosed in brick or masonry shall be given at least one coat of coating that is compatible with masonry materials.

6.12.2 The areas to be in contact with wood shall receive the full speci?ed coating system before assembly.

6.12.3 Surfaces to be in contact only after ?eld erection shall receive the full-speci?ed coating system before assembly.

6.12.4 Steel surfaces not in direct bonded contact, but inaccessible after assembly, shall receive the full-speci?ed coating system before assembly.

6.12.5 Contact surfaces of members to be joined by high strength bonds in a friction connection are a special case. Unless speci?cally authorized to the contrary, they shall be left uncoated and free of oil, grease, and coatings. However, faying surfaces of friction connection may be coated with approved coatings which do not release the coef?cient of friction between contact surfaces, in accordance with the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) and the Research Council on Structural Connections (RCSC).

6.13 INDUCTION TIME AND POT LIFE: The induction time (sometimes called “sweat-in time”) and pot life requirements of the manufacturer shall be met.

7. Application Methods

See Section 11 for application methods unique to speci?c generic coatings.

7.1 GENERAL

7.1.1 The following methods of application are covered by this speci?cation: brush, roller, air spray, airless spray, plural component spray, hot spray, or any combination of these methods. Daubers or natural or synthetic wool mitts or other applicators may be used for places of dif?cult access when no other method is practical. Whichever application method is used, the dry ?lm thickness of each coat shall meet the requirement of the speci?cation or the manufacturer’s recommendation, whichever has precedence, as agreed upon by owner and contractor. Also see Note 16.5.

7.1.2 The following methods of application are not covered by this speci?cation: dipping, ?ow coating, electrostatic spray, and ?uidized bed. If application by one of these methods is speci?ed, it shall be done in accordance with the procurement documents or, if none are present, with the manufacturer's recommendations.

7.2 BRUSH APPLICATION: Brush application of coating shall be in accordance with the following:

7.2.1 Brushes shall be of a style and quality that will enable proper application of coating. Round or oval brushes are generally considered most suitable for rivets, bolts, irregular surfaces, and rough or pitted steel. Wide, ?at brushes are suitable for large ?at areas, but they should not have a width over ?ve inches.

7.2.2 The brushing shall be done so that a smooth coat as uniform in thickness as possible is obtained.

7.2.3 Coating shall be worked into all crevices and corners.

7.2.4 All runs or sags shall be brushed out (see 7.3.4).

7.2.5 An attempt shall be made to minimize brush marks and other surface irregularities.

7.3 ROLLER APPLICATION: Roller application shall be in accordance with the following:

7.3.1 Rolling shall be done so that a smooth coat as uniform in thickness as possible is achieved.

7.3.2 Roller covers shall be selected which do not shed ?bers into the paint. Their nap should be appropriate for the particular surface roughness.

7.3.3 Roller application may be used on ?at or slightly curved surfaces and shall be in accordance with the recommendations of the coating manufacturer and roller manufacturer. Coating rollers shall be of a style and quality that will enable proper application of coating having the continuity and thickness required in Sections 6.7 and 6.8.

7.3.4 Roller application shall not be used on irregular surfaces such as rivets, bolts, crevices, welds, corners, or edges, unless otherwise speci?ed. When permitted, however, the coating applied by roller on these irregular surfaces shall be subsequently brushed out to form a continuous and unbroken ?lm (see Note 16.6).

7.4 SPRAY APPLICATION (GENERAL): All spray application of coating, whether air spray, airless spray, plural-component spray, hot air spray or hot airless spray, shall be in accordance with the following:

7.4.1 The equipment used shall be suitable for the intended purpose, shall be capable of properly atomizing the coating to be applied, and shall be equipped with suitable pressure regulators and gages. The equipment shall be maintained in proper working condition. Spray equipment shall meet the material transfer requirements of the local air pollution or air quality management district.

7.4.2 Coating ingredients shall be kept uniformly mixed in the spray pots or containers during coating application either by continuous mechanical agitation or by intermittent agitation as frequently as necessary.

7.4.3 Spray equipment shall be kept suf?ciently clean so that dirt, dried coating, and other foreign materials are not deposited in the coating ?lm. Any solvents left in the equipment shall be completely removed before using.

7.4.4 Coating shall be applied in a uniform layer with overlapping at the edges of the spray pattern. During application, the gun shall be held perpendicular to the surface and at a distance which will ensure that a wet layer of coating is deposited on the surface. The trigger of the gun should be released at the end of each stroke.

7.4.5 All runs and sags shall be brushed out immediately, and if not, the coating shall be removed and the surface repainted. The wet ?lm may be removed or allowed to dry and removed by sanding after curing.

7.4.6 Cracks, crevices, blind areas of all rivets and bolts, and all other inaccessible areas shall be coated by brush or daubers.

7.4.7 Particular care shall be observed with respect to type of thinner, amount of thinner, coating temperature, and operating techniques in order to avoid deposition of coating which is too viscous, too dry, or too thin. It may be necessary to use an approved different coating material or other equipment to resolve these problems.

7.4.8 Coatings formulated for application to hot surfaces may not be suitable for application to surfaces below the designed temperature. Conversely, coatings formulated for application at ambient or low temperatures may not be suitable for application to hot surfaces. Thus, coatings shall not be applied outside the manufacturer’s recommended temperature range without the written approval of the manufacturer and the owner.

7.5 AIR ATOMIZING SPRAY APPLICATION: Compressed air atomizing spray application of coating shall be in accordance with all the provisions of Section 7.4 and in addition shall comply with the following:

7.5.1 The air caps, nozzles, and needles shall be those recommended by the manufacturers of the material being sprayed and the manufacturers of the equipment being used.

7.5.2 Traps or separators shall be provided to remove any oil or condensed water from the air. The traps or separators must be

of adequate size and must be bled continuously or drained periodically during operations. The air from the spray gun impinging against a clean surface shall show no condensed water or oil. ASTM D 4285 provides a test procedure for indicating the presence of oil or water in compressed air.

7.5.3 The pressure on the material in the pot and of the air at the gun shall be adjusted for optimum spraying effectiveness. The pressure on the material in the pot shall be adjusted when necessary for changes in elevation of the gun with respect to the elevation of the pot. The atomizing air pressure at the gun shall be high enough to properly atomize the coating, but not so high as to cause excessive fogging of coating, excessive evaporation of solvent or loss by overspray.

7.6 AIRLESS SPRAY APPLICATION: Airless or high pressure spray application of coating shall be in accordance with all of the provisions of Section 7.4 and in addition shall comply with the following:

7.6.1 Fluid tips shall be of proper ori?ce size and fan angle, and the ?uid control gun of proper construction, as recommended by the manufacturer of the material being sprayed and the manufacturer of the equipment being used. Fluid tips shall be of the safety type with shields to prevent accidental penetration of the skin by the high pressure stream of coating.

7.6.2 The air pressure to the coating pump shall be adjusted so that the coating pressure to the gun is proper for optimum spraying effectiveness. This pressure shall be suf?ciently high to properly atomize the coating. Pressures considerably higher than those necessary to properly atomize the coating should not be used.

7.6.3 Spraying equipment shall be kept clean and shall utilize proper ?lters in the high pressure line so that dirt, dry coating, and other foreign materials are not deposited in the coating ?lm. Any solvents left in the equipment shall be completely removed before applying coating.

7.6.4 The trigger of the gun should be pulled fully open and held fully open during all spraying to ensure proper application of coating.During application, the gun shall be held perpendicular to the surface and at a distance which will ensure that a wet layer of coating is deposited on the surface. The trigger of the gun should be released at the end of each stroke.

7.6.5 Airless coating spray equipment shall always be provided with an electric ground wire in the high pressure line between the gun and the pumping equipment. Further, the pumping equipment shall be suitably grounded to avoid the build-up of any electrostatic charge on the gun. The manufacturer’s instructions are to be followed regarding the proper use of the equipment. PA 3 provides information on how to use airless spray equipment safely.

7.7 AIR ASSISTED AIRLESS SPRAY: Air-assisted airless spray atomizes paint by a combination of hydraulic and air pressures. Air-assisted airless spray shall be performed in accordance with all provisions of Sections 7.3 and 7.4.

7.8 HOT AIR SPRAY APPLICATION: Hot air spray application shall be in accordance with the provisions of Sections

7.4 and 7.5.

7.9 HOT AIRLESS SPRAY APPLICATION: Hot airless spray application shall be in accordance with Sections 7.4 and 7.6.

7.10 PLURAL COMPONENT SPRAY APPLICATION: Plural component spray shall be in accordance with all the provisions of Section 7.4 and use either ?xed or variable ratio systems depending upon the ratio of components.

Plural component spray is used primarily for thick-?lm applications of fast-setting coatings.

7.11 HIGH-VOLUME LOW-PRESSURE SPRAY: High-volume low-pressure spray shall be in accordance with all the provisions of Section 7.4.

High-volume low-pressure spray has a high transfer ef?ciency and can be used where other equipment with lower transfer ef?ciency is not permitted, as well as under less restrictive conditions.

8. Shop Coating

8.1 APPLICABILITY: All provisions of this speci?cation shall be applicable to shop coating except those under Sections 9 and

10.

8.2 NUMBER OF COATS AND TYPE OF COATING: The number of coats, type of coating, and surfaces to be coated shall be speci?ed in the procurement documents. If coating thickness is not speci?ed, the guidance in Section 6.8.1 shall be followed. The coating application shall be scheduled to provide protection to the substrate at all construction stages (see Note 16.7).

8.3 DAMAGE TO SHOP COATING: Damage resulting from fabrication, handling and storage in the shop shall be repaired before leaving the shop. If the shop coating is damaged in shipping, unloading or ?eld handling or fabrication, it shall be repaired before the ?eld coating operations are begun.

8.4 CONTACT SURFACES: Contact surfaces shall be coated or left uncoated as speci?ed in the procurement documents. When coated, the speci?cation may require that at least the ?rst coat shall be applied in the shop or the ?eld, with subsequent coats being applied in the ?eld while the surfaces are still accessible, unless otherwise speci?ed (see Section 6.12).

8.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR WELDING:

8.5.1 If the coating speci?ed is harmful to the welders (usually the case) or is detrimental to the welding operation or the ?nished welds, the steel shall not be coated within four inches (100 millimeters) of the areas to be welded, except when using inorganic zinc-rich primer, which may be applied to within one inch (25 millimeters) of the weld area.

8.5.2 Shop welds and areas within four inches of such welds shall be cleaned in the shop using surface preparation methods at least as effective as those speci?ed for the structure itself. All welds shall either be blast cleaned, thoroughly power tool cleaned, chemically scrubbed, or water scrubbed of all detrimental welding deposits.

8.6 RUST PREVENTIVE COMPOUNDS: Machine ?nished or similar surfaces that should not be coated, but do require protection, shall be protected as speci?ed.

8.7 ERECTION MARKS: Erection and weight marks shall be placed on areas that have been previously shop primed unless otherwise speci?ed. Compatible and non-bleeding markers or coating sticks shall be used

.

9. Field Coating

9.1 APPLICABILITY: All provisions of this speci?cation shall pertain to the ?eld coating of steel structures except for inapplicable provisions of Sections 8 and 10.

9.2 SURFACE PREPARATION: Previously applied shop coatings must be dry or cured suf?ciently for overcoating and be free of dirt, oil, chlorides, or other contaminants. The manufacturer’s instructions shall be followed if special surface preparation procedures are required before application of the ?eld coats. Damaged areas of shop applied coatings are to be touched-up in compliance with the requirements of Section

9.3. See SSPC-TU 4 for additional information on detection of soluble salts on steel surfaces.

9.3 TOUCH-UP OF SHOP COATED SURFACES: Steel that has been shop coated shall be touched up with the same coating as the shop coat unless otherwise speci?ed. This touch-up shall include preparing, cleaning and coating of ?eld connections, welds or rivets, and all damaged or defective coating and rusted areas as speci?ed.

9.4 FIELD COATING PROCEDURES

9.4.1 Shop coated steel members shall preferably be ?eld coated after erection of such members is completed. Steel members may be shop or ?eld coated on the ground before erection, provided any damaged coating is touched-up with the same number of coats and kinds of coatings after erection. Whenever possible, the last full (?nish) coat of coating shall be applied after erection of the structure and repair of damaged areas of existing coating.

9.4.2 The ?rst ?eld coat shall be applied to shop-coated steel in a timely manner, as required by the speci?cation, to protect the steel from corrosion.

9.4.3 In the unlikely case that the types of ?eld coatings are not speci?ed, they shall be determined to be compatible with the shop coating and the service environment.

9.4.4 Contact surfaces shall be cleaned and coated as speci?ed, unless otherwise stated in the procurement documents (see Section 6.12).

9.4.5 When speci?ed, surfaces (other than contact surfaces) of fabricated assemblies that are accessible before erection but which will not be accessible after erection shall receive the entire speci?ed coating system before erection.

9.4.6 Coating shall be applied to all cracks and crevices as required by the speci?cation.

9.4.7 The ?nal coat of coating shall not be applied until all concrete work is ?nished. In addition to the cleaning speci?ed in Section 5.2, all cement or concrete spatter and drippings shall be removed before any application of coating. If any coating is damaged, the damaged surface shall be cleaned and recoated before the ?nal coat is applied.

9.4.8 Wet coating shall be protected against damage from dust or other detrimental foreign matter as much as is practical.

9.4.9 Steel stored pending erection shall be kept free from contact with the ground and so positioned as to minimize water-holding pockets, soiling, contamination, and deterioration of the coating ?lm. Such steel shall be cleaned and recoated or touched-up with the speci?ed coating whenever it becomes necessary to maintain the integrity of the ?lm.

9.4.10 All ?eld welds and all areas within four inches of welds shall be cleaned before painting, using surface preparation methods at least as effective as those speci?ed for the structure it self. All welds shall either be blast cleaned, thoroughly power tool cleaned, chemically scrubbed, or water scrubbed of all detrimental welding deposits.

10. Repair of Damaged Intact Coatings

10.1 APPLICABILITY: All provisions of this speci?cation shall pertain to maintenance coating except the inapplicable portions of Sections 8 and 9.

10.2 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR RECOATING

10.2.1 Only loose, cracked, brittle, or non-adherent coating shall be removed in cleaning unless it is otherwise speci?ed. Cleaning shall be performed two inches (50 micrometers) beyond the damaged areas in all directions or until tightly adhered coating is obtained. Where the remaining coating is thick, all exposed edges shall be feathered. Rust spots shall be thoroughly cleaned and the edges of all old coating shall be scraped back to sound material (see Note 16.9).

10.2.2 The contractor shall have the option to remove all coating from large areas containing smaller areas of coating which are required to be removed by the contract speci?cation.

10.3 INCOMPATIBILITY: Only coatings compatible with the existing coatings and the service environment shall be used. All defects arising from unexpected incompatibility shall be corrected as speci?ed.

10.4 WORK TO BE PERFORMED: The amount of cleaning and coating should be described in the procurement documents covering the work. It is important that the procurement documents cover precisely the work to be performed to avoid misunderstandings. In the absence of such speci?c provisions, the guidelines given in Note 16.9 may be used.

11. Application Procedures for Generic Groups of Coatings

11.1 GENERAL: The materials covered herein are to be applied as speci?ed. In case of con?ict with any other portion of this speci?cation, these special provisions shall govern. Minimum and maximum dry ?lm thicknesses are indicated, but thicker coatings should be applied when recommended by the manufacturer’s instructions. Materials which are not speci?cally covered in this speci?cation shall be applied in accordance with the directions of the manufacturer.

实验一 词法分析器的设计

实验一词法分析器的设计 (2) 1.1 词法分析器的结构和主要任务 (2) 1.1.1 输入输出接口 (2) 1.1.2 条件限制 (2) 1.2 词法分析程序的总体设计 (3) 1.3 词法分析程序的详细设计 (4) 1.4实验步骤 (5) 1.5输入数据 (15) 1.6结果输出 (15)

实验一词法分析器的设计 实验目的:掌握词法分析的概念,设计方法,熟悉高级语言中词法的定义,词法分析程序的编写。 实验要求:在8学时内实现SAMPLE语言的词法分析器,要求用VC窗口界面实现。 实验内容:分为4次实验完成。 1.1 词法分析器的结构和主要任务 1.1.1 输入输出接口 图1-1词法分析器的输入输出界面 词法分析程序的主要任务是从左到右扫描每行源程序,拼成单词,换成统一的内部表示(token)输出,送给语法分析器。具体包括: 1.组织源程序的输入; 2.按规则拼单词,并转换成二元形式; 3.滤掉空白符,跳过注释、换行符及一些无用的符号(如字符常数的引号) 4.进行行列计数,用于指出出错的行列号,并复制出错部分; 5.列表打印源程序; 6.发现并定位词法错误; 7.生成符号表。 token文件和符号表用作语法分析的输入部分。 1.1.2 条件限制 本实验可以作如下假定: (1) 假定SAMPLE语言采用自由格式书写; (2) 可以使用注解,用/*……*/或者{……}标识,但注解不能插在单词内部,注解要在一行内结束,若一行结束,没有遇到注释后面的结束标记,自动认为注释也结束; (3) 一行可以有多个语句,一个语句也可以分布在多行中,单词之间和语句之间可以插入任意空格,单词中间不能有空白符号,单词中间也不能有回车换行符,即单词不能跨行书写; (4) 关键字都是保留字。

中文汉语语法

中文汉语语法 一、语素 语素和语素分类语素是最小的语音语义结合体,是最小的语言单位。语素按音节分类可以分成:单音节 语素,双音节语素,多音节语素。 ①单音节语素如土、人、水、风、子、民、大、海等。 ②双音节语素组成该语素的两个音节合起来才有意思,分开来没有与该语素有关的意义,双音节语素主要包括联绵字、外来词和专用名词。 A.双声,声母相同的联绵字:如琵琶、乒乓、澎湃、鞑靼、尴尬、荆棘、蜘蛛、踯躅、踌躇、仿佛、瓜葛、忐忑、淘汰、饕餮、倜傥、含糊、慷慨、叮当、蹊跷、玲珑、犹豫等。 B.叠韵,韵母相同的联绵字:如从容、葱茏、葫芦、糊涂、匍匐、灿烂、蜿蜒、苍茫、朦胧、苍莽、邋遢、罗嗦、怂恿、螳螂、桫椤、倥侗、蜻蜓、轰隆、当啷、惝恍、魍魉、缥缈、飘渺、耷拉等。 C.非双声叠韵联绵字:如蜈蚣、蓊郁、珊瑚、疙瘩、蚯蚓、惺忪、铃铛、奚落、褡裢、茉莉、蚂螂、窟窿、伉俪、蝴蝶、笊篱、蹦达、蟪蛄、狡狯、狡猾、蛤蚧、蛤蜊、牡丹、磅礴、提溜等。 D.外来词,由汉语以外的其他语种音译过来的词语。如干部、涤纶、甲克(夹克)、的士、巴士、尼龙、吉普、坦克、芭蕾、哒爹等。 E.专用名词,主要是地名、人和事物名称。如纽约、巴黎、北京、苏轼、李白、孔子、萝卜、菠菜、番茄、红薯等。 ③多音节语素 主要是拟声词、专用名词和音译外来词。如:喜马拉雅、珠穆朗玛、安迪斯、法兰克福、奥林匹克、白兰地、凡士林、噼里啪啦、淅淅沥沥、马克思主义、中华人民共和国。 二、词 词是由语素组成的最小的造句单位。有两种分类方式,1、按构成方式分单纯词和合成词;2、按词性分为实词和虚词。 从构成方式来看,可以分成: ①单纯词:由一个语素组成的词,自由的单音节语素和所有的双音节、多音节语素都可以组成单纯词。如:山、水、天、地、人、有、土、红、凑;仿佛、苍茫、蜈蚣、琉璃、参差、蹉跎;敌敌畏、阿司匹林、萨克斯、麦克风等。 ②合成词:由两个或两个以上的语素组成的词。 从词性来看,可以分成:实词共6个有实际意义的词,包括: (1)名词:表示人或事物名称的词。 有人物名词:如学生、群众、老头、妇女、同志、叔叔、维吾尔族、酒鬼等; 有事物名词:如笔、杉木、蜗牛、猎豹、奥托、棒球、战斗机、冥王星、思想、中学、物理、过程等; 有时间名词:如上午、过去、将来、午夜、三更、甲戊、世纪等; 有方位名词:如东南、上面、前方、内部、中间等。 (2)动词:表示动作行为及发展变化的词。 有行为动词:如跑、唱、喝、敲、吆喝、盯、踢、闻、听、摸; 有发展动词:如生长、枯萎、发芽、结果、产卵; 有心理动词:如喜欢、恨、气愤、觉得、思考、厌恶; 有存现动词:如消失、显现、有、丢失、幻灭; 有使令动词:如使、让、令、禁止、勒令;

词法分析小结

词法分析小结 词法分析是编译器工作的第一阶段,它的工作就是从输入(源代码)中取得token,以作为parser(语法分析)的输入,一般在词法分析阶段都会把一些无用的空白字符(whitespace,即空格、tab和换行)以及注释剔除,以降低下一步分析的复杂度,词法分析器一般会提供一个gettoken()这样的方法,parser可以在做语法分析时调用词法分析器的这个方法来得到下一个token,所以词法分析器并不是一次性遍历所有源代码,而是采取这种on-demand的方式:只在parser需要时才工作,并且每次只取一个token。 token和lexeme 首先,token不等于lexeme。token和lexeme的关系就类似于面向对象语言中“类”和“实例”(或“对象”)之间的关系,这个用中文不知该如何解释才好,比如语言中的变量a和b,它们都属于同一种token:identifier,而a的lexeme是”a”,b则是”b”,而每个关键字都是一种token。token可以附带有一个值属性,例如变量a,当调用词法分析器的gettoken()时,会返回一个identifier类型的token,这个token带有一个属性“a”,属性可以是多样的,例如表示数字的token

可以带有一个表示数字值的属性,它是整型的。 如下代码: intage=23; intcount=50; 可以依次提取出8个token:int(值为”int”),id(值为”age”),assign(值为”=”),number(值为整型数值23),int(值为”int”),id(值为”count”),assign(值为”=”),number(值为50) 正则表达式 正则表达式可以用来描述字符串模式,例如我们可以用digit+来表示number的token,其中digit表示单个数字(这里说正则表达式并不完全和实现的正则引擎所识别的正则表达式等价,这里只是为了描述问题而已)。 然而像c语言的的多行注释,用正则表达式来描述就比较麻烦,此时更倾向于直接用有穷自动机(finiteautomaton)来描述,因为用它来描述非常直观且很容易。

基于多知识源的中文词法分析系统

第30卷第1期计算机学报v01.30No.12007年1月CHINESEJOURNAL0FCOMPUTERSJan.2007 基于多知识源的中文词法分析系统 姜维王晓龙关毅赵健 (哈尔滨工业大学计算机科学与技术学院哈尔滨150001) 摘要汉语词法分析是中文自然语言处理的首要任务.文中深入研究中文分词、词性标注、命名实体识别所面临的问题及相互之间的协作关系,并阐述了一个基于混合语言模型构建的实用汉语词法分析系统.该系统采用了多种语言模型,有针对性地处理词法分析所面临的各个问题.其中分词系统参加了2005年第二届国际汉语分词评测,在微软亚洲研究院、北京大学语料库开放测试中,分别获得F量度为97.2%与96.7%.而在北京大学标注的《人民日报》语料库的开放评测中,词性标注获得96.1%的精确率,命名实体识别获得的F量度值为88.6%. 关键词词法分析;汉语分词;词性标注;命名实体识别;语言模型 中图法分类号TP391 ResearchonChineseLexicalAnalysisSystemby FusingMultipleKnowledgeSources JIANGWeiWANGXiao—LongGUANYiZHAOJian (Sc^oozo,Com户“ferSciPncBn咒d:I。≥c^720fogy,Har6f雄j知s£it“抛o,T奢c^竹。zogy,H口r6in150001) AbstractChineselexicalanalysisisthefoundationtaskformostChinesenaturallanguagepro—ces8ing,Inthispaper,wordsegmentation,POStagging,namedentityrecognitionandtheirrela—tion-arewelldiscussed.IⅥoreover,apragmaticlexicalanalysissystembasedonmixedlanguagemodelsispresented,whichadoptsmanymodels,suchas以一gram,hiddenIⅥarkovmodel,maxi—mumentropymodel,supportvectormachineandconditionalrandomfields,theyhavegoodper~formanceinthespecialsub—tasks.TheWordSegmenterparticipatedintheSecondInternationalChineseWordSegmentationBakeoffin2005,andachieved97.2%and96.7%intermsofF~measureinMSRandPKUopentestrespectively.WhilethePOSta套gingandnamedentityrecog~nitionmodulesachieved96.1%inprecisionand88.6%inF—measurerespectivelyinopentestwiththecorpusthatcamefromsiX-monthcorporaofChinesePeoples’Daily. KeywordslexicalanaIysis;Chinesewordsegmentation;part—of—speechtagging;namedentityrecognition;languagemodel 引 词法分析主要包括分词、词性标注与命名实体识别三项子任务,它是句法分析与语义分析的基础,其性能将直接影响到后续应用,如机器翻译、信息抽取、问答系统的性能.本文以国家自然科学基金重点项目“问答式信息检索的理论与方法”为背景,全面 收稿日期:2005—11一15;修改稿收到日期:2006一06一06.本课题得到国家自然科学基金重点项目“问答式信息检索的理论与方法”(60435020)及国家自然科学基金(60504021)资助.姜维,男,1978年生,博士研究生,研究方向为自然语言处理、词法分析、信息抽取.Bmail:jwSeaBreeze@hit.edu.cn.王晓龙,男,1955年生,教授,博士生导师,主要研究领域为人工智能、自然语言处理.关毅,男,1970年生,博士,副教授,研究方向为问答系统、web挖掘.赵健,男,1975年生,博士,研究方向为中文命名实体识别、信息抽取.吉目  万方数据

编译原理 简单样本语言的词法分析器

昆明理工大学信息工程与自动化学院学生实验报告 (2012 —2013 学年第 1 学期) 课程名称:编译原理开课实验室:信自楼44 年月日 一、实验目的及内容 设计、编制、调试一个词法分析子程序-识别单词,加深对词法分析原理的理解。 二、实验原理及基本技术路线图(方框原理图或程序流程图) 对给定的程序通过词法分析器弄够识别一个个单词符号,并以二元式(单词种别码,单词符号的属性值)显示。而本程序则是通过对给定路径的文件的分析后以单词符号和文字提示显示。 三、所用仪器、材料(设备名称、型号、规格等或使用软件) W INDOWS下的VISUAL C++6.0; 四、实验方法、步骤(或:程序代码或操作过程) #include #include using namespace std;

#define MAX 22 char ch =' '; string key[15]={"begin","end","if","then","else","while","write","read", "do", "call","const","char","until","procedure","repeat"}; int Iskey(string c){ //关键字判断 int i; for(i=0;i='a'))||((c<='Z')&&(c>='A'))) return 1; else return 0; } int IsDigit(char c){ //判断是否为数字 if(c>='0'&&c<='9') return 1; else return 0; } void analyse(FILE *fpin){ string arr=""; while((ch=fgetc(fpin))!=EOF) { arr=""; if(ch==' '||ch=='\t'||ch=='\n'){} else if(IsLetter(ch)){ while(IsLetter(ch)||IsDigit(ch)) { if((ch<='Z')&&(ch>='A')) ch=ch+32; arr=arr+ch; ch=fgetc(fpin); } fseek(fpin,-1L,SEEK_CUR); if (Iskey(arr)){cout<

中文语法的基本知识

中文语法的基本知识 一.语素和语素分类: 语素是最小的语音语义结合体,是最小的语言单位。语素按音节分类可以分成: ①单音节语素:如土、人、水、风、子、民、大、海等。 ②双音节语素,组成该语素的两个音节合起来才有意思,分开来没有与该语素有关的意义,双音节语素主要包括联绵字、外来词和专用名词。 A.双声,声母相同的联绵字:如琵琶、乒乓、湃、鞑靼、尴尬、荆棘、蜘蛛、踯躅、踌躇、仿佛、瓜葛、忐忑、淘汰、饕餮、倜傥、含糊、慷慨、叮当、蹊跷、玲珑、犹豫等。 B.叠韵,韵母相同的联绵字:如从容、葱茏、葫芦、糊涂、匍匐、灿烂、蜿蜒、苍茫、朦胧、苍莽、邋遢、罗嗦、怂恿、螳螂、桫椤、倥侗、蜻蜓、轰隆、当啷、惝恍、魍魉、缥缈、飘渺、耷拉等。 C.非双声叠韵联绵字:如蜈蚣、蓊郁、珊瑚、疙瘩、蚯蚓、惺忪、铃铛、奚落、褡裢、茉莉、蚂螂、窟窿、伉俪、蝴蝶、笊篱、蹦达、蟪蛄、狡狯、狡猾、蛤蚧、蛤蜊、牡丹、磅礴、提溜等。

D.外来词,由汉语以外的其他语种音译过来的词语。如干部、涤纶、甲克(夹克)、的士、巴士、尼龙、吉普、坦克、芭蕾、哒爹等。 E.专用名词,主要是地名、人和事物名称。如纽约、巴黎、北京、苏轼、李白、孔子、萝卜、菠菜、番茄、红薯等。 ③多音节语素,主要是拟声词、专用名词和音译外来词。如:喜马拉雅、珠穆朗玛、安迪斯、法兰克福、奥林匹克、白兰地、凡士林、噼里啪啦、淅淅沥沥、马克思主义、中华人民共和国 词 二.词和词的分类。 词是由语素组成的最小的造句单位。 (“单位”是名词类。) 从构成方式来看,可以分成: ①单纯词:由一个语素组成的词,自由的单音节语素和所有的双音节、多音节语素都可以组成单纯词。如:山、水、天、地、人、有、土、红、凑;仿佛、苍茫、蜈蚣、琉璃、参差、蹉跎;敌敌畏、阿司匹林、萨克斯、麦克风等。 ②合成词:由两个或两个以上的语素组成的词。

词法分析器实验报告

词法分析器实验报告 词法分析器设计 一、实验目的: 对C语言的一个子集设计并实现一个简单的词法分析器,掌握利用状 态转换图设计词法分析器的基本方法。利用该词法分析器完成对源程 序字符串的词法分析。输出形式是源程序的单词符号二元式的代码, 并保存到文件中。 二、实验内容: 1. 设计原理 词法分析的任务:从左至右逐个字符地对源程序进行扫描,产生一个个单词符号。 理论基础:有限自动机、正规文法、正规式 词法分析器(Lexical Analyzer) 又称扫描器(Scanner):执行词法分析的程序 2. 词法分析器的功能和输出形式 功能:输入源程序、输出单词符号 程序语言的单词符号一般分为以下五种:关键字、标识符、常数、运算符,界符 3. 输出的单词符号的表示形式: 单词种别用整数编码,关键字一字一种,标识符统归为一种,常数一种,各种符号各一种。 4. 词法分析器的结构 单词符号 5. 状态转换图实现

三、程序设计 1.总体模块设计 /*用来存储目标文件名*/ string file_name; /*提取文本文件中的信息。*/ string GetText(); /*获得一个单词符号,从位置i开始查找。并且有一个引用参数j,用来返回这个单词最后一个字符在str的位置。*/ string GetWord(string str,int i,int& j); /*这个函数用来除去字符串中连续的空格和换行 int DeleteNull(string str,int i); /*判断i当前所指的字符是否为一个分界符,是的话返回真,反之假*/ bool IsBoundary(string str,int i); /*判断i当前所指的字符是否为一个运算符,是的话返回真,反之假*/ bool IsOperation(string str,int i);

(完整版)汉语语法基础知识

汉语语法基础知识 词类和词性 (一)知识概述 词类是指词在语法上的分类,也就是把汉语里的所有词,根据它们的词汇意义和语法特点进行分类,这样得出的结果就是词类。现代汉语教学系统把词分为十二类: 实词可以分为: 1、名词:表示人或事物名称的词叫名词。 (1)表示人:老师、学生、作家、工人、鲁迅 (2)具体事物:天、地、花、草、天空、海洋 (3)抽象概念:方法、科学、法律、事业 (4)处所:北京、青岛、黄河、长江、三味书屋 (5)方位:东、西、南、北、上、下、前、后、左、右、里、外、内、中、间、旁、以前、以南、之下、之后、东边、西面、里头。 (6)时间:早晨、正午、晚上、半夜、上午、白天、夏天、立秋、今天、星期二 2、动词:表示动作行为、发展变化、心理活动等意义的词叫动词。 (1) 动作行为:穿、跳、走、纪念、朗诵。 (2) 存在变化:有、增加、缩小、扩大、发生。 (3) 心理活动:想、懊悔、喜欢、担心。 (4) 可能意愿:应该、应当、能够、愿意、必须、敢、肯、会、能、要、可以。 (5) 趋向:上、下、来、去、上去、下去、进来、进去、起来、上来。 (6) 判断:是、就是、正是 (7) 使令:使、让、派、请、叫、要求、命令、推举、允许、鼓动、鼓励。 3、形容词:表示事物的形状、性质或状态的词叫形容词。 (1)形状:大、小、高、圆、长、短、高大、肥胖。 (2)性质:好、坏、镇定、勇敢、乐观、伟大、优秀 (3)状态:愉快、慌张、急躁、迅速、朦胧、桔红 4、数词:表示数目的词叫数词。 (1)基数(确数)一、二、千、万、亿 (2)序数:第一、三叔、三年级、六楼、初五、老三。 (3)分数:三分之一、九成 (4)倍数:三倍、十倍、翻一番 (5)概数:十几概数、十余人、三十多岁、两三个、成千上万、很多人 5、量词:表示事物单位或行为、动作单位的词叫量词。 无量(表示人或事物单位的词) (1)个体:个、位、尺、只、台、条 (2)集体:批、帮、群、套、双、副、对、类 (3)不定量:些、点 (4)度量衡:丈、尺、里、亩 动量(表示动作行为的单位)次、回、下、趟、遍、阵、场、遭、焉 动量词也可以借用跟动作有关的事物的名词。如:画一笔、切一刀、工作一星期、学习一下午、踢一脚、送一车 说明:在现代汉语中,数词本身只表示抽象的数的概念,在计算事物或动作的数量时,数词的后面必须加上量词。数词跟量词连用就是数量词。 6、代词:具有指示、代替作用的词叫代词。代词可分为人称代词、指示代词、疑问代词。 ⑴人称代词:代替人或事物的名称的代词。

编译原理实验报告一 简单样本语言的词法分析器

理工大学信息工程与自动化学院学生实验报告 (2012 —2013学年第一学期) 一、实验目的及容 编译技术是理论与实践并重的课程,而其实验课要综合运用所学的多门课程的容,用来完成一个小型编译程序。从而巩固和加强对词法分析、语法分析、语义分析、代码生成和报错处理等理论的认识和理解;培养学生对完整系统的独立分析和设计的能力,进一步培养学生的独立编程能力。 调试并完成一个词法分析程序,加深对词法分析原理的理解。 二、实验原理及基本技术路线图(框原理图或程序流程图) 1、待分析的简单语言的词法 (1)关键字: begin if then while do end 所有关键字都是小写。 (2)运算符和界符: := + –* / < <= <> > >= = ; ( ) #

(3)其他单词是标识符(ID)和整型常数(NUM),通过以下正规式定义:ID=letter(letter| digit)* NUM=digit digit * (4)空格由空白、制表符和换行符组成。空格一般用来分隔ID、NUM,运算符、界符和关键字,词法分析阶段通常被忽略。 2、各种单词符号对应的种别码 3、词法分析程序的功能 输入:所给文法的源程序字符串。 输出:二元组(syn,token或sum)构成的序列。 其中:syn为单词种别码; token为存放的单词自身字符串; sum为整型常数。 二、所用仪器、材料(设备名称、型号、规格等或使用软件)

1台PC以及VISUAL C++6.0软件。 三、实验法、步骤(或:程序代码或操作过程) (1)程序代码: #include #include #include char prog[80],token[8]; char ch; int syn,p,m=0,n,row,sum=0; char *rwtab[6]={"begin","if","then","while","do","end"}; void scaner() { for(n=0;n<8;n++) token[n]=NULL; ch=prog[p++]; while(ch==' ') { ch=prog[p]; p++; } if((ch>='a'&&ch<='z')||(ch>='A'&&ch<='Z')) { m=0; while((ch>='0'&&ch<='9')||(ch>='a'&&ch<='z')||(ch>='A'&&ch<='Z')) { token[m++]=ch; ch=prog[p++]; } token[m++]='\0'; p--; syn=10; for(n=0;n<6;n++)

词法分析

实验二:词法分析 一、实验目的:编制一个读单词过程,从输入的源程序中,识别出各个具有独立意义的单词, 即基本保留字、标识符、常数、运算符、分隔符五大类。并依次输出各个单词的内部编码及 Error”,然后跳过错误部分继续显示) 二、估计实验时间:1.课余准备15小时;2.上机二次4小时;3.完成实验报告5小时。 三、实验过程和指导: (一)准备:1.阅读课本有关章节,花一周时间明确语言的语法,写出基本保留字、标识符、 常数、运算符、分隔符和程序例。2.初步编制好程序。3.准备好多组测试数据。 (二)上课上机:将源代码拷贝到机上调试,发现错误,再修改完善。第二次上机调试通过。 (三)程序要求:Array程序输入/输出示例: 如源程序为C语言。输入如下一段: main() { int a,b; a = 10; b = a + 20; } 要求输出如右图。 要求: 识别保留字:if、int、for、while、do、return、break、 其他的都识别为标识符;

常数为无符号整形数; 运算符包括:+、-、*、/、=、>、<、>=、<=、!= 分隔符包括:,、;、{、}、(、) 程序思路(仅供参考): 0.定义部分:定义常量、变量、数据结构。 1.初始化:从文件将源程序全部输入到字符缓冲区中。 2.取单词前:去掉多余空白。 3.取单词后:去掉多余空白(可选,看着办)。 4.取单词:利用实验一的成果读出单词的每一个字符,组成单词,分析类型。(关键是如何判断取单词结束?取到的单词是什么类型的单词?) 5.显示结果。 (四)练习该实验的目的和思路: 程序开始变得复杂起来,可能是大家以前编过的程序中最复杂的,但相对于以后的程序来说还是简单的。因此要认真把握这个过渡期的练习。程序规模大概为200行。本实验和以后的实验相关。通过练习,掌握对字符进行灵活处理的方法。 (五)为了能设计好程序,主意以下事情: 1.模块设计:将程序分成合理的多个模块(函数),每个模块做具体的同一事情。 2.写出(画出)设计方案:模块关系简图、流程图、全局变量、函数接口等。 3.编程时注意编程风格:空行的使用、注释的使用、缩进的使用等。 四、上交: 1.程序源代码;

中文语法词性和句式

中文语法 语法是语言组合的规律和法则。汉语语法分析可以按由小到大分为五级单位,即语素(字)、词、短语、句子、句群。 二、为什么要学习语法 为了掌握语言的组合规律、规则,提高理解语言的、运用语言的能力。 第一节、词类 一、实词和虚词 词是由语素(字)构成的。词按语法功能和语法意义可分为实词和虚词。 实词是有实在意义的词,它可分为:名词、动词、形容词、数词、量词、代词等六类。 虚词是没有实在意义的词,它可为副词、介词、连词、助词、叹词、拟声词等六类。 二、名词 名词是表示人或事物名称的词。 1、普通名词:牛、人、学生、云、飞机、菜 2、专有名词:中国、黄河、泰山、毛泽东 3、抽象名词:精神、文化、人生、思想 4、时间名词:现在、去年、明天、星期一 5、方位名词:上、前、东、夏天、以上、之南、之东、一旁、底下、跟前、当中、里外、左右、上下 三、动词 动词是表示动作、行为、存在、变化、心理活动等意义的词。 1、表示动作行为:看、听、笑、唱、跳、飞、劳动、研究、认识、安慰、团结、休息

2、表示心理活动:爱、恨、怕、想、希望、喜欢、回忆、思考、理解、厌恶 3、表示发展变化:增加、扩大、提高、降低 4、表示存在、出现、消失:存在、出现、消失、死亡、停、丢 5、表示使令:叫、让、派、请、使、要求、命令、禁止、 6、表示可能、意愿——能愿动词:能、能够、会、可以、可能、应该、应当、必须、要、愿意、需要、肯、敢、情愿 7、表示动作趋向——趋向动词:上、下、来去、进、出、过、起来、回去 8、表示判断——判断词:是 四、形容词 形容词是表示人、事物的形状、性质或者动作、行为、发展、变化状态的词。 1、表示形状:大、小、圆、粗、滑、平、高、低、宽、窄、肥、胖、美、丑、温柔、平缓、笔直 2、表示性质:好、坏、冷、热、酸、甜、苦、软、聪明、朴素、老实、正确、勇敢、特殊 3、表示状态:快、忙、急、稳、轻松、高兴 五、数词 数词是表示数目的词。数词可分为基数、序数、分数、小数、倍数和概数。 1、基数:一、二、三、……十、百、千、万、亿 2、序数:第一…头一回、初一…老大…老幺 3、分数、25?、几分、几成 4、小数:0?2 5、12?34 5、倍数:一倍… 6、概数:几、两、来、多、把、左右、上下、以上、以下、成千、上万、近亿、三四个、两三年

简单词法分析器

简单词法分析器 1、将源文件中的单词识别出来,以用'$'为首的标识符标记识别出的单词 2、单词符号及内部表示如表: 单词符号种别编码助记符内码值 DIM 1 $DOM — IF 2 $IF — DO 3 $DO — STOP 4 $STOP — END 5 $END — 标识符 6 $ID 内部字符串 常数7 $INT 标准二进制形式= 8 $ASSIGN — + 9 $PLUS — * 10 $STAR — ** 11 $POWER — ; 12 $SEMICOLON — { 13 $LBRACE — } 14 $RBRACE — /* * 词法分析:将源文件中的单词符号一一识别 * 并将其与助记符保存到文本文件 */ #include "iostream" #include "string" using namespace std; //reserve保留字 string reserve[5] = {"DIM","IF","DO","STOP","END"}; //结构体数组,保存已识别的单词 struct table { string str; string name; }table[400]; int count = 0; //判断是否为保留字

bool Reserve(string str) { bool flag = false; for(int i=0; i>filename; if((fp = fopen(filename,"r")) == NULL) { cout<<"file not found"<

词法分析课程设计

《词法分析》设计说明书 学生姓名 学 号 5011110122 5011110133 5011110128 所属学院 信息工程学院 专 业 计算机科学与技术 班 级 计算机15-1班 信息工程学院 《编译原理及实践》结课大作 业

摘要 编译,简单的说,就是把源程序转换为可执行程序。从hellow worl说程序运行机制里面简单的说明了程序运行的过程,以及一个程序是如何一步步变成可执行文件的。在这个过程中,编译器做了很多重要的工作。对于编译的内部实现,也就是编译的原理。 这篇论文主要说的是编译器前端,词法分析器的原理,最后会给出一个词法分析器的简单实现。 编译简单的说,就是把源程序转化为另一种形式的程序,而其中关键的部分就是理解源程序所要表达的意思,才能转化为另一种源程序。 可以用一个比喻来说明问题:人A和人B想要交谈,但是他们都不知道彼此的语言,这就需要一个翻译C,同时懂得A和B的语言。有了C做中间层,A和B才能正常交流。C的作用就有点像编译器,它必须能理解源程序所要表达的意思,才能把信息传递给另一个。编译器也一样,它的输入是语言的源文件(一般可以是文本文件)对于输入的文件,首先要分离出这个输入文件的每个元素(关键字、变量、符号、、),然后根据语言的文法,分析这些元素的组合是否合法,以及这些组合所表达的意思。 程序设计语言和自然语言不一样,都是用符号来描述,每个特定的符号表示特定的意思,而且程序设计语言是上下文无关的。上下文无关就是某一个特定语句所要表达的意思和它所处的上下文没有关系,只有它自身决定。 这篇论文主要说的就是词法分析,也就是把输入的符号串整理成特定的词素。 关键词:单片机;词法分析

《实用中文语法》word版

实用中文语法 甚么是语法 语音、语义和语法是语言的三个要素,学习汉语时,语法是语言三要素内最受忽视的一环,这情况在汉人学习汉语时尤其明显。 语法,顾名思义,就是语言的法则。世界上的每一种语言,都有语素、词、短语、句子、句群这样的语言成分,这些语言成分都是按照一定的语言组合法则组织起来的,汉语当然也不例外,它的语言成分,也是由小到大逐级组合起来的。比如「棍棒」、「桌椅」这些词都是由两个实语素运用直接组合的方式组合起来的,表示的是并列的结构关系。「幸福的人生」、「残破的农庄」这些短语都是由两个实词运用关联组合的方式组合起来的,表示的是修饰和被修饰的结构关系。「计算机被爸爸修好了。」「防线被对方球员撕破了」。这些「被」字句都是按照「谁被谁怎么样了」这样的组合法则组合起来的。从上面的简单分析中不难看出,各种语言成分的组合都有一定的法则,这些语言成分的组合法则就是语法。 世界各种语言都有各自有它本身的特定组合法则,这些法则并不是由某位天才的语法学家凭丰富的想象创造出来的,它是由使用这种语言的人们在长期的语言应用中形成的,是大家共同理解、共同遵守、约定俗成的。如果哪一个人非要违背这种语言法则,那么,他说出来的话,写出来的文章,别人就无法理解的接受,这种语言就会变成废物。 由于世界上各种语言的发展历史不同,所处的地域不同,语言的特点不同,所使用的语法手段不同等等,所以各种语言的组合法则也会不同。例如: 汉语属于分析型语言,所谓分析型语言,就是这种语言的字词本身大多没有固定的语法特性,它的语法特性只有分析句子含意时才得以揭露,试以下面句子为例: 姊姊昨天饮了一罐芦荟汁。 她怀疑昨晚的腹泻是由这罐饮料引起。 同一个「饮」字,在第一句时是作为动词使用,在第二句时却是作为形容词使用,虽然字词在语法的性质有所不同,但形态却极少改变,它的语法关系主要靠语序(即词语在句子中的位置)和虚词等语法手段来表示。汉语是靠各级语言单位根据一定的语言法则逐级组合起来的,整体而言,汉语的词形态变化较少,在各类词中,虽然也有一部分语法范畴,但不象富于形态变化的语言那样普遍,所以,同一个词兼属几个词类的现象很普遍。在句法方面,词序是最重要的语法手段。词和词的结合比较自由。虚词也是汉语重要的语法手段,它在词法和句法中都起着重要的

词法分析

词法分析器的实现 开篇 编译,简单的说,就是把源程序转换为可执行程序。从hello world 说程序运行机制里面简单的说明了程序运行的过程,以及一个程序是如何一步步变成可执行文件的。在这个过程中,编译器做了很多重要的工作。对底层该兴趣的我,自然的,也就迫切想搞清楚编译的内部实现,也就是编译的原理。 这篇文章主要说的是编译器前端,词法分析器的原理,最后会给出一个词法分析器的简单实现。 介绍 编译简单的说,就是把源程序转化为另一种形式的程序,而其中关键的部分就是理解源程序所要表达的意思,才能转化为另一种源程序。 可以用一个比喻来说明问题:人A和人B想要交谈,但是他们都不知道彼此的语言,这就需要一个翻译C,同时懂得A和B的语言。有了C做中间层,A和B才能正常交流。C的作用就有点像编译器,它必须能理解源程序所要表达的意思,才能把信息传递给另一个。 编译器也一样,它的输入是语言的源文件(一般可以是文本文件)对于输入的文件,首先要分离出这个输入文件的每个元素(关键字、变量、符号、、) 然后根据语言的文法,分析这些元素的组合是否合法,以及这些组合所表达的意思。 程序设计语言和自然语言不一样,都是用符号来描述,每个特定的符号表示特定的意思,而且程序设计语言是上下文无关的。上下文无关就是某一个特定语句所要表达的意思和它所处的上下文没有关系,只有它自身决定。 这篇博文主要说的就是词法分析,也就是把输入的符号串整理成特定的词素。 词法分析 定义: 词法分析器的功能输入源程序,按照构词规则分解成一系列单词符号。单词是语言中具有独立意义的最小单位,包括关键字、标识符、运算符、界符和常量等 (1) 关键字是由程序语言定义的具有固定意义的标识符。例如,Pascal 中的begin,en d,if,while都是保留字。这些字通常不用作一般标识符。 (2) 标识符用来表示各种名字,如变量名,数组名,过程名等等。 (3) 常数常数的类型一般有整型、实型、布尔型、文字型等。 (4) 运算符如+、-、*、/等等。 (5) 界符如逗号、分号、括号、等等。 输出:

词法分析说明

一、创建环境 1.将java拷贝到c:盘根目录下。 2.设置环境变量: 在“计算机”图标上单击右键--------属性------高级系统设置------环境变量-----系统变量 path中设置内容为: c:\java\jdk1.6.0_10\bin; classpath中设置内容为: c:\java\jdk1.6.0_10\lib\dt.jar; c:\java\jdk1.6.0_10\lib\tools.jar; c:\java\jre6\lib\rt.jar; .; c:\1000; 3.在c盘要建立1000 文件夹,将SimpleLexer文件夹复制到该文件 夹内(注意字母的大小写)。 二、词法分析 1. 运行cmd 命令 输入cmd回车

输入cd\ 回车,使输入符号到c:\> 状态 再输入cd 1000 回车。进入到c:\1000> 状态 2.编译程序 先编译Token.java文件,再编译Main.java文件,最后编译lexer.java 文件。如下图所示。 3.运行程序 test.in 是词法分析器的输入程序(即输入的源程序,此程序由学生给出)。运行后,自动在1000目录下生成result.out文件。(test.in 和result.out文件都可由记事本查看内容)

test.in 文件内容如下: result.out文件内容如下:

如果test.in中输入有误,则运行时提示:

4.编译原理课程设计内容如下:(注:每个同学从下列关键字中各选 五个,从运算符中各选四个,标识符和界符都要设计) 单词符号分为关键字,标识符,运算符,界符等: 关键字:begin end if then else while do void switch catch try case for continue break default return long short int float double char abstract Boolean

中文语法 chinese grammar “的”字用法

The的Construction 1. When can I use the 的construction? They are very good friends. (2) 的 is also used to indicate that a noun after 的 belongs to another noun or pronoun before 的. It is known as the possessive 的. This use of 的 is similar to the use of the possessive Mr. Li's book is a Chinese language book. 2. How do I form the 的 construction? The noun which is described should always be placed after 的. The description of nouns in the (1) The description can be an adverb + adjective: This is a very good sentence. (2) The description can also be a phrase or even a sentence. This construction is like an inverted relative clause sentence in English. I want to buy a copy of the book which you told me about yesterday.

中文构词法

汉字结构六书说 古人把汉字的造字方法归纳为六种,总称"六书",即所谓"象形、指事、会意、形声、转注、假借"。"六书"是古人根据汉字结构归纳出来的汉字构造结论,而决不是古人依照这六种法则来创造文字的。 象形、象事、象意、象声指的是文字形体结构,转注、假借指的是文字的使用方式。 东汉许慎受刘歆的启示,费几十年的精力整理汉字,编成《说文解字》一书,在这本书的"叙"说:"周礼八岁入小学,保氏教国子先以六书。" 这六种造字方法的特点,可以简介如下: 二、汉字单字词的构词法 借用形音构词法: (1)借现成的形音。“六书”中的“假借”就是这种方法。 这种借形音造词不限于上古,后世出现也很多,“简化汉字”中也有采用。下面举几个实例来证明: 1、安,《说文·宀部》云:“安,静也。从女在宀中。”这个词的初义是“安静”的意思。后来其音,形被借,造成新词:①姓。②疑问代词。相当于“哪里”或“怎么”。③安倍的简称。 2、盎,《说文·皿部》云:“盎,盆也。从皿央声。”这词的初义是“盆”一类的器皿。后来其音,形被借,造成表示“洋溢”义的一词,如用于“盎然”、“盎盎”等。 词汇由词组成,词由语素构成。汉语的语素绝大部分是单音节的。 它们不单用的时候是构词成分,单用的时候就是词。由于许多单音节语素能独立成词而语素和语素又能相当自由地复合成词,这就使汉语构词具有很大的灵活性。用复合法构成的词,人们容易理解和接受。因此汉语在历史发展中就能方便自如地创造新词,以表示不断出现的新概念,满足社会对于语言的要求。 例如“生”、“产”两个语素,它们既能单独成词,又能相互组成复合词“生产”、“产生”;同时还能个别地跟其他单音节语素组成一系列复合词,包括许多新词在内。例如:生活、生存、构词法和句法的一致汉语又缺少地道的前缀和后缀,词缀附加法在构词上不占重要地位。汉语里应用最广的构词法是词根复合法,即依照句法关系由词根组成复合词的方法,这种构词法跟由词结合为词组的造句法基本上是一致的。比如,汉语词组的主要结构类型为“偏正”、“并列”、“述宾”、“述补”、“主谓”,而复合词的构成格式也同样是这5种。 ㈡合成词 2.附加式 ⑴前缀+词根 汉语:阿姨、阿哥、老乡、老师、大娘、大叔、小李、第一、最先、外公。 ⑵词根+后缀 汉语:本子、木头、花儿、可塑性、读者、商业化、绿的、精神上、哥们儿、鼓手。

相关主题
文本预览
相关文档 最新文档