Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论
1 什么是语言学what is linguistics?
1.1 定义definition
Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.
1.2 语言学的研究范畴the scope of linguistics
a. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.
把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called
phonetics.语音学
How speech sounds are produced and classified.
c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.
how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学
交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式
d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study
called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.
这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支如对形态学的研究。
e. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules.
The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学
how morphemes词素and words are combined to form sentences.
f. The study of meanin
g. semantics 语义学(in abstraction)
g. the study of meaning is conducted in context of use. pragmatics 语用学
h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics.社会语言学
i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里语言学
j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied linguistics
1.3 语言学研究中的一些基本概念some important distinctions in linguistics.
1.3.1 规定性和描述性prescriptive；约定俗成的；惯例的vs. descriptive
if a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;
如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析——描述性的descriptive
if it aims at to lay down rules for “correct”behaviour to tell people what they should say and what they should not say
如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则——规定性的prescriptive
现代语言学通常是描述性的，与“语法”的语言研究是大相径庭的
1.3.2 共时性和历时性不考虑历史演进的，限于一时的synchronic vs.diachronic探求现象变化的，历时的
the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;
the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更受人青睐。
1.3.3 口头语和书面语speech and writing
Speech and writing are two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
In the past, traditional grammarians文法家，文法学者tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.
1.3.4 语言和言语langue and parole (both from French words)
瑞士语言学家F. de索绪尔
langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
语言，某一特定的语言社区中的所有成员所共有的那种抽象的语言系统；
parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 言语，在语言实际应用中的具体体现。
语言——习惯和规则；言语——对这些习惯和规则的遵守和实际应用
言语不过是一些乱七八糟的语言材料，很难对此作系统的研究；
语言学家们的任务是从言语中把语言提取出来，发现指导语言实际应用的规则，并使之成
为语言学研究的主题。
1.3.5 语言能力和语言运用competence and performance
美国语言学家-乔姆斯基（和语言，言语类似的概念）
competence, the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language
能力是一个理想的语言使用者所具有的有关其所使用语言规则的知识；
performance, the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
运用则指这种知识在语言交际过程中的实际运用。
索绪尔对语言的研究采取的是社会学的观点，语言是社会习惯的产物；
乔姆斯基则从心理学的角度来审视语言现象，能力是每个说话者个体的心里特征。
2 什么是语言？what is language?
2.1 语言的定义definitions of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统。
(1) language is a system
(2) language is arbitrary
(3) language is vocal
(4) language is human specific显著的性质，特性
2.2 语言的甄别性特征design features甄别性特征
（识别性特征）—人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的那些特征，其中五种：
a. 语言的任意性（武断性）arbitrariness
b. 语言的创造性productivity
c. 语言的双重性duality
d. 语言的位移性displacement
e. 语言的文化传递性cultural transmission
Chapter 2 Phonology音系学
1 语言的声音媒介the phonic medium of language
口语和书面语是语言作为交际工具所使用的两大主要媒介和物质手段；口语比书面语更为基本；
对于语言学家而言，对声音的研究远远比对书面语的研究重要得多，只关注人类器官发出的声音。
2 语音学phonetics
2.1 什么是语音学what is phonetics
phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; 对语言声音媒介的研究；
主要研究对象是世界上所有的语言中出现过的一切声音, 从三个角度来审视语音现象：
(1) 发音语音学articulatory phonetics
（from the speaker’s point of view）how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds
(2) 听觉语音学auditory phonetics
（from the hearer’s point of view）how the sounds are perceived察觉，理解by the hearer
(3) 声学语音学acoustic phonetics
It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another
以上三个分支里，建立历史最长，发展最完善的就是发音语音学。
声音语言学家发现证实了一些重要的事实。
2.2 语言的发音器官organs of speech
the articulatory apparatus器官of a human being :
pharyngeal cavity(the throat); voicing —voiceless
the oral cavity腔，洞；(the mouth);
the nasal [ˈneɪzəl]cavity (the nose)
2.3 语音的正字标音法—宽式和严式标音法orthographic representation of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions
国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
人类所发出的语音经常会在特别细微的方面有所不同，国际音标向其使用者提供了一套“变音符号”
diacritics的附加符号，作为字母标音方法的补充，以标示靠字母本身不能解决的那些微妙的语音差别the transcription with letter-symbols only ——broad transcription
the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics ——narrow transcription
2.4 英语语音的分类classification of English speech sounds
分为元音vowels[ˈvaʊəl]和辅音consonants [ˈkɔnsənənt]两大类
元音的定义
元音和辅音的区别
2.4.1 英语辅音的分类classification of English consonants
in terms of manner of articulation （按照发音方法）
stops爆破音; fricatives擦音; affricates塞擦音; liquids流音; nasals鼻音; glides滑音
in terms of place of articulation （按照发音位置）
bilabial双唇音; labiodental唇齿音; dental齿音; alveolar齿龈音; palatal鄂音; velar软腭音; glottal喉音
2.4.2 英语的元音分类classification of English vowels
a. the individual vowels / monophthongs 单元音
the position of the tongue in the mouth（按照口中舌头的位置）
front; central and back
the openness of the mouth （按照口张开的程度）
close vowels闭元音, semi-close vowels半闭元音, semi-open vowels半开元音, and open vowels开元音the shape of the lips （按照唇齿形状）
rounded or not rounded
the length of the vowels （按照声音的长度）
long vowels ; short vowels
b. diphthongs 双元音
3音位学phonology [fəuˈnɔlədʒi]
3.1 音位学和语音学phonology and phonetics
语音学研究的具有一般的性质，它所感兴趣的是人类语音中所涉及的：所有语音现象；发音方法，相互之间的区别，分别具有什么样的语音特征，如何进行分类等；
音位学所感兴趣的是某一特定的语言中的语音系统，旨在揭示：
一种语言中的语音形成组合的方式，以及它们是如何在语言交际活动中被用来传达意义的。
3.2 音素、音位和音位变体phone, phoneme[英] [ˈfəuni:m], allophone [英] [ˈæləfəun]
phone, the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
音素，我们在用一种语言讲话时所使用的声音。
音素是一个语音单位或切分成分。
phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
音位学关心的是能够区别意义的语音现象。
音位学中最基本的单位叫音位phoneme，这是一种具有意义甄别价值的单位，也是一个抽象单位。
音位不是一个具体的声音，而是一些语音区别特征的集合。
在实际的会话中，音位总是以某个音素的形式得以体现出来的。
[在不同的语言环境中,] 能够代表同一个音位的不同音素叫做该音位的音位变体allophone。
音位也可以另外定义为，[在某一特定的语言中,] 语音相似却不相互构成对比的一组声音。
一个音位的选择不是随便或偶然的，它是由规则制约的。
音位是语言系统中最小的切分成分，还可以进一步分析——区别性特征
区别性特征是与某种特定语言相联系的。
3.3 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立对Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
语音上相似的声音可能会有两种相连的方式。
如果它们是两个不同的音位，就会构成对比；
如果是同一个音位的音位变体话，那么它们在意义上就不构成对比。
These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
来自相同音位的音位变体就具有互补分布的特点
语言学家面对一种陌生语言的时候，首先找出传达意义的声音是什么，也就是要找出形成那种语言的所特有的声音系统的音位是什么。
确定某种语言音位的一个根本方法就是寻找最小对立对。
minimal pairs
e.g．pill-bill bill-kill kill-dill dill-gill 可以确定/p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ 是英语中的音位
3.4 几条音位规则some rules in phonology
3.4.1 序列规则sequential rules [英] [sɪˈkwenʃəl]adj.按次序的
3.4.2 同化规则assimilation rules
3.4.3 省略规则deletion rule
3.5 超切分特征——重音，声调，语调Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, intonation
音位——具有区别意义作用的语音切分部分。
[ˌsju:prəseɡˈmentəl]
但是在两个或者更多的音位切分序列层面上同样可以找到一些识别性特征。
这些发生在切分层面以上的音位特征叫超切分特征。
suprasegmental features
3.5.1 stress 3.5.2 tone 3.5.3 intonation
Chapter 3 Morphology形态学
1 定义definition
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规律。
形态学可以进一步被划分为两个更小的分支：
屈折形态学inflectional morphology和词汇形态学（派生形态学）lexical or derivational morphology
前者研究——单词的屈折变化；后者研究——构词法
2 词素morpheme
2.1 词素：语言中最小的意义单位
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language
正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
2.2 词素的类型types of morphemes
2.2.1 自由词素free morphemes
free morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used by themselves.
bound morphemes, cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form
words that can be used independently.
2.2.2. 黏着词素bound morphemes
bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other
morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.
root, a root is often seen as a part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning;
it must by combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
affixes, affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.
inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical
categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.
derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.
Such a way of word-formation is called derivation派生法
and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative派生词.
the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem词干
A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
[according to its position] in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes
前缀会对词根的意思有所修改，但却不致改变原来单词的词类the part of speech。
后缀修改原有的单词的意义，很多情况下会使原有单词的词类the part of speech发生变化。
2.2.3 形态学原则morphological rules
3 复合法compounding
同派生法一样，复合法也是英语中相当普遍和及其重要的一种构词法。
3.1 复合词的类型types of compound words
3.2 复合词的特征features of compounds
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
句法学是语言的一个分支，它研究的是语言的句子结构。
句子是根据词的特定排列顺序所构成的，顺序排列恰当的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子，
合乎语法的句子是按照一套句法规则而构成的。
在本章：
a. a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentences.
句法学概述：它是一套规则系统，用来指导构成合乎语法的句子。
b. examine the composition of sentences in terms of category and structure, as well as the structural constituency and syntactic categories of smaller structural units.
再从范畴和结构以及作为更小单位的结构成分和句法类型句子的构成进行分析。
c.名词词组和动词之间的语法关系grammatical relations；
d.说话者内在的internalized以短语结构规则phrase structure rules ，X-标杆理论X-bar theory
以及移位规则movement rules为核心的组合规则系统。
e. conclude by introducing the current principles-and-parameters paradigm in syntactic exploration of Universal
Grammar.
当今句法研究中的普遍语法原则及参数理论。
1 句法是规则系统syntax as a system of rules
a. 句法学由一套抽象的规则组成，这些规则能够使词相互结合构成合乎语法的句子。
b. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized knowledge of a language speaker know as linguistic competence.
句法规则在所有人类语言中都普遍存在，这些规则包括讲某种语言的人内在的语言知识体系，这种语言知识体系被称作语言能力。
c. 任何语言的句法规则都是有限的。
2 句子结构sentence structure
2.1 句子的基本结构the basic components of a sentence
a. A sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
b. The referring expression被指示对象is grammatically called subject.
2.2 句子的类型types of sentences
three types: simple sentence; coordinate sentence / compound sentence; complex sentence
2.2.1 简单句
clause 子句，简单句中只含有一个子句，有一个主语一个谓语，该句子单独构成句子。
finite clause 定式子句，含有一个主语和一个限定动词同时在结构上能够独立存在的句子。
2.2.2 并列句
2.2.3 复合句
embedded clause从属子句, 被合并的句子或者居于从属地位的句子the incorporated, or subordinate, clause matrix clause主句, 包纳从属子句的句子。
subordinator从属连词
2.3 句子的线性排列与层次结构The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences
linearly structure and hierarchically structure
2.3.1 句子的线性次序排列the linear word order of a sentence
2.3.2 句子的层次结构the hierarchical structure of a sentence
e.g. The student // likes / the new linguistics professor.
2.3.3 句子的结构树形图tree diagrams of sentence structure
branching nodes分叉点
3 句法类型syntactic categories
Words and phrases are organized according to syntactic categories句法类型they belong to.
Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (lexical category词类) or a phrase (phrasal category词组类) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence.
3.1 词类lexical categories
3.2 词组类phrasal categories
4 语法关系grammatical relations
grammatical relations, Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents.
subject of……相对于……的主语；direct object of ……相对于……直接宾语
structural subject, structural object 结构主语，结构宾语
logical subject, logical object 逻辑主语，逻辑宾语
5 组合规则combinational rules
5.1 短语结构规则phrase structure rules
S→NP VP phrase structure rule or rewrite rule
5.2 短语结构规则的循环性the recursive-ness of phrase structure rules
这些规则由于他们具有的循环特征recursive properties，可以生成无数个长度无限的句子来。
5.3 X-标杆理论X-bar theory
head 核心词XP必须包含X，X分别表示：N，V，A，P；XP→……X……
Det-specifier指示语, N-the head核心词, S-the complement补语
” double bar但标杆’single bar双标杆
X-bar theory
6 句法位移和位移规则syntactic movement and movement rules
短语结构规则解释了句法类型如何构成以及句子是怎样生成的。
然而有些句法现象短语结构规则却无法描述。
例如，涉及位移的句子。
syntactic movement 句法位移，受转换规则的这些规则支配的；
transformational rules转换规则，转换规则的运用改变句子的句法表达方式。
6.1 名词词组位移与WH位移NP-movement and WH-movement
句法位移主要有两种：
postponing后移preposing 前移
6.2 其他类型的位移other types of movement
一般疑问句(general question)引起句法位移：
AUX-movement组动词位移
6.3 深层结构与表层结构D-structure and S-structure
在正式的语言研究中，前移和后移的表现形式通称为：
D-structure and S-structure 深层结构，表层结构
语法结构规则+词汇
↓
深层结构
↓
位移规则
↓
表层结构
6.4 移动α一条普遍规则Moveα—a general movement rule
如同X-标杆规则可以将各种短语结构规则高度概括起来一样，句法位移也有一条普遍规则来解释句法成分位移现象：
Move αor Move Alpha
7 普遍语法理论toward a theory of Universal Grammar / UG
principles-and-parameters theory 原则及参数理论
general principles综合原则
7.1 普遍语法原则general principles of Universal Grammar
Case Condition 格条件
Adjacency Condition毗邻条件
7.2 普遍语法参数the parameters of Universal Grammar
同英语类似的语言，毗邻参数值Adjacency Parameter设定为[+strict adjacency]“正绝对毗邻值”，而类似法语的语言，毗邻参数值则设定为[-strict adjacency]“负绝对毗邻值。
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
1 什么是语义学what is semantics?
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. 对语言意义的研究
2 语义研究的几种主要理论some views concerning the study of meaning
2.1 命名论the name theory
只适用于名词，且有一些指的是现实世界中并不存在的事物，还有一些名词不指具体事物，而指抽象概念。
2.2 意念论the conceptualist view
语言形式与其事物之间的关系不是直接的，而是间接的。
语义三角。
2.3 语境论contextualism
意义源于语境，存在于语境。
语境有两种：情景语境和上下文。
2.4 行为主义论behaviorism
这种理论和语境论比较接近，和人们对心里学的兴趣有关。
3 词汇意义lexical meaning
在讨论语义时，既要考虑词汇意义，又要考虑句子意义。
先从词汇意义入手；在讨论词与词的意义关系之前的概念：
3.1 意义和所指sense and reference
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
意义，是词汇内在的、抽象的、游离于语境之外的意义，是词汇所有特征的集合。
这个意义正是词典编纂者感兴趣的。
Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship
between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
所指，是词汇所指称的客观世界中的事物，所指讨论的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。
3.2 主要意义关系major sense relations
3.2.1同义关系synonymy
synonyms同义词：
方言~（dialectal synonyms）；语体~（stylistic synonyms）；
情感意义或评价意义不同的~（stylistic that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning）；
用于不同搭配的~（collocational synonyms）；语义上有一定差别的~（semantically different synonyms）3.2.2多义关系polysemy
polysemy 多义词
从历史上看，一词多义可以看做是词义的发展和变化。
3.2.3 同音/同形异议关系homonymy
homophones 同音异议词
homographs同形异议词
complete homonymys 完全同音同形异议词（多义词的各种意义之间有联系，而完全同音同形异议词出于巧合）3.2.4 上下义关系hyponymy
superordinate上义词
hyponyms下义词
co-hyponyms 并列下义词，具有同一个上义词的下义词叫做并列下义词。
3.2.5反义关系antonymy
antonyms 反义词
可分等级的~（gradable antonyms）；互补性~（complementary antonyms）；关系~（relational antonyms）
4 句子间的语义关系sense relations between sentences
两个句子：同义，对立，蕴含，预设，自相矛盾，语义变体
5 意义分析analysis of meaning
5.1 语义成分分析法——一种词义分析法componential analysis — a way to analyze lexical meaning
e.g. man = +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMA TE, +MALE
5.2 述谓结构分析——一种句义分析法predication analysis —a way to analyze sentence meaning
句义包含两个方面：语法意义和语义意义
句子的语法意义，它的语法性，即语法合理性。
句子在语义上是否有意义是受被称为选择限制的规则支配的，即对词项间的相互搭配规则进行限制。
selectional restrictions
predication analysis 述谓分析——句子分成主语，谓语predicate和修饰语attribute；句子语义分析中的基本单位叫做述谓结构predication，它是句子意义的抽象化。
述谓结构由论元arguments和谓词predicate构成。
Chapter 6 Pragmatics语用学
1 什么是语用学what is pragmatics?
1.1 定义definition
Pragmatics, it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
语用学研究语言使用者是如何运用语句进行成功交际的。
1.2 语用学和语义学pragmatics vs. semantics
语用学和语义学的根本区别在于是否考虑语境。
不考虑语境，语义研究属于传统的语义学范围；考虑语境，语义研究就成了语用学的研究范围。
1.3 语境context
context, it is generally considered as constituted组成by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 1.4 句子意义和话语意义sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
句子意义是抽象的，是不依赖语境的；而话语意义是具体的，是依赖与语境的。
话语意义基于句子意义，是句子意义在特定交际情境或者语境中的具体体现。
2 语言行为理论speech act theory
约翰-奥斯汀，从哲学意义上，对语言交际的本质进行解释，目的在于回答“用语言干什么”：
表述句constatives，施为句performatives
后来奥斯汀放弃了上述区分，他认为表述可是一种可以通过语言来实施的行为，建立另一种模式，说话人可以同
时完成三种行为：
言内行为（表达字面意义的行为）locutionary act
言外行为（表达说话人意图）illocutionary act ——哲学家们最感兴趣的，舍尔对其进行分5类：
阐述类representatives；指令类directives；承诺类commissives；表达类expressives；宣告类declarations
e.g. 指令类，让……做……
言后行为（由话语所带来的结果或变化）perlocutionary act
3 会话原则principle of conversation
参与会话的人首先得愿意合作，这条基本原则叫做合作原则Cooperative Principle。
这条基本原则包括4种准则maxims：
数量准则the maxim of quantity；质量准则the maxim of quality；
关联准则the maxim of relation；方式准则the maxim of manner
对于任何一种合作原则的违法，都使语言变得间接——会话含义conversational implicatures
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学historical linguistics
Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics studies language change语言变化.
Historical linguistics are concerned with the historical development历史变迁of language and the processes involved in language change. Historical linguistics look into the nature of language change and causes that led to language change. They also explore methods and techniques with which they can reconstruct linguistic history重建语言史and establish the relationship between languages that belong to the same language family语系.
1 对语言进行历史研究的目的和意义the purpose and significance of the historical study of language
历时语言学diachronic linguistics
diachronic 历时synchronic 共时
2 语言变化的本质the nature of language change
Old English, Middle English and Modern English
3 英语的历史发展the historical development of English
3.1 英语历史发展的主要阶段major periods in the history of English
3.1.1 古英语Old English
3.1.2 中古英语Middle English
3.1.3 现代英语Modern English
3.2 英语语言系统的变化linguistic change of English
3.2.1 语音系统的变化sound change
3.2.1.1 元音方面的变化vowel sound change
Great vowel shift 主要元音转移
3.2.1.2 语音的丧失sound loss
apocope语音脱落
3.2.1.3 语音的增加sound addition
epenthesis 插入音
3.2.1.3 语音的位移sound movement
metathesis语音变位
3.2.2 形态的变化morphological change
3.2.2.1 词缀的丧失affix loss
3.2.2.2 词缀的添加affix addition
3.2.3 句法的变化syntactic change
3.2.3.1 规则的丧失rule loss
3.2.3.2 规则的添加rule addition
3.2.3.3 规则方面的变化rule change
3.2.4 词汇的变化lexical change
3.2.
4.1 词汇的丧失lexical loss
3.2.
4.2 词汇的添加lexical addition
borrowing外借，借词word formation构词法
除了借词之外，构词法还有：
复合法compounding，派生法derivation，首字母缩略法acronym formation，混合法blending，
缩写法abbreviation，略写法clipping，逆向构词法back-formation和创新词coinage
3.2.5 语义的变化semantic change
semantic broadening or narrowing
semantic shift语义演变
3.2.5.1 语义的广义化semantic broadening
3.2.5.2 语义的侠义化semantic narrowing
3.2.5.3 语义的演变semantic shift
4 语系language family
historical and comparative linguistics 历史或比较语言学
genetic relationships语系关系language families 语系ancestral languages 母语
Indo-European language family
4.1 语系的划分classifying genetically related languages
sisters姊妹cousins兄弟family tree 谱系树protolanguage 原始语
comparative reconstruction 比较重建法proto 原始形式cognates同源词
4种最重要语系：
the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family, the Anstronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family. 4.2 印欧语系the Indo-European Family
the Indo-European Family or Indo-European is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world.
Grimm’s major contribution——sound shift 音替变
重建了印欧语系来源的语法——印欧古型proto-Indo-European
5 语言变化的原因the causes of language change
Sound changes may result from physiological, assimilative processes. 语音方面的变化是生理上的同化过程的结果。
Other grammatical changes may be explained as analogic change. 类推变化
Rule simplification and elaboration may arise to maintain intelligibility and unambiguity, rule generalization, external borrowing( from other languages), or internal borrowing (within the language )may also result in grammatical changes.
Lexical items may be lost for no communicative need, or added for the necessity to express new concepts or name new objects.
Many of these changes are realized by children acquiring the language through grammatical restructuring语言重建and the imperfect learning 语言不完整的模仿of the adult language varieties.
5.1 语音的同化sound assimilation
5.2 规则的简化与统一rule simplification and regularization
5.3 内部借用internal borrowing
5.4 规则的细化elaboration
5.5 社会因素sociological triggers
5.6 文化传播cultural transmission
5.7 儿童对成人语法的习得children’s approximation toward the adult grammar
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学
Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.
language variation language use regional ethnic social groups
situational use standard language lingua franca pidgin creole diglossia bilingualism
1 语言变异language variation
1.1 言语社区speech community
social groups speech community A speech community
1.2 言语变体speech variety
speech variety
standard language vernacular language dialect pidgin creole
regional dialects sociolects social dialects registers
1.3 地域变异regional variation
language planning
1.4 社会变异social variation
1.5 文体变异stylistic variation
1.6 个人言语变异idiolectal variation
idiolect personal dialect
2 标准语与非标准语standard and nonstandard language
cross-cultural communication lingua franca pidgin creole
2.1 标准语与非标准语standard and nonstandard language
nonstandard vernacular languages national or official language
2.2 通用语lingua francas
2.3 皮软语pidgins
2.4 克里奥尔语creoles
3 双言与双语现象diglossia and bilingualism
diglossia bilingualism
3.1 双言现象diglossia
high variety or H-variety
low variety or L-variety
3.2 双语现象bilingualism
4 少数民族方言ethnic dialect
4.1 黑人英语，少数民族方言的个案研究black English, a case study of ethnic dialect
black English
e.g. Is it a Mr. Johson in the office? don’ know nothing ain’t……no don’t nobody never don’t nowhere
4.2 黑人英语的社会环境the social environment of black English
5 社会方言social dialect
5.1 教育变体education varieties
5.2 年龄变体age varieties
5.3 性别变体gender varieties
governor governess master tress career woman man lady doctor woman athlete
5.4 语域变体register varieties
speech situations
situational dialects
judge defendant
5.5 称谓语address terms
5.6 俚语slang
come part, clue in to, became upset, made aware of, apace out, wired with, disheartened, sympathetic, hard hats, construction workers, young women, is going down the tubes, will be wasted, gross you out, disgust you, cut the headlights on, turn on the headlights.
5.7 禁忌语linguistic taboo
5.8 委婉语Euphemism
euphemism
euphemismos
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics心里语言学psycholinguistics
psycholinguistics
acquire, produce and comprehend mind or brain
localized and organized
hemispheric organization
linguistic lateralization
language centers
critical period
language and thought
1 语言的生理基础the biological foundations of language
1.1 盖奇案例the case of Phineas Gage
1.2人的大脑t he human brain
neurons cerebral cortex hemispheres
1.3 大脑左右半球的侧化brain lateralization
lateralization
left hemisphere right hemisphere
2 语言侧化linguistic lateralization
linguistic lateralization
2.1 左半球的语言优势left hemispheric dominance for language
2.2 两耳分听实验dichotic listening research
dichotic listening
right ear advantage
3 语言中枢the language centers
Broca’s area, W ernicke’s area, and the angular gyrus.
3.1 布罗卡区Broca’s area
Broca’s area
3.2 韦尼克区Wernicke’s area
W ernicke’s area
3.3 角形脑回the angular gyrus
angular gyrus
3.4 语言的感知、理解与表达language perception, comprehension and production
4 语言习得关键期the critical period for language acquisition
critical period
4.1 关键期建设the critical period hypothesis
cerebral plasticity
4.2 吉尼案例与语言机制退化the case of Genie and the degeneration of language faculty with age
5 语言与思维language and thought
5.1 有关语言与思维的一些早期观点early views on language and thought
the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
5.2 萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
linguistic determinism
linguistic relativism
5.3 对萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设的批判arguments against the Sapir Whorf hypothesis
5.3.1 词与意义words and meaning
5.3.2 语法结构grammatical structure
5.3.3 翻译translation
5.3.4 第二语言习得second language acquisition
5.3.5 语言与世界观language and world views
5.4 对语言与思维关系的再认识understanding the relation of language and thought
5.4.1 语言的主要功能major functions of language
5.4.2 语言与思维的发展和融合the development and blending of language and thought
5.4.3 无言而思thinking without language
5.4.4 语言——表达思维之约定俗称的编码系统language as a conventional coding system to express thought 5.4.5 语言影响思维的方式the ways in which language affects thought
influences
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 语言习得language development in humans
1 第一语言习得first language acquisition
1.1 语言习得的生物基础the biological basis of language acquisition
biological or nativist
1.2 语言习得即语法规则的习得language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules
general principles
1.3 语言输入与交流的作用the role of input and interaction
caretaker speech babytalk motherese or parentese
1.4 语言教学的作用the role of instruction
conscious instruction
1.5 纠错与强化的作用the role of correction and reinforcement
behaviorist learning theory
1.6 模仿的作用the role of imitation
2 第一语言习得的发展阶段stages of first language acquisition
babbling stages
one-word, two-word and multiword stages
2.1 前语言阶段the prelinguistic stage
2.2 独词句阶段the one-word stage
holophrastic sentences
overextension or underextension
2.3 双词句阶段the two-word stage
2.4 多词句阶段the multiword stage
telegraphic speech
3 语法体系的发展the development of the grammatical system
3.1 语音的发展the development of phonology
3.2 句法的发展the development of syntax
3.3 词形的发展the development of morphology
3.4 词汇与语义的发展the development of vocabulary and semantics
4 第二语言习得second language acquisition
4.1 习得与学习acquisition vs. learning
acquisition learning
4.2 转移与干扰transfer and interference
transfer interference Contrastive Analysis
4.3 错误分析与第二语言的自然发展轨道Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA development
universal route Error Analysis
4.4 语际语与语言僵化现象inter-language and fossilization
interim knowledge inter-language fossilized
4.5 语言输入的作用the role of input
4.6 正规教学的作用the role of formal instruction
4.7 学习者的个人因素individual learner factors
4.7.1 第二语言习得的最佳年龄the optimum age for second language acquisition
4.7.2 学习第二语言的动机motivation
instrumental motivation integrative motivation
4.7.3 语言文化深入acculturation
acculturation
4.7.4 学习者的个性personality。
