缁忔祹瀛︼細寰缁忔祹鍒嗘瀽(涓€)
(鎬诲垎锛?5.00锛屽仛棰樻椂闂达細90鍒嗛挓)
涓€銆亄{B}}鍗曢」閫夋嫨棰榹{/B}}(鎬婚鏁帮細55锛屽垎鏁帮細55.00)
1.Income elasticity is defined as the:
? A. percentage change in income divided by the percentage change in the quantity demanded.
? B. change in quantity demanded divided by the change in income.
? C. percentage change in the quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欼ncome elasticity is defined as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income. Normal goods have positive values for income elasticity and inferior goods have negative income elasticities.
2.According to the "invisible hand" principle, which of the following statements is least accurate?
? A. Competitive markets produce an optimal basket of goods and services.
? B. Efficient allocation of productive resources occurs through competition.
? C. The authority of the state, although not seen, must always be present in the market.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he "invisible hand" to which Adam Smith referred in The Wealth of Nations did not include any legal authority. Rather, Smith was describing the way that individual producers serve society's interest by competing with one another to produce the goods and services that are valued most highly by final consumers, even though the producers do not have society's interest explicitly in mind.
3.Product differentiation is the greatest source of market power for which of the following market structures ?
? A. Perfect competition.
? B. Oligopoly.
? C. Monopolistic competition.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歅roduct differentiation gives market power to firms under monopolistic competition by making the firm the sole producer of a slightly differentiated good.
4.Suppose that the demand curve for honey shifts such that the equilibrium price for a pound of honey increases from $ 7 to $ 9 per pound. At the new equilibrium, the quantity supplied increases from 500 pounds per month to 600 pounds per month, although the supply curve has not shifted. The elasticity of supply for honey is closest to:
? A. +0.91.
? B. +0.73.
? C. +1.12.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he average quantity of honey supplied is (500+600)/2=550 pounds, and the average price of honey ($7+$9)/2=$8 per pound. So, the percentage change in quantity is (600-
500)/550=18.18% and the percentage change in price is (9-7)/8=25.00%. Thus, the elasticity of supply is 18.18/25.00=+0.73.
5.Which of the following statements about the elasticity of demand is least accurate?
? A. The most important determinant of price elasticity of demand is the availability of substitutes.
? B. Prices are more elastic in the long run than in the short run.
? C. When demand is inelastic, an increase in price will cause a decrease in the total expenditure on a good.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欼f demand is inelastic, the age change in quantity demanded is smaller than the age change in price; quantity demanded is relatively unresponsive to price changes. A price increase increases total expenditures on a good.
6.Which of the following is least likely to be the result of a minimum wage?
? A. Unemployment will rise.
? B. There will be an abundance of low-skilled workers willing to work.
? C. Labor will be substituted for capital.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欶irms substitute capital for the "expensive" labor and use more than the economically efficient amount of capital.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/8b3087853.html,pared to normal markets, the existence of fraud and the use of violence in black markets generally leads to:
? A. poorer economic efficiency.
? B. superior economic efficiency.
? C. lower profit rates for sellers.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A. 鈭?/span>
B.
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欶raud and violence lead to a lower level of economic efficiency in black markets. The black markets operate less smoothly. The sellers that are not caught can charge a higher price for the risks they take and earn a higher profit rate.
8.Which of the following is least likely to be the long-run effect of a price ceiling that is set below the equilibrium price?
? A. Sellers take bribes.
? B. Suppliers discriminate.
? C. Sellers improve quality.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歎nder price ceilings, sellers may reduce the quality of goods to a level that reflects the imposed ceiling price.
9.A columnist is discussing how the efficient quantity of output for a good or service is determined. These two statements appear in his column:
Statement 1: The equilibrium quantity of production for a good or service can be considered efficient as long as the marginal social benefit of that quantity is greater than its marginal social cost.
Statement 2: Subsidies and quotas typically result in production of a good or service in quantities at which the marginal social cost exceeds the marginal social benefit.
Are these statements correct?
Statement 1 Statement 2
鈶燗. Correct Correct
鈶. Correct Incorrect
鈶. Incorrect Incorrect
? A. 鈶?
? B. 鈶?
? C. 鈶?/LI>
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歋tatement 1 is incorrect. The efficient quantity of output is the quantity at which the marginal social benefit (demand) is equal to the marginal social cost (supply). Statement 2 is also incorrect. Subsidies typically lead to overproduction, where the marginal social cost at the quantity produced is greater than the marginal social benefit. Quotas, however, typically limit production to a level below equilibrium, such that the marginal social benefit at the quantity produced is greater than the marginal social cost.
10.For which the following four-firm concentration ratios and Herfindahl-Hirschman indexes (HHI) indicates a highly competitive market?
Four-Firm Ratio HHI
鈶燗. 5% 150
鈶. 98% 9500
鈶. 98% 150
? A. 鈶?
? B. 鈶?
? C. 鈶?/LI>
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A. 鈭?/span>
B.
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欶or both the four-firm ratio and the HHI, the lower the market concentration measure, the greater the degree of competition.
11.In a regulated industry, the introduction of a marginal cost pricing role that maximizes total surplus would most likely be viewed as:
? A. inefficient but leaves the natural monopoly incurring an economic loss.
? B. inefficient and allows the natural monopoly to realize an economic gain.
? C. efficient but leaves the natural monopoly incurring an economic loss.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欰 marginal cost pricing rule sets price equal to marginal cost. It is efficient but leaves the natural monopoly incurring an economic loss. Because, with an increase in output the average total cost falls, resulting in marginal cost being less than the average cost.
12.Which of the following most accurately describes the impact of a price ceiling set below the equilibrium price for a good and a minimum wage set above the equilibrium wage? Price ceiling Minimum wage 鈶燗. Shortage Decreased unemployment 鈶. Surplus Increased unemployment 鈶. Shortage Increased unemployment A. 鈶燘. 鈶. 鈶?br/>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欰 ceiling that is below the equilibrium price for a good will result in a shortage characterized by a quantity demanded that is greater than the quantity supplied. A minimum wage leads to increased unemployment as firms tend to substitute capital for labor. Even though there are often a large number of unemployed low-skilled workers who may be willing to work at a wage lower than the minimum wage, firms cannot legally hire them.
13.The production of a rock concert is an example of which type of organization of an economic activity?
? A. Finn coordination.
? B. Market coordination.
? C. Economic coordination.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歁arket coordination occurs when a firm employs resources outside the firm more efficiently than if they relied only on internal resources. An example is through the coordination of more than one market such as the production of a rock concert which involves many different markets ( e. g. marketing, vending, musicians, security, facilities procurement, etc. ).
14.If accurately calculated, will the amount of accounting profit for a firm generally: be below that firm's economic consider both that firm's profit for the same time period?
explicit and implicit costs? 鈶燗. No No 鈶. No Yes 鈶. Yes No A. 鈶?B. 鈶. 鈶?br/>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A. 鈭?/span>
B.
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歄pportunity cost is the return that a firm's resources could have earned elsewhere in their next most valuable use. Opportunity cost includes both explicit and implicit costs. Explicit costs are observable, measurable expenses such as the dollar cost of production inputs and the interest cost of renting (borrowing) capital. Implicit costs are not
explicitly observable and fall into two categories : (1) the opportunity cost to a firm of using its own capital and (2) the opportunity cost of the time and financial resources of
the firm's owners. Economic profit considers both explicit and implicit costs. When the
firm's revenues are just equal to its opportunity costs (explicit and implicit costs, including a normal profit) , economic profits are zero. Accounting profit considers only explicit costs but not implicit cost and normally exceed economic profit.
15.If quantity demanded declines 20 percent when incomes fall 3 percent, this good is:
? A. a luxury good.
? B. a necessity.
? C. an inferior good.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A. 鈭?/span>
B.
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欼ncome elasticity is the sensitivity of demand to changes in consumer income. Income elasticity for this good = (percent change in quantity demanded)/(percent change in income)=-20/-3=6.7. Normal goods with high income elasticities (absolute values锛?) are considered luxury goods, a type of normal good that experiences a greater percentage
increase in demand than the percentage increase in income.
16.Which of the following statements about price elasticity is most likely FALSE?
? A. The elasticity of demand of a good increases over time.
? B. If the price of gasoline increases, total expenditures on gasoline will increase.
? C. If the price of a brand of toilet paper increases, total expenditure on that brand of toilet paper will increase.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欰 particular brand of toilet paper likely has elastic demand because there are many available substitutes. The existence of many substitutes indicates elastic demand. When good substitutes for a product are available, a price rise induces many consumers to switch to other products. Thus, if the price of a brand of toilet paper increases, total expenditure
on that brand will likely decrease as consumers substitute cheaper brands. The most
important determinant of the price elasticity of demand is the availability of substitutes. The other statements are true. The second law of demand suggests that in general, when the price of a product increases, consumers take time to reduce their consumption. Thus, demand decreases by a larger amount in the long run than in the short run. The demand for gasoline
is likely inelastic. Thus, when price increases, the percentage change in quantity demanded
is less than the change in price (and total expenditures on the good increase). The demand
for an individual firm is more elastic than the demand for the entire market.
17.A minimum wage is an example of which of the following?
? A. A price ceiling.
? B. A quota.
? C. A price floor.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欰 minimum wage is an example of a price floor.
18.Because copper producers are allowed to release harmful chemicals into the air, the industry supply curve is not the marginal social cost curve. Given this situation and a copper market that is otherwise competitive, copper producers will
? A. produce less than the efficient amount of copper, an example of the "free rider"
problem.
? B. produce less than the efficient amount of copper, resulting in a dead weight loss from underproduction.
? C. produce more than the efficient amount of copper, resulting in a deadweight loss from overproduction.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歋ince some of the societal costs of copper production are not considered by the copper producers, the marginal social cost curve lies above the industry supply curve and equilibrium copper production is greater than the efficient level of output. This results in a deadweight loss from overproduction. The "free rider" problem arises when consumers can enjoy the benefit of public goods without paying anything towards their production.
19.Which of the following most accurately describes society's allocation of resources to the production of goods with external costs or external benefits?
External costs External benefits
鈶燗. Over-allocation Over-allocation
鈶. Under-allocation Under-allocation
鈶. Over-allocation Under-allocation
? A. 鈶?
? B. 鈶?
? C. 鈶?/LI>
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欵xternal costs are costs associated with the production of goods which are not entirely borne by producers. The industrial pollution of fishing waters decreases the yield to the fishing industry. However, the lost revenue to the fishing industry is not considered a cost to the firms generating the pollution. The result is an over-allocation of resources to the production of goods made by the firms generating the pollution. External benefits refer to benefits received by those other than the buyers of a good. Scenic gardens and fountains built by private enterprises for their own interests are examples of goods with external benefits. Since the marginal benefit to society is greater than that of the marginal cost to the producer, less than the efficient quantity is produced.
20.Which of the following is least likely to be considered an obstacle to the efficient allocation of an economy's resources?
? A. Rent controls.
? B. Minimum wages.
? C. Changes in consumer tastes.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歅rice controls and taxes are obstacles to allocative efficiency. Rent controls and minimum wages are examples of price controls. As opposed to being obstacles to the efficient allocation of resources, changes in consumer tastes lead to the reallocation of society's resources, producing a different mix of goods or services that provide increased benefits.
21.Thompson Industries has the following short-run cost structure per level of production output:
Output Units (Q) Total Costs (TC) Fixed Costs (FC)
30000 $ 240000 $12000
50000 $ 360000 $12000
70000 $ 480000 $12000
90000 $ 570000 $12000
Based on the above and assuming a sales price of $10 per unit, what is the marginal cost per unit if the Company's output is increased from 50000 units to 70000 units?
? A. $6.86
? B. $6.00
? C. $4.60
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歔*]
22.Economics commentator Gail Brythe is discussing the different factors that influence the elasticity of supply. She states the following: Statement 1: Elasticity of supply is greater when a good or service can only be produced with unique or rare inputs. Statement 2: Typically, a good's momentary supply elasticity is higher than its short-run supply elasticity, which in tuna is higher than its long-run supply elasticity. Are Brythe's statements correct? Statement 1 Statement 2 鈶燗. Correct Correct 鈶. Correct Incorrect 鈶. Incorrect Incorrect A. 鈶燘. 鈶. 鈶?br/>锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欱oth statements are incorrect. Elasticity of supply ( i. e. , the responsiveness
of the supply of a good to changes in its price) is low when a good can only be produced with rare or unique inputs, because the potential output of the good is constrained by the availability of those inputs. Supply elasticity is lowest in the momentary time frame because producers typically cannot change the output of a good immediately. Supply becomes more elastic as the time frame increases because long-run adjustments in capital investment and technology lead to greater changes in profit maximizing output levels.
23.The short run is best defined as:
? A. the period for which the quantities of all factors of production are fixed.
? B. a period of less than one year.
? C. the period for which the quantities of some resource inputs are fixed.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he short run is typically defined as the period for which the quantities of some, but not all, resources are fixed. Working capital is the difference between a firm's current assets and current liabilities and consists of items (such as cash) that the firm can adjust in the short run.
24.Producer surplus is most accurately defined as the.
? A. difference between the opportunity cost of producing the last unit of a good or service and the price received for that unit.
? B. sum of the differences between the marginal benefit and the marginal cost for each unit of good produced and consumed over the total number of units produced and consumed.
? C. sum of the differences between the price received for each unit of good produced and the opportunity cost of each unit.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歅roducer surplus is the sum of the differences between the price received for each unit of good produced and the opportunity cost of each unit, for the total units produced. Producer surplus results when the market price for a good or service exceeds the marginal cost producing it.
25.Which of the following concentration ratios are most likely to be associated with a perfectly competitive industry?
Four-firm concentration ratio Herfindahl-Hirschman Index
鈶燗. 125 1000
鈶. 85 25
鈶. 25 100
? A. 鈶?
? B. 鈶?
? C. 鈶?/LI>
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he four-firm concentration ratio can range from zero to 100 percent. The Herfindahl-Hirschman Index has a theoretical range of near zero to 10000. As the level of competition increases, the value of either of the concentration measures decreases. A perfectly competitive market is a market characterized by relatively low concentration measures.
26.When household incomes go down and the quantity of a product demanded goes up, the product is:
? A. an inferior good.
? B. a necessity.
? C. a luxury good.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A. 鈭?/span>
B.
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歐hen household incomes go down and the quantity demanded of a product goes up, the product is an inferior good. Inferior goods include things like bus travel and margarine. 27.Which of the following statements regarding diminishing marginal returns is most accurate?
? A. As the quantity produced rises, costs begin to rise at a decreasing rate.
? B. As the quantity produced falls, costs begin to rise at a decreasing rate.
? C. As the quantity produced rises, costs begin to rise at an increasing rate.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欰t production levels that are consistent with decreasing marginal returns, costs will increase at an increasing rate as production rises.
28.Consider two markets; one has a Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) of 50, while the other has a four-firm concentration ratio equal to 2%. Which of the following statements most accurately describes these two markets?
? A. Both of these markets are monopolies.
? B. The market with the HHI equal to 50 is very competitive, while the other market has low competition.
? C. Both markets are highly competitive.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欰n HHI concentration measure of 50 is very low, indicating a high degree of competition. A four firm concentration ratio of 2% indicates a high level of competition. For both the four-firm ratio and the HHI, the higher (lower) the concentration measure, the lower (greater) the degree of competition.
29.If marginal cost is above the average cost, when you produce your next unit:
? A. average cost will decline.
? B. marginal cost will remain unchanged.
? C. average cost will increase.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欼f marginal cost is above the average cost, when you produce your next unit, average cost will increase. Because marginal cost is the cost of producing the next unit, and because this cost is above the firm's average cost per unit, the average cost per unit must increase, if only slightly. Based on the information provided in the question, there is no way to know what will happen to the marginal cost of future units produced.
30.Christine Dobbs is watching a public affairs television program on which one of the participants makes the following Statements:
Statement 1: A common resource is an obstacle to the efficient allocation of resources unless it generates external benefits.
Statement 2: The idea of utilitarianism suggests that market allocation of resources does
not maximize the value of an economy to all individuals. However, achieving the results that utilitarianism regards as optimal involves a loss of economic output.
Should Dobbs agree or disagree with these statements?
Statement 1 Statement 2
鈶燗. Disagree Agree
鈶. Agree Agree
鈶. Agree Disagree
? A. 鈶?
? B. 鈶?
? C. 鈶?/LI>
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A. 鈭?/span>
B.
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欳ommon resources and external benefits both represent obstacles to the efficient allocation of resources. Common resources tend to be overused and external benefits suggest that less than the efficient quantity is produced. Utilitarianism is the idea that fairness means all individuals own the same amount of resources. To bring about such an outcome would require transferring wealth from high income earners to low income earners. This would
result in high income earners working less, so the economy would produce less wealth overall. The time and effort required to transfer the wealth would also divert resources from productive uses.
31.Which of the following factors of production is least likely to be fixed in the short run?
? A. Capital equipment.
? B. Labor.
? C. Plant size.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歀abor is typically assumed to be variable in the short run.
32.Fred Heyach and Gord Murdoll are discussing whether or not competitive markets use resources efficiently. Heyach says, "Competition must lead to the efficient allocation of resources. Consumers are willing to pay more for the goods they want most, so producers of those goods can outbid other producers for the resources to make them. Murdoll replies, "At any one point in time the market might allocate resources efficiently given consumers' preferences, but as consumers change their minds about which goods they want, the allocation of resources becomes inefficient. " Are these statements correct or incorrect?
Heyach Murdoll
鈶燗. Correct Incorrect
鈶. Incorrect Correct
鈶. Incorrect Incorrect
? A. 鈶?
? B. 鈶?
? C. 鈶?/LI>
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A. 鈭?/span>
B.
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欻eyach's statement is correct but Murdoll's statement is incorrect. Competitive forces adjust the allocation of resources to changes in consumer preferences. If consumers' demand for a product decreases, the resources that were being used to produce it are diverted to the production of other goods that are in greater demand.
33.Matthew Reeves is listening to a discussion on how resources move to the most efficient allocation. Two of the participants make these statements:
Statement 1: When resources are diverted from beer production to wine production, this represents an inefficient allocation from the perspective of the beer producers.
Statement 2: Market allocation of resources tends toward efficiency because the value of what a resource can produce determines its allocation in production.
Should Reeves agree or disagree with these statements?
Statement 1 Statement 2
鈶燗. Disagree Agree
鈶. Agree Agree
鈶. Agree Disagree
? A. 鈶?
? B. 鈶?
? C. 鈶?/LI>
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A. 鈭?/span>
B.
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歊eeves should disagree with Statement 1. In the competitive market, resources are diverted away from goods for which final consumer demand is decreasing, and toward the production of goods for which final consumer demand is increasing. If the market is
diverting resources from producing beer to producing wine, it is because consumers have changed their decisions and begun offering more money for wine and less for beer. This means beer brewers are producing more than consumers demand and generating losses on the excess production. They will maximize their profits by reducing their production and using fewer resources. Thus, the new allocation of resources is efficient even from the point of view of the beer producers. Reeves should agree with Statement 2. The market constantly reallocates productive resources to uses where what they produce is valued more by final consumers, and
removing them from uses where what they produce is valued less. When there are no obstacles, resources are always moving toward their most efficient(value maximizing) allocations.
34.Equilibrium in a perfectly competitive market results in a quantity for which the:
? A. difference between consumer and producer surpluses is maximized.
? B. consumer and producer surpluses are equal.
? C. sum of consumer and producer surpluses is maximized.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欼n a competitive market, the equilibrium quantity is the one tot which the sum of the consumer and producer surpluses is maximized.
35.The price of product Z decreased from $ 2.50 per unit to $ 2.00 per unit. Since the price decreased, demand has gone up from 3 million units to 4 million units. Calculate the price elasticity of demand and determine if the demand is elastic or inelastic.
Price elasticity of demand Elasticity
鈶燗. - 1.29 inelastic
鈶. - 2.00 inelastic
鈶. - 1.29 elastic
? A. 鈶?
? B. 鈶?
? C. 鈶?/LI>
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歱ercentage change in quantity =(4-3)/[(4+3)/21=0.286=28.6% percentage change in price =(2-2.5)/[(2+2.5)/2]=-0.222=-22.2% 28.6%/-22.2%=-1.29 Since the price elasticity of demand is greater than 1 ( ignore the sign) , product Z is elastic.
36.Which of the following two factors are most likely to be considered variable during the short run?
? A. Labor and technology.
? B. Labor and raw materials.
? C. Raw materials and technology.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歄f the sets of factors listed, the two that are typically considered variable in the short run are labor and raw materials.
37.Which of the following statements least accurately describes why firms can coordinate economic activity more efficiently than markets? Firms can achieve:
? A. economies of scope.
? B. diversification benefits.
? C. economies of scale.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欶irms can often coordinate economic activity more efficiently than markets because firms can reduce the costs of market transactions, and they can achieve economies of scale, scope, and team production.
38.Which of the following most accurately describes the typical relationship between marginal product (MP) and average product (AP) ? As the quantity of labor increases:
? A. initially, AP 锛?MP, then AP = MP, then AP 锛?MP.
? B. initially, AP = MP, then AP 锛?MP.
? C. AP is always less than MP.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A. 鈭?/span>
B.
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歁P intersects the AP minimum from above. MP is initially greater than average product, and then MP and AP intersect. Beyond this intersection, MP is less than AP. (Hint: sketch the curves. )
39.For a given good or service, the marginal social benefit ( MSB and the marginal social cost (MSC) curves are least accurately described by which of the following?
? A. Producer surplus is determined by price and the MSC curve and consumer surplus is determined by price and the MSB curve.
? B. The efficient allocation of resources occurs where the difference between the MSB and MSC curves is maximized.
? C. The market demand curve is the same as the MSB curve, and the market supply curve is the same as the MSC curve.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he marginal social benefit (MSB) curve is the market demand curve and the marginal cost (MSC) curve and is the market supply curve. At the intersection of the MSB and MSC curves, the sum of producer and consumer surpluses is maximized and society's resources are being efficiently allocated.
40.A minimum wage set above the equilibrium minimum wage will most likely have which of the following effects?
? A. It will have no effects.
? B. Unemployment will rise.
? C. There will be a shortage of workers.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欶irms will not employ all the workers who want to work at the imposed higher wage. Those who want to work at the higher wage but cannot find jobs will be counted as unemployed.
41.Which of the following statements is most likely to characterize the principal-agent problem between buyers and sellers of services?
? A. Principals can impose their own objectives on agents.
? B. Principals can have complete information about agent behavior.
? C. Agents cannot be completely monitored.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欰gents can and do exercise their own judgment and, because agents cannot be completely monitored, agents have opportunities to serve their own ends instead of those of the principal.
42.Marginal benefit is most accurately described as the:
? A. benefit from producing one more unit of a good or service.
? B. benefit an individual gets from consuming an additional unit of a good or service.
? C. benefit that must be forgone in order to consume an additional unit of a good or service.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歁arginal benefit is the benefit a consumer receives from consuming an additional unit of a good or service. It is quantified as the maximum price that a consumer is willing to pay for one additional unit of a good or service.
43.Which of the following condition is least likely to be the obstacle to the efficient allocation of productive resources:
? A. Price controls
? B. Taxes and trade restrictions
? C. Perfect competition
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歋ome of the obstacles to the efficient allocation of productive resources are: Price controls; Taxes and trade restrictions; Monopoly; External costs; External benefits; Public goods and common resources.
44.Which of the following statements is most accurate? A method of production is economic efficiency when:
? A. It uses the most advanced science and technology.
? B. The cost of fund capital is as low as possibie.
? C. The cost of producing a given level of output is as low as possible.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欵conomic efficiency refers to producing a given output at the lowest possible cost. Technological efficiency refers to using the least amount of specific inputs to produce a given output.
45.If the last unit of input increases total product we know that the marginal product of that input is:
? A. negative.
? B. positive.
? C. increasing.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欰s long as marginal product is positive, total product will increase. We would need more information to determine whether marginal product is falling or increasing.
46.New legislation setting a price ceiling will most likely cause:
? A. a market surplus.
? B. a market shortage.
? C. a decrease in demand.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歅rice ceilings restrict the producer from increasing the selling price. The lower price will stimulate demand by consumers at this lower price. However, since producers will not be able to increase price there is little incentive for them to increase supply. Hence, production and supply will be limited at the price ceiling leading to a market shortage. 47.The demand for oil is more inelastic in the short-run than the supply of oil, but it is not perfectly inelastic. Based only on this factor, if the government imposes a $ 5.00 per barrel tax on oil producers :
? A. The incidence of the tax will fall most heavily on oil producers, because the tax is imposed directly on them.
? B. The incidence of the tax will be split between oil producers and oil consumers, with most of the tax being paid by oil producers.
? C. The incidence of the tax will be split between oil producers and oil consumers, with most of the tax being paid by oil consumers.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛欰 is incorrect because the incidence of a tax falls mostly on consumers when the demand for the taxed product is more inelastic than the supply. B is incorrect because the incidence of a tax fails mostly on consumers when the demand for the taxed product is more inelastic than the supply. C is correct because the incidence of a tax fall mostly on consumers when the demand for the taxed product is more inelastic than the supply and the demand is not perfectly inelastic.
48.Suppose the price of computers increases from $1000 to $1200. Assuming the original quantity demanded for computers was 50 million units, and the new quantity demanded is 45
million computers, what is the price elasticity of demand, and is the demand for computers elastic or inelastic?
? A. 0.58, inelastic.
? B. -0.58, inelastic.
? C. 1.73, elastic.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B. 鈭?/span>
C.
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歅rice elasticity of demand is calculated by dividing the percent change in
quantity demanded by the percent change in price, using the average value of the variable in the computations. The percent change in quantity demanded is (45-50)/[(50+45)/2]=-0.105 or -10.5%. The percent change in price is (1200-1000)/[(1000+1200)/21=0.1818 or 18.2%. The price elasticity of demand is -10.5/18.2=-0.58. Since the price elasticity of demand is smaller than 1 (ignore the sign),the demand for computers is inelastic.
49.Marko Tskitishvili, an economist, has been studying the drop in the price of the average household computer in the U.S. and wonders if computers should still be considered a luxury good or if it has now become a normal good. He conducts a survey of 500 people and finds the following:
Based on the above data, Tskitishvili would conclude that a computer is a:
? A. luxury good with income elasticity of 1.01.
? B. normal good with income elasticity of 0.84.
? C. luxury good with income elasticity of 1.18.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛? change in Computers demanded =(0.57-0.42)/0.495=30.30% % change in income
=($53000-$41000)/$47000 =25.53% 30.30%/25.53%=1.18 1.18锛? so Tskitishvili would conclude that computers are luxury goods.
50.Which of the following most accurately describes the shape of the average fixed cost (AFC) curve? The AFC curve:
? A. is always below the average variable cost curve.
? B. has the same shape as the average total cost curve.
? C. becomes flatter as output increases.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he AFC curve declines initially, but as output increases it flattens because a fixed cost is being averaged over more and more units of output.
51.The long-run production decision differs from the short-run production decision in that:
? A. variable costs can be changed in the short run but not the long run.
? B. variable costs can be changed in the long run but not the short run.
? C. fixed costs can be changed" in the long run but not the short run.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he long-run production decision differs from the short-run production decision in that fixed costs can be changed in the long run but not the short-run. Thus, short-run cost curves apply for a given size of a plant, and long-run cost curves can show costs for different size plants.
52.George's Appliance Center sells big screen televisions. On a representative model, when the price was reduced from $ 2450 to $ 2275, monthly demand increased from 175 to 211 units. What is the price elasticity of demand?
? A. -2.14.
? B. -1.69.
? C. -2.53.
锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div>
A.
B.
C. 鈭?/span>
D.
瑙ｆ瀽锛歅rice elasticity of demand = % change in quantity demanded/% change in price % change in quantity =(211-175)/[(211+175)/2]=0.187 % change in price =(2275-
2450)/[(2275+2450)/2]=-0.074 Price elasticity of demand =0.187/(-0.074)=-2.53
53.If a 10 percent income increase caused a group of consumers to increase their purchases
of television sets from 95 to 105, the group's income elasticity of demand for television sets would be closest to:
? A. 1.00.
? B. 0.10.
? C. 0.83.
一、名词解释： 1. 需求：是指消费者在一定时期在各种可能的价格下愿意而且能够购买的商品的数量。 2. 供给：商品的供给是指生产者在一定时期，在各种可能的价格下愿意而且能够提供出售的商品的数量。 3. 均衡价格：使得供给量恰好等于需求量时的市场价格水平。在市场上，由于供给和需求力量的相互作用，市场价格趋向于均衡价格，如果市场价格高于均衡价格，超额供给使市场价格趋于下降；反之，如果市场价格低于均衡价格，则市场上出现超额需求，超额需求使市场价格趋于上升直至均衡价格。因此，市场竞争使得市场稳定于均衡价格。 4. 效用：人们消费或拥有一定数量的某种商品时所获得的满足程度。 5. 边际效用递减规律：在一定时间，在其他商品的消费数量保持不变的条件下，随着消费者对某种商品消费量的增加，消费者从该商品连续增加的每一消费单位中所得到的效用增量即边际效用是递减的。 6. 预算约束线：是指在消费者收入和商品价格既定条件下，消费者全部收入所能购买到的各种商品的不同数量的组合。 7. 收入—消费曲线：是指在两种商品的价格水平之比为常数的情况下，每一收入水平所对应的两种商品最佳购买组合点组成的轨迹。 8. 价格—消费曲线：是指在一种商品的价格水平和消费者收入水平为常数的情况下，另一种商品价格变动所对应的两种商品最佳购买组合点组成的轨迹。也就是当某一种物品的价格改变时的消费组合。 9. 吉芬商品：以经济学家吉芬的名字命名的一种特殊商品，随着价格的上升，市场对它的需求量增加，其需求曲线向右上方倾斜。 10. 生产函数：在特定时间围和既定的生产技术水平下，一定的生产要素数量组合与其他所能生产的最大产量之间的关系， 11. 边际产量：在技术和其他投入要素不变的情况下，每增加一个单位变动投入要素所得到的总产量的增加量。 12. 等产量曲线：在技术水平不变的条件下生产同一产量的两种生产要素投入量的各种不同组合的轨迹。 13. 生产要素最优组合：是指在要素价格不变，在存在两种以上可变生产要素的生产中(即长期中)，生产者在其成本既定时使产量最大或其产量既定时成本最小所需要使用的各种生产要素的最优数量组合。生产要素最优组合的条件是RTSLK=w/r（使用L和K这两种生产要素时的情况）。 14.完全竞争厂商面对的需求曲线：简称厂商的需求曲线。在完全竞争条件下，由于厂商是市场既定价格的接受者，所以厂商所面临的需求曲线是一条由既定的市场均衡价格水平出发的水平线，它表示：在既定的市场价格下，市场对该厂商的商品的需求量是无限的。 15. 不完全竞争市场：指这样一些市场:因为至少有一个大到足以影响市场价格的买者(或卖者)，并因此面对向下倾斜的需求(或供给)曲线。包括各种不完全因素，诸如垄断竞争等。 16.古诺模型：假定一种产品市场只有两个卖者，并且相互间没有任何勾结行为，但相互间都知道对方将怎样行动，从而各自怎样确定最优的产量来实现利润最大化，因此，古诺模型又称为双头垄断理论。
第二章 需求、供给与均衡分析 1，需求的变动（教材P22） 需求的变动是指在某商品价格不变的条件下，由于其他因素的变动所引起的该商品的需求数量的变动。 2,供给的变动（教材P21） 供给变动对均衡价格的影响： P D 1 E 4 D 2 P 1 P 2 E 1 E 2 E 3 S 1 S 2
4。需求弧弹性的五种分类 5。需求点弹性的五种类型 在需求的价格点弹性中，上述分析的五种基本类型也同样存在。见下页说明。
6。供给弹性的几何测定： 供给的价格点弹性也可以用几何方法来求得。在此用图2－8以线性供给函数为例加以 在A 点的点弹性值： Esp =Q P dP dQ ?=OB AB AB CB ? =OB CB 7。供给价格弹性的分类及几何表示 8。支持价格的含义及影响 图2—21表示政府对某种产品实行最低限价的情形。政府实行最低限价所规定的市场价格为P 0。由图可见，最低限价P 0大于均衡价格P e ，在最低限价P 0的水平，市场供给量Q 2大于市场需求量Q 1，市场上出现产品过剩（过度供给）的情况。 A B e s >1 (a ) P O Q S C A B e s <1 (b ) P O Q S C A B e s =1 (c ) P O Q S (C )
政府实行最低限价的目的通常是为了扶植某些行业的发展。农产品的支持价格就是西方国家所普遍采取的政策，在实行这一政策时，政府通常收购市场上过剩的农产品。 第三章 消费者行为 1．总效用与边际效用的关系 根据表3—1所绘制的总效用和边际效用曲线如图3—1所示。 图中的横轴表示商品的数量，纵轴表示效用量，TU 曲线和MU 曲线分别为总效用曲线和边际效用曲线。由于边际效用被定义为消费品的一单位变化量所带来的总效用的变化量，又由于图中的商品消费量是离散的，所以，MU 曲线上的每一个值都记在相应的两个消费数量的中点上。 在图中，MU 曲线因边际效用递减规律而成为向右下方倾斜的，相应地，TU 曲线则随着MU 的变动而呈现先上升后下降的变动特点。总结MU 与TU 的关系： 当MU ＞0时，TU 上升 当MU ＜0时，TU 下降 当MU ＝0是。TU 达极大值。 从数学意义上讲，如果效用曲线是连续的，则每一消费量上的边际效用值就是总效用曲线上相应的点的斜率。这一点，也体现在边际效用的定义公式(3.3)式中。 2，无差异曲线的概念及图形（Indifference Curve ） 图2－20 最高限价 S D P e O Q 1 P Q Q 图2 －21 最低限价 S D P e Q 1 O P Q 2 Q 2
高 级微观复习 第一章： P12—22：给出生产函数可求出技术替代率、替代弹性、规模报酬等（结合书上P13、P15和P19例题看+P21CES 生产函数） 1、技术替代率TRS ：，假设维持产量水平不变，我们想增加要素1的投入量减少要素2的投入量。这就是这两种要素之间的技术替代率，是衡量等产量线的斜率。 二维情况下：),(),(),(21221112 21x x MP x x MP x x x x TRS -=??= N 维情况下，TRS(x 1,x 2)： 或者 柯布-道格拉斯函数下的技术替代率： 2、替代弹性 替代弹性衡量等产量线的曲率。更具体地说，替代弹性衡量在产量维持不变的情形下，要素投入比率的变动百分比除以TRS 变动百分比。 根据公式推导，连锁法则（ ） 柯布-道格拉斯函数的替代弹性是1。 3、规模报酬 产量等比例增加，我们通常假设只要将以前的生产模式复制，就能生产出t 倍的产量。定义（规模报酬不变）：某生产技术呈现规模报酬不变的现象，若它满足下列条件： 定义（规模报酬递增）：若f(tx)>tf(x)（其中t>1），则该技术是规模报酬递增的。
4、CES函数的相关概念 CES函数具有规模报酬不变性质。 （1）线性生产函数（ρ=1）。将ρ=1代入CES生产函数可得y=x1+x2， ， 第二章 利润最大化问题：求解要素需求函数、供给函数（参考P32柯布道格拉斯技术的例子） 基本原理： 对于每个价格向量(p,w)，通常会存在要素的最优选择x*。要素最优选择是价格向量的函数，这个函数称为企业的要素需求函数。我们将该函数记为x(p,w)。P是产品的价格，W是要素的价格。函数y(p,w)=f(x(p,w))称为企业的供给函数。 柯布-道格拉斯函数： 简化：就是对生产函数求导，然后，要素需求函数X=。。。。Y=f(X)=。。。利润函数： 第三章 霍特林引理（P46）
高级微观复习 第一章： ? P12—22：给出生产函数可求出技术替代率、替代弹性、规模报酬等（结合书上P13、P15和P19例题看+P21 CES 生产函数） 1、技术替代率TRS ：，假设维持产量水平不变，我们想增加要素1的投入量减少要素2的投入量。这就是这两种要素之间的技术替代率，是衡量等产量线的斜率。 二维情况下：),(),(),(21221112 21x x MP x x MP x x x x TRS -=??= N 维情况下，TRS(x 1,x 2)： 或者 柯布-道格拉斯函数下的技术替代率： 2、替代弹性 替代弹性衡量等产量线的曲率。更具体地说，替代弹性衡量在产量维持不变的情形下，要素投入比率的变动百分比除以TRS 变动百分比。 根据公式推导，连锁法则（ ） 柯布-道格拉斯函数的替代弹性是1。 3、规模报酬 产量等比例增加，我们通常假设只要将以前的生产模式复制，就能生产出t 倍的产量。定义（规模报酬不变）：某生产技术呈现规模报酬不变的现象，若它满足下列条件：
定义（规模报酬递增）：若f(tx) >tf(x)（其中t>1），则该技术是规模报酬递增的。 4、CES函数的相关概念 CES函数具有规模报酬不变性质。 （1）线性生产函数（ρ=1）。将ρ=1代入CES生产函数可得y =x1+x2， ， 第二章 ?利润最大化问题：求解要素需求函数、供给函数（参考P32柯布道格拉斯技术的例子） 基本原理： 对于每个价格向量( p,w)，通常会存在要素的最优选择x *。要素最优选择是价格向量的函数，这个函数称为企业的要素需求函数。我们将该函数记为x( p,w)。P是产品的价格，W是要素的价格。函数y ( p,w)=f(x(p,w))称为企业的供给函数。 柯布-道格拉斯函数： 简化：就是对生产函数求导，然后，要素需求函数X=。。。。Y=f(X)=。。。利润函数： 第三章 ?霍特林引理（P46）
第二章需求与供给 四、分析应用题 1、根据影响需求的因素的原理，试从中找出影响我国内需不足的主要因素并加以简单说明。答案要点 (1).简述影响需求的因素的原理（7个因素） (2).影响我国内需不足的主要因素,可以从以下一个或几个方面分析：收入水平；人们对未来的预期；消费政策等。 2、请用供给曲线和需求曲线的相关理论说明北京移民对当地居民工资的影响（结合图形分析）。 答案要点： （1）供大于求，导致工资水平下降 （2）供等于求，工资水平不变 （3）供小于求，工资水平上升 需要分别做三组图，每图都需要标出原均衡点和新的均衡点。 3、从经济学的观点来看，你认为以下哪几种是最能促进小轿车进入大多数家庭的方法，为什么？ 答案要点： (1)提高大多数人的工资能增加消费者的收入,能增加需求； （2）降低小汽车的车价，能增加需求; (3)降低汽车油税，是降低互补品的价格,能增加需求; (4)降低出租车费，是降低替代品的价格,能减少需求; (5)降低停车费，是降低互补品的价格，能增加需求。 4、试作图分析“谷贱伤农”的经济学含义是什么？如何解决“伤农”问题？ 答案要点，谷物作为农产品，是生活必需品也是需求弹性比较小的商品。农民丰收引起供给曲线向右下方移动，新的均衡点与旧的均衡点相比，均衡价格下降了但均衡数量上升了，只是作为需求弹性较小的商品，价格下降的幅度大于均衡数量上升的幅度，所以会导致农民的收入降低。 解决措施：支持价格。供给过剩的谷物由政府通过建立缓冲库存的形式收购。 （图形略） 5、政府通常对某些商品征收消费税。试问，政府能否同时达到这样两个目标：既获得稳定的收入，又抑制了这些商品的生产？ 征收消费税，会提高商品价格，从而减少商品的需求量。此时，需求缺乏弹性的商品需求量下降幅度小，需求富有弹性的商品下降幅度大。因此，只有对需求缺乏弹性的商品征税，政府才能获得稳定的收入。 要抑制某种商品的生产,必须使其总收益下降。只有需求富于弹性的商品,价格提高了总收益才会下降。因此,对任何一种商品征收消费税,政府都不能同时达到上述两个目标。 6、从2001年起每年的春运期间，铁道部都以火车票涨价的方式，试图达到“削峰错谷”，分流旅客的目的，试用经济学原理分析此举是否可行？并提供解决方案。 答案要点： 不行。因为春运期间的火车票属于需求缺乏弹性的商品，原因有二：
高级微观经济学习题参考 （需求理论、企业理论、不确定选择分析部分） I．Problems from MWG （马斯-克莱尔等《微观经济理论》中国社会科学出版）: Chapter 1: 1.D.5 Chapter 2: 2.E.5, 2.E.8, 2.F.3, 2.F.5, Exercise 2.F.7 in the main text (prove Proposition2.F.3), 2.F.16 and 2.F17. Chapter 3: 3.C.6, 3.D.5, 3.G.4, 3.G.5, 3.G.14 If you have not had enough by this point, 3.I.7 is also worth looking at, and has many similarities to Problem 3 above. Chapter 6: 6.B.4, 6.C.9, 6.C.16, 6.C.19, 6.E.3 Depending on how detailed an answer you gave to the verbal question, you may still have energies remaining for 6.F.2, which is also worth looking at. II．Problem : Verbal Question .Verbal Questions.are very much unlike MWG problems, or standard problems in general. The idea is that they should be closer to applied microeconomic research, in that you are asked to come up with a formal model of some interesting phenomenon and derive analytically some meaningful implications. As a result, they tend to be quite open-ended: the question is formulated in a way that should guide the answer, but only up to a point. Specifically, there is no unique correct answer: there are always some things that a good answer should include-- not to mention several mistakes a good answer should not include-- but there tends to be no limit for improvement. It is only a slight exaggeration to say that the perfect answer to these questions would be a publishable paper, or at least the kernel of one. This is even more true of the Verbal Questions you will get in your exams. Verbal Question1： (a) What is the effect of an increase in housing prices on homeowners’ utility? (b) What is th e effect of a decrease in housing prices on homeowners’ utility? (c) What are the effects of changes in housing prices on renters’ utility? Hint—to answer these (1) you need to write down a formal model and come up with a formal expression for the change in utility, (2) you do not need any tools that we have not discussed in class (i.e. no dynamics, etc.). (d) If you were going to write down a dynamic model (think two periods), what would be the important factors that would determine the impact of housing p rices on homeowners’ utility levels?
高级微观经济学考试分析 提要 本文主旨是为通过天津财经大学会计博士入学考试科目之一-《高级微观经济学》考试而做的系统分析。分为三部分：一是过去五年真题我的解答；二是日常做的高级微观经济学习题练习；三是高级微观经济学入学考试题预测。 关键词：天津财经大学 会计博士入学考试 高级微观经济学 系统分析 考试预测 一、 过去五年真题我的解答 (一) 2008年真题 1. 经济理论的逻辑起点是对行为理性的界定，请从偏好的关系定义、公理、性质， 给出理性假定的基本框架，并说明之。 答：经济理论的逻辑起点是经济人假设，理性消费者和理性厂商。理性消费者指在偏好、收入、价格约束下，追求个人效用最大化；理性厂商在资本、市场、价格和技术约束下，追求自身利润最大化。 偏好指消费者对所消费的商品喜好程度，如两个商品A 和B ，消费者1对两商品的喜好可能：A>B,或B>A,或两者无差别. 公理:完备性、传递性和自反性。 完备性： 121 21212,x x x x x x x x 为两个消费束，两消费束可比较，，， 传递性： 122311,n n n x x x x x x x x -????，，，则 自反性： 消费束至少和自身一样好，11x x ≥ 性质：连续性、强单调性、餍足性和凸性。 连续性：消费束在闭区间中； 强单调性：保证了消费者偏好不会突然发生逆转； 餍足性：1221,,x Q x Q x x ∈∈则必有 凸性：121 2122,,,[0,1],(1)x x Q x x a ax a x x ∈∈+-≥则，意味着消费者倾向 于消费更多商品，组合消费至少与组合中较次者一样好，还暗含着消费边际效用递减。 2. 请解释货币彩票的期望、货币彩票的期望效用、货币彩票的确定性等价概念， 说明三者之间的关系，并利用上述概念进一步说明什么是风险溢价。 答： 货币彩票指以货币度量收益或损失的彩票。 货币彩票期望：离散型和连续型。 离散型：()i i i E x p x =∑ 连续型：()()E x x f x dx ∞-∞ = ? 货币彩票期望效用：离散型和连续型。
微观经济学重点概念 1.经济人 从事经济活动的人所采取的经济行为都是力图以自己的最小经济代价去获得自己的最大经济利益。 ２. 需求 消费者在一定时期内在各种可能的价格水平愿意而且能够购买的该商品的数量。 ３. 需求函数 表示一种商品的需求数量和影响该需求数量的各种因素之间的相互关系的函数。 4.供给 生产者在一定时期内在各种价格水平下愿意并且能够提供出售的该种商品的数量。 5.供给函数 供给函数表示一种商品的供给量和该商品的价格之间存在着一一对应的关系。 ６. 均衡价格 一种商品的均衡价格是指该种商品的市场需求量和市场供给量相等时的价格。 7. 需求量的变动和需求的变动 需求量的变动是指在其它条件不变时由某种商品的价格变动所应起的该商品需求数量的变动。需求的变动是指在某商品价格不变的条件下，由于其它因素变动所引起的该商品需求数量的变动。 8. 供给量的变动和供给的变动 供给量的变动是指在其它条件不变时由某种商品的价格变动所应起的该商品供给数量的变动。供给的变动是指在某商品价格不变的条件下,由于其它因素变动所引起的该商品供给数量的变动。 9. 内生变量和外生变量 内生变量指一个经济模型所要决定的变量。外生变量指由模型以外的因素所决定的已知变量。 10．静态分析 根据既定的外生变量值来求得内生变量值的分析方法。 11．比较静态分析 研究外生变量变化对内生变量的影响方式，以及分析比较不同数值的外生变量下的内生变量的不同数值。 １2.动态分析 需要区分变量在时间上的先后差别，研究不同时间点上的变量之间的相互关系。 13.弹性 当一个经济变量发生1%的变动时,由它引起的另一个经济变量变动的百分比。 1４．弧弹性 表示某商品需求曲线上两点之间的需求量的变动对于价格的变动的反应程度。 1５.点弹性 表示需求曲线上某一点上的需求量变动对于价格变动的反应程度。 16．需求的价格弹性 表示在一定时期内一种商品的需求量变动对于该商品的价格变动的反应程度。或者说,表示在一定时期内当一种商品的价格变化百分之一时所引起的该商品的需求量变化的百分比。
高级微观复习 第一章： P12—22：给出生产函数可求出技术替代率、替代弹性、规模报酬等（结合书上P13、P15和P19例题看+P21 CES 生产函数） 1、技术替代率TRS ： ，假设维持产量水平不变， 我们想增加要素1的投入量减少要素2的投入量。这就是这两种要素之间的技术替代率，是衡量等产量线的斜率。 二维情况下：) ,() ,(),(2122111 2 21x x MP x x MP x x x x TRS - =??= N 维情况下，TRS(x 1,x 2)： 或者 柯布-道格拉斯函数下的技术替代率： 2、替代弹性 替代弹性衡量等产量线的曲率。更具体地说，替代弹性衡量在产量维持不变的情形下，要素投入比率的变动百分比除以TRS 变动百分比。
根据公式推导，连锁法则（） 柯布-道格拉斯函数的替代弹性是1。 3、规模报酬 产量等比例增加，我们通常假设只要将以前的生产模式复制，就能生产出t倍的产量。定义（规模报酬不变）：某生产技术呈现规模报酬不变的现象，若它满足下列条件： 定义（规模报酬递增）：若f(tx) >tf(x)（其中t>1），则该技术是规模报酬递增的。 4、CES函数的相关概念 CES函数具有规模报酬不变性质。 （1）线性生产函数（ρ=1）。将ρ=1代入CES生产函数可得y =x1+x2，
， 第二章 利润最大化问题：求解要素需求函数、供给函数（参考P32柯布道格拉斯技术的例子） 基本原理： 对于每个价格向量( p,w)，通常会存在要素的最优选择x *。要素最优选择是价格向量的函数，这个函数称为企业的要素需求函数。我们将该函数记为x( p,w)。P是产品的价格，W是要素的价格。函数y ( p,w)=f(x(p,w))称为企业的供给函数。 柯布-道格拉斯函数： 简化：就是对生产函数求导，然后，要素需求函数X=。。。。Y=f(X)=。。。
PPT:技术章节概念： 1.技术：即将投入要素转换为产品的过程。 2.一种技术的生产函数表明了从一个投入要素集（x 1、x 2……x n ）可生产出的最大可能产量，即 y=f （x 1、x 2……x n ） 当y ≤f （x 1、x 2……x n ）时，我们说生产计划是可能的，所有可能生产计划的集合称为生产集或技术集。 3.边际产量：投入要素i 的边际产量的含义是，在其他投入要素水平不变的情况下，投入要素i 的每变动一个单位导致的产出量的变动。表达式： i i x y MP ??= 4.规模报酬（规模效益）：规模报酬描述的是，当所有投入要素成比例变化时，产出水平的变化情况。可分为规模报酬不变，规模报酬递减与规模报酬递增。 ● 规模报酬不变：f （kx 1，kx 2，……kx n ）=kf （x 1，x 2，……x n ） ● 规模报酬递减：f （kx 1，kx 2，……kx n ）
● 技术替代率的计算： 假设有两种生产要素投入，生产函数为y=f （x 1、x 2），对此函数取全微分： dy=22 11dx x y dx x y ??+?? 由于保持产出水平不变，dy=0 技术替代率为：TRS=2 112x y/x y/dx dx ????=— PPT:利润最大化 1.利润最大化问题的计算（考试计算题，详细看ppt 吧亲们，不整理啦，太麻烦） ● 短期利润最大化问题求解 ● 长期利润最大化问题求解 2.规模报酬与利润最大化（长期） ● 规模报酬递增，长期内利润最大化问题无解（因为如果规模报酬递增，竞争性厂商都会选择增加产量以增大利润，没有利润上限。在完全竞争市场下，这种规模效益递增是不存在的。） ● 规模报酬递减，长期内利润最大化问题有唯一解。 ● 规模报酬不变，竞争性厂商（价格接受者）的长期利润为0.即长期内利润曲线与生产函数曲线是重合的。 PPT ：成本最小化
用经济学原理分析麦当劳折扣券 另一种解释是：麦当劳想借此进行价格歧视——把顾客分开。要获取麦当劳的优惠券，总是要花费一定的时间成本的，而不是随手可得——上麦当劳的网站浏览寻找优惠券，打印优惠券，或者阅读麦当劳的宣传报纸，或者到路边索取，都是需要花费少许成本，主要是时间成本。通常是什么人才愿意花费这些成本呢？是时间成本比较便宜的人。能上麦当劳的人中，什么人时间比较便宜呢？显然是一些收入偏低的人——工薪阶层。另外，优惠券能够购买的通常是某种指定的商品组合，而不是随意购买。也就是说，使用优惠券的顾客，是要付出代价——不能随意挑选商品的代价。这也是一种成本。总而言之，使用优惠券，是要付出代价的——代价者成本也。 通过上述种种方式，麦当劳成功地把麦当劳的顾客中的富人和穷人分开，然后，对于富人——不持有优惠券的人，麦当劳供给他们的商品就比较贵（没有优惠），而对于穷人——持有优惠券的人，麦当劳给他们打折。时间地点商品相同但价格不同，这就是典型的价格歧视。通过价格歧视，麦当劳向消费者榨取了更多的消费者剩余，增加了利润。 关于大学生占座现象的经济学分析 “占座”这一现象在生活中时有发生，在大学校园里更是司空见惯。 从经济学的角度看，当我们假设所有的人都是理性人时，理性人就要追求利益最大化，制度本身不涉及道德问题，一项制度的制定如果能够满足理性人利益最大化的追求，体现了普遍意义上的公平正义，它就是一项合理的制度。下面将运用经济学原理对占座行为的合理性予以分析。 （1）占座——理性人的选择.“占座”意味着你可以拥有令你满意的座位，当你和你的同学同样用心时，你比他们更容易集中精神，获得更好的听课效果，最终得到更优异的成绩。 当然，你需要为占座付出一定的低价，即你为占座付出的机会成本。这里的关键在于机会成本与收益比较孰轻孰重。对于一个学生而言，取得好成绩的意义是不言而喻的，而占座的机会成本，当你用积极的态度看待它们时完全可以被压缩到很小，甚至为负值——早起有益于身体健康，精力充沛，而把时间浪费在早饭上是没有必要的。这么看来，你为占座付出的机会成本是很小的，而得到的收益却大得多，因此占座无疑是理性人的最佳选择。 （2）替他人占座——理性人考虑边际量。如果你已经前赶到了教室，多占个座儿对你来说不过是举手之劳。因为你为此付出的边际成本几乎为零，但这一行为的边际收益则是显而易见的。首先你的室友可能会认为你很体贴，并因此提高对你的评价；其次，即便是你所服务的人不认为这是美德的表现，而将之视为一项投资，那么遵循等价交换的原则，在适当的场合时，他也必定会为之付出某种方式的回报。这种情况，通俗地讲叫做“顺水人情”，本小利大，何乐而不为呢？
重要知识点 消费者理性偏好公理与性质假定的内容及涵义 （基于理性偏好关系的）效用函数存在性定理证明 显示性偏好理论及其运用 瓦尔拉斯需求函数和希克斯需求函数推导 对偶性原理证明 各类需求弹性计算及相互关系 利用斯拉茨基方程分析价格变动的替代效应、收入效应和总效应 消费者福利变化分析（消费者剩余、等价变化、补偿变化） 生产集的定义及主要性质假定 利用替代弹性判定几种典型生产函数的关系 技术进步测定思路（产出增值率分解） 欧拉方程与克拉克分配定理的涵义与解读 利润函数和成本函数的边际条件和应用边界 成本函数性质与利润函数性质 利用多种方法进行供给函数求解 简单彩票、复合彩票、货币彩票及彩票空间的独立性公理的形式化描述 利用效用函数刻画经济主体风险态度（确定性等价、风险溢价） 绝对和相对风险规避系数定义与计算 一阶随机占优与二阶随机占优（分布比较） 保险需求理论的基本框架 资产组合理论的基本框架 三类价格歧视的存在条件与基本特征 单个竞争性市场局部均衡分析 简述经济理论建立市场价格机制配置资源的分析框架时，所采用的分层处理结构纯交换经济一般均衡基本分析框架及其例解 利用艾奇沃斯盒状图说明2×2分配模型中的均衡实现过程 简述一般均衡分析中三类经济（纯交换经济、竞争性经济、货币经济）背景的特征异同，以及一般均衡结果差异
帕累托最优的概念、形式化定义及意义 简述一般经济系统的帕累托最优条件 简述福利经济学第一定理和第二定理、意义、局限性 利用帕累托最优标准，分析消费存在外部性经济的效率 生产存在外部性经济的帕累托最优条件 利用税收与补贴政策如何实现生产外部性经济的帕累托最优改进。公共产品导致市场失灵的基本分析框架。
缁忔祹瀛︼細寰缁忔祹鍒嗘瀽(涓€) (鎬诲垎锛?5.00锛屽仛棰樻椂闂达細90鍒嗛挓) 涓€銆亄{B}}鍗曢」閫夋嫨棰榹{/B}}(鎬婚鏁帮細55锛屽垎鏁帮細55.00) 1.Income elasticity is defined as the: ? A. percentage change in income divided by the percentage change in the quantity demanded. ? B. change in quantity demanded divided by the change in income. ? C. percentage change in the quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income. 锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div> A. B. C. 鈭?/span> D. 瑙ｆ瀽锛欼ncome elasticity is defined as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in income. Normal goods have positive values for income elasticity and inferior goods have negative income elasticities. 2.According to the "invisible hand" principle, which of the following statements is least accurate? ? A. Competitive markets produce an optimal basket of goods and services. ? B. Efficient allocation of productive resources occurs through competition. ? C. The authority of the state, although not seen, must always be present in the market. 锛堝垎鏁帮細1.00锛?/div> A. B. C. 鈭?/span> D. 瑙ｆ瀽锛歍he "invisible hand" to which Adam Smith referred in The Wealth of Nations did not include any legal authority. Rather, Smith was describing the way that individual producers serve society's interest by competing with one another to produce the goods and services that are valued most highly by final consumers, even though the producers do not have society's interest explicitly in mind. 3.Product differentiation is the greatest source of market power for which of the following market structures ? ? A. Perfect competition. ? B. Oligopoly. ? C. Monopolistic competition.
高级微观经济学学习心得 学习了三个多月的三高，我感觉高级微观是三高里面相对来说最难的，高级微观给我的感觉是比较抽象的，其中还有许多有相当难道的数学知识，高级计量与高级宏观跟其比起来则要具体多些，不管是公式的推导，还是概念的讲解，都给人很明晰的感觉。当然学习高级微观感觉比较抽象的另一方面原因，应该是自己能力的不足，对于教材的理解还不够，刚刚接触这种学习还有一些畏难情绪。但是，总而言之，自己在这三个月的学习中，努力去总结，努力去使自己跟上老师的节奏，我也相信努力总会有所收获。 下面我就来谈谈这几个月的学习感悟，当然，也许对某些知识点的理解会跟老师的有些出路。 （一）关于偏好与效用 微观经济理论的一个显著特征是，它试图建立模型，用追求自身利益的单个经济参与人之间的相互作用来解释经济活动。因此，我们对微观经济理论的研究从分析个人决策的制定开始。对于个人的决策其实就是个人选择的问题，人的选择又分为自觉的选择和本能的选择。在微观中我们考虑的四个问题就是选项是什么、可能的选项是什么、可行的选项是什么、应该的选项是什么。首先对于选项的策略是什么以及可能的选项是什么这两个问题进行说明，任何个人决策的起点都是一个可能的备选物集合，然后这些备选物是互斥的，个人必须从这些备选物中进行选择。我们将备选物集记为X，这个集合可以为任何东西，这样的一个集合则为我们提供了选择的选项，由于集合可以为任何东西，所以在不同的情况下，X可以为不同的备选集。而当个人具体选择里面的选项时则涉及可能的选项是什么，比如中午吃什么，米饭不是选项，面条也不是选项，而｛在一楼，一份面条，
一个鸡蛋｝才是选项。对于可行的选项，则是对选项的一个具体要求，对于不同的约束情况下，备选集应该针对具体问题有具体的选项，而不能脱离选择约束条件，一个不可能的选项永远也不可能选上。最后就是应该的选项，这个应该的选项也就是我们最后想要的结果。 整个第一部分就是在考虑去怎么解决这四个问题，为了建立个人的选择模型，课本引入了偏好与效用问题。偏好是指消费者按照自己的意愿对可供选择的商品组合进行的排列组合。偏好是微观经济学价值理论中的一个基础概念。偏好是主观的，也是相对的概念。偏好实际是潜藏在人们心的一种情感和倾向，它是非直观的，引起偏好的感性因素多于理性因素。偏好有明显的个体差异，也呈现出群体特征。偏好之所以会受到经济学家的重视和研究，是因为它是所有经济学的最最基础的东西，如果经济学是一座大厦，那么偏好的研究就是这座大厦的地基里的一块块砖石。而所有的经济学的理论研究都必须要先建立在人们的偏好基础之上。效用是微观经济学中最经典的术语之一，最早可以追溯到亚历士多的《政治学》。作为经济畴的效用，最初出现于费迪南多加利亚尼1751 年出版的《论货币》，其含义为效用是指对于消费者通过消费或者享受闲暇等使自己的需求、欲望等得到的满足的一个度量。经济学家用它来解释有理性的消费者如何把他们有限的资源分配在能给他们带来最大满足的商品上。在维多利亚女王时代，哲学家和经济学家曾经轻率的将效用当做一个人整个福利指标。效用一度认为是个人快乐的数学测度。 有了效用之后就可以用效用来衡量个人对一个选项的喜欢程度，而偏好又是在效用上增加了规则。对于决策者的偏好，我们主要有两个假设：完备性和传递性，满足这两个假设的偏好被称为理性偏好。有的教科书也
第二章 需求、供给与均衡分析 1，需求的变动（教材P22） 需求的变动是指在某商品价格不变的条件下，由于其他因素的变动所引起的该商品的需求数量的变动。 2,供给的变动（教材P21） 供给变动对均衡价格的影响： P D 1 E 4 D 2 P 1 P 2 E 1 E 2 S 1 S 2
4。需求弧弹性的五种分类 5。需求点弹性的五种类型 在需求的价格点弹性中，上述分析的五种基本类型也同样存在。见下页说明。
6。供给弹性的几何测定： 供给的价格点弹性也可以用几何方法来求得。在此用图2－8以线性供给函数为例加以 在A 点的点弹性值： Esp = Q P dP dQ ?=OB AB AB CB ? =OB CB 7。供给价格弹性的分类及几何表示 8。支持价格的含义及影响 图2—21表示政府对某种产品实行最低限价的情形。政府实行最低限价所规定的市场 A B e s >1 (a ) P O Q S C A B e s <1 (b ) P O Q S C A B e s =1 (c ) P O Q S (C )
价格为P 0。由图可见，最低限价P 0大于均衡价格P e ，在最低限价P 0的水平，市场供给量Q 2大于市场需求量Q 1，市场上出现产品过剩（过度供给）的情况。 政府实行最低限价的目的通常是为了扶植某些行业的发展。农产品的支持价格就是西方国家所普遍采取的政策，在实行这一政策时，政府通常收购市场上过剩的农产品。 第三章 消费者行为 1．总效用与边际效用的关系 根据表3—1所绘制的总效用和边际效用曲线如图3—1所示。 图中的横轴表示商品的数量，纵轴表示效用量，TU 曲线和MU 曲线分别为总效用曲线和边际效用曲线。由于边际效用被定义为消费品的一单位变化量所带来的总效用的变化量，又由于图中的商品消费量是离散的，所以，MU 曲线上的每一个值都记在相应的两个消费数量的中点上。 在图中，MU 曲线因边际效用递减规律而成为向右下方倾斜的，相应地，TU 曲线则随着MU 的变动而呈现先上升后下降的变动特点。总结MU 与TU 的关系： 当MU ＞0时，TU 上升 当MU ＜0时，TU 下降 当MU ＝0是。TU 达极大值。 从数学意义上讲，如果效用曲线是连续的，则每一消费量上的边际效用值就是总效用曲线上相应的点的斜率。这一点，也体现在边际效用的定义公式(3.3)式中。 图2－20 最高限价 S D P e O Q 1 P Q Q 图2－21 最低限价 S D P e Q 1 O P Q 2 Q 2
微观经济学的分析方法 第一章、经济学方法论 说明：三个大的主题，侧重方法是比较优势。 一、科学是对现象规律性的系统解释 1、什么是现象的规律性 科学研究中的现象必须是现实当中的可观测的事物，实际上有人就认为可观测性决定了科学的边界，当然，随着观测技术的发展，科学的边界就可以不断的拓宽。我们需要区分可观测性和现实性，后者是前者的必要条件，例如，偏好是现实之物，但却不可观测。据说，实验经济学可以显示人们的偏好。 我们需要能够区分理论虚构的概念和现实之物。例如，需求、供给等都是理论虚构。 规律实际上指的是事物间的稳定的关系，稳定的含义在于这种关系会重复，实际上，这是科学研究方法能够被接受的重要原因，这种方法要求世界观接受这样的思想，世界不仅有序而且稳定，只要能够找到这些决定性的作用力量，就会发现这个世界上的物的运动和人的行为都具有相当的规律，困扰我们的只是由于特定的条件变化而产生的作用机制的不同的表现而已。（重复产生了对科学的需求，例如建水电站，例如管理和经营。我们要能够透过现象看本质。财大周边麻辣烫红火的含义） 科学的方法论需要假设物的运动和人的行为是有规律的，这是科学研究的前提。因此，如果讨论经济学是否是一们科学，需要回答的第一个问题就是人的行为是否有规律。 物体下落、报纸和钞票的命运。 找到现象的规律性仅仅是科学研究的第一步，现象的规律性仍然需要解释。在科学哲学上，这一原则被认为是事实不能解释事实，现象的规律性仅仅是变量之间的关系，我们需要借助理论来解释这种关系。或者说，现象的规律仅仅表明了所以然，理论则告诉我们之所以然。举了例子来看，物体的重量会随着海拔而改变，但是海拔不能解释物体重量的变化，解释这一规律的是引力理论，但是我们可以通过观测海拔变化来推测物体重量的变化。（钟伟评价非典的方法） 规律的获得的基本方法：人们如何从经验中学习。 ——华罗庚讲过的故事，一个人从一个不透明的袋子里往外面掏球，第一个，第二个，第三个。。。都是红的玻璃球，于是他开始猜想，这个袋子里所有的都是红玻璃球，结果后面发现了一个白的，他开始修正猜想，所有的都是玻璃球，后来又发现了金属的，于是又开始猜想，袋子里都是球。。。归纳猜想和验证就这样不断的进展下去。 ——常见的错误：不完全归纳：以偏概全。盲人摸象的故事。但是大胆运用“一叶落而知秋寒” ——发现因果的方法（运用T型图） 求同法：不同的场合下，只有一个不变的因素导致了相同的结果，此因素即为原因。 求异法：其他情况相同，唯一情况不同。例如，控制下的实验。 共变法：在其他条件不变的前提下，一个现象发生一定量的变化，另一现象也发生一定程度的变化。 剩余法：已知一个复合的被研究对象与另一个复合的现象之间有因果联系，又已知部分因素之间的因果联系，剩下的因素之间具有因果联系。 1846年，天文学家在观察天王星的运行轨道时发现，他的运行轨道和按照引力计算出来的轨道不同，在几个地方出现了偏离。其中几个方面的偏离都知道是已知的几个行星作用的结果，而一个方面的偏离原因不明，但是如果万有引力理论是正确的，那么也就应该在偏离的地方有一个行星，后来随着观测技术的提高，人们终于发现了这个新的星星，海王星。 人们既可以通过观察和归纳来发现现象之间的关系，也可以通过数量分析方法来获得，
导论 （一）经济学的定义 西方经济学的定义：西方经济学研究人与社会如何使用稀缺的生产性资源，生产出有价值的商品，并把它们分配给社会的各个成员。 西方经济学包含的最基本的思想：资源是稀缺的社会必须以有效率的方式使用它。 （二）经济学研究的基本问题 西方经济学研究的三个基本问题： 1. 生产什么以及生产多少。 2. 怎样生产。用什么样的方法来生产这么多的产量与劳务，与生产方式，技术水平直接有关。 3. 为谁生产。生产出来的产量和劳务用什么样方式分配到社会的各个成员中，即怎样分配。 （三）微观经济学的含义 微观经济学通过对单个经济主体的经济行为的研究来说明现代经济中市场机制的运行和作用以及改善这种运行途径，其中心理论为" 看不见的手" 价格机制。 微观经济学研究的主要容： 第一层次，分析单个消费者如何做出最优的生产决策以取得最大效用，单个生产者如何以最优的经济决策取得最大利润。 第二层次，分析单个市场的价格和产量的决定，这是作为某一市场中消费者和生产者（需求和供给双方）在追求自身的经济利益的条件下，共同作用的结果。 第三层次，分析所有单个市场的价格和产量的决定，这又要取决于所有单个市场（如产品市场、劳动市场、资本市场）的共同作用。 （四）宏观经济学的含义 宏观经济学以整个经济的总体行为为研究对象，考察作为总体的市场表现，说明社会的资源总量是如何决定的。 宏观经济学研究的主要容：消费者和厂商如何选择，以决定消费和投资数量，从而决定总需求。消费者和厂商如何选择供给、投入以决定整个经济的总供给。经济中的总需求和总供给如何决定资源总量和价格总水平。资源总量和价格总水平的长期变动趋势。 （五）微观经济学与宏观经济学之间的联系 首先，微观经济学和宏观经济学是互为补充的； 其次，微观经济学是宏观经济学的基础； 再次，宏观经济学并不是微观经济学的简单加总或重复； 最后，两者共同构成了西方经济学的整体。 （六）微观经济学包含的主要容 第二章：供给、需求及价格理论； 第三章：介绍消费者行为理论； 第四章：生产分析； 第五章：厂商的利润和成本； 第六章：完全竞争市场； 第七章：不完全竞争市场； 第11章：市场失灵和微观经济政策 第二章 需求 （一）需求的定义 需在一定的时期，在一既定的价格水平下，消费者愿意并且能够购买的商品数量。 需求的表示：需求表、需求曲线和需求函数。 需求表：它是一某种商品的各种价格和与各种价格相对应的该商品的需求量之间关系的数字序列表。 需求曲线：需求曲线是根据需求表中的商品的不同的价格与需求量的组合，在平面上拟合的一条曲线。 需求函数：假定商品的价格与需求量的变化具有无限的分割性，把商品价格视为自变量，把需求量作为依变量，则：D=f （P ）。即为需求函数。 （二）需求规律（需求定理） 当影响商品需求量的其他因素不变时，商品的需求量随着商品价格的上升而减少，随着商品价格下降而增加。这就是我们常说的需求规律。需求曲线的特例。 （三）影响需求量的因素 1.商品本身价格。一般而言，商品的价格与需求量成反方向变动，即价格越高，需求越少，反之则反是。 2. 相关商品的价格。当一种商品本身价格不变，而其他相关商品价格发生变化时，这种商品的需求量也会发生变化。 3. 消费者的收入水平。当消费者的收入提高时，会增加商品的需求量，反之则反是，劣等品除外。 4.消费者的偏好。当消费者对某种商品的偏好程度增强时，该商品的需求量就会增加；相反偏好程度减弱，需求量就会减少。