科技英语翻译复习(课文)
Unit 1
Pure and Applied Science (1)
As students of science (2)you are probably sometimes puzzled by the terms …pure? and …applied? science. Are these two totally different activities, having little or no interconnection, as is often implied? Let us begin by examining what is done by each.
(3)
Pure science is primarily concerned with the development of theories (or, as they are frequently called, models) establishing relationships between the phenomena of the universe.(4)When they are sufficiently validated, these theories (hypotheses, models) become the working laws or principles of science. In carrying out this work, the pure scientist usually disregards its application to practical affairs, confining his attention to explanations of how and why events occur. Hence, in physics, the equations describing the behavior of fundamental particles, or in biology, the establishment of the life cycle of a particular species of insect living in a Polar environment, (5)are said to be examples of pure science (basic research), having no apparent connection (for the moment) with technology, i.e. applied science.
Applied science, on the other hand, is directly concerned with the application of the working laws of pure science to the practical affairs of life, and to increasing man?s control over his environment, thus leading to the development of new techniques, processes and machines. (6)Such activities as investigating the strength and uses of materials, extending the findings of pure mathematics to improve the sampling procedures used in agriculture or the social sciences, and developing the potentialities of atomic energy, are all examples of the work of the applied scientist or technologist.
It is evident that many branches of applied science are practical extensions of purely theoretical or experimental work. Thus the study of radioactivity began as a piece of pure research, but its results are now applied in a great number of different ways ---- in cancer treatment in medicine, the development of fertilizers in agriculture, the study of metal-fatigue in engineering, in methods of estimating the ages of objects in anthropology and geology, etc. Conversely, work in applied science and technology frequently acts as a direct stimulus to the development of pure science. Such an interaction occurs, for example, when the technologist, in applying a particular concept of pure science to a practical problem, reveals a gap or limitation in the theoretical model, thus pointing the way for further basic research. Often a further interaction occurs, since the pure scientist is unable to undertake this further research until another technologist provides him with more highly-developed instruments.
It seems, then, (7)that these two branches of science are mutually dependent and interacting, and that the so-called division (8)between the pure scientist and the applied scientist is more apparent than real.
理论科学与应用科学(Pure and Applied Science)
理工科学生有时候也许会被“理论”科学与“应用”科学这两个名称弄得莫名
其妙。难道这两者真的像字面所表明的那样，有着截然不同的内容，也就是很少相关，甚至全不相干吗？让我们先来看一看两者各自的作用吧。
理论科学首先涉及到的是确立理论（或者人们常常称之为模型），把宇宙间的种种现象联系起来。一旦有效，这些理论(假设、模型)便成为现行的科学定律或原理。在从事这方面工作时，理论科学家通常并不顾及/考虑理论的实际应用问题，他只是力图去解释事情发生的方式和原因。所以，物理学上描述基本粒子性质的方程式，或生物学上确定活在极地严寒环境里的某些特别昆虫的生命周期，都可以说是理论科学(基础研究)的实例。在那种情况下，理论科学与技术，也就是理论科学与应用科学，毫无关系。
另一方面，应用科学却直接关联到把理论科学现行的定律应用于实际生活之中，以之增强人类对环境的控制能力，从而导致新技术的发展、新工艺的制定和新机器的研制。诸如材料强度和应用的研究、理论数学上的发现推广应用到改善农业或社会科学的取样程序、原子能潜力的开发等等活动，全都是应用科学家，即技术人员从事这方面工作的例证。
显然，应用科学的许多分支实际上都是纯理论研究或实验研究的延续。所以，放射性的研究，是作为一项纯理论研究来开始的，但其成果，今天却以种种不同的方式得到应用：医学上用于治疗癌症，农业上用于研制肥料，工程学上以之研究金属疲劳，人类学、地质学等等方面，则把它应用在估算研究对象的寿龄或年代的方法中。反过来说，应用科学和技术工作，又常常对理论科学的发展，起着直接的推动作用。比方说，在把理论科学某一特定要领应用于某一实际问题时，技术人员揭示了该理论模型的缺陷或局限性，从而指出了进一步基础研究的方向，这时候，这种相互作用就显出来了。因此，这种相互作用往往还不至于此，因为理论科学家还要依靠别的技术人员向他提供更先进的仪器，才能进行进一步的基础研究。
由此看来，科学上的这两大范畴，似乎是相互依存，彼此促进的，而理论科学家与应用科学家之间的所谓区分，在实质上并不那么泾渭分明。
Unit 2
The Fantastic Spurt in Technology (1)
To most people the term technology conjures up images of smoky steel mills or noisy machines. Perhaps the classic representation of technology is still the assembly line created by Henry Ford (2)half a century ago and made into a social symbol by Charlie Chaplin (3)in Modern Times. This symbol, however, has always been inadequate and misleading, for technology has always been more than factories and machines. The invention of the horse collar in the Middle Ages led to major changes in agricultural methods and was as much a technological advance as the invention of the Bessemer furnace (4) centuries later. Moreover, technology includes techniques, or ways to do things, as well as the machines that may or may not be necessary to apply them. It includes ways to make chemical reactions occur, ways to breed fish, plant forests, light theaters, count votes or teach history.
The old symbols of technology are even more misleading today, when the most advanced technological processes are carried out far from assembly lines or blast furnaces. Indeed, in electronics, in space technology, in most of the new industries, quiet and clean surroundings are characteristic ---- even sometimes essential. And the
assembly line ---- the organization of large numbers of men to carry out simple repetitive functions ---- is outdated. It is time for our symbols of technology to change---- to catch up with the quickening changes in technology itself.
This acceleration is frequently dramatized by a brief account of the progress in transportation. It has been pointed out, for example, that in 6000 BC the fastest transportation available to man over long distances was the camel caravan, averaging eight miles per hour (mph). It was not until about 1600 BC when the chariot was invented that the maximum speed was raised to roughly twenty miles per hour.
So impressive was this invention, so difficult was it to exceed this speed limit, that nearly 3,500 years later, when the first mail coach began operating in England in 1784, it averaged a mere ten mph. The first steam locomotive, introduced in 1825, could have a top speed of only thirteen mph and the great sailing ships of the time labored along at less than half that speed. It was probably not until the 1880?s that man, with the help of a more advanced steam locomotive, managed to reach a speed of one hundred mph. It took the human race millions of years to attain that record.
It took only fifty-eight years, however, to go four times that fast, so that by 1938 men in airplanes were traveling at better than 400 mph. It took a mere twenty-year flick of time to double the limit again. And by the 1960?s rocket planes approached speeds of 4,000 mph, and men in space capsules were circling the earth at 18,000 mph.
Whether we examine distances traveled, altitudes reached, or minerals mined, the same accelerative trend is obvious. The pattern, here and in a thousand other statistical series, is absolutely clear and unmistakable. Thousands of years go by, and then, in our own times, a sudden bursting of the limits, a fantastic spurt forward.
The reason for this is that technology feeds on itself. Technology makes more technology possible, as we can see if we look for a moment at the process of innovation. Technological innovation consists of three stages, linked together into a self-reinforcing cycle. First, there is the creative, feasible idea. Second, its practical application. Third, its diffusion through society.
The process is completed, the loop closed, when the diffusion of technology embodying the new idea, in turn, helps generate new creative ideas. Today there is evidence that the time between each of the steps in this cycle has been shortened. Thus it is not merely true, as frequently noted, that 90 percent of all the scientists who ever lived are now alive, and that new scientific discoveries are being made every day. These new ideas are put to work much more quickly than ever before. The time between the first and second stages of the cycle ---- between idea and application ---- has been radically reduced. This is a striking difference between ourselves and our ancestors. It is not that we are more eager or less lazy than our ancestors, but we have, with the passage of time, invented all sorts of social devices to hasten the process.
But if it takes less time to bring a new idea to the marketplace, it also takes less time for it to sweep through the society. For example, the refrigerator was introduced in the United States before 1920, yet its peak production did not come until more than thirty years later. However, by 1950, ----in only a few years ---- television had grown from a laboratory novelty to the biggest part of show business. So the interval
between the second and third stages of the cycle ---- between application and diffusion ---- has likewise been cut, and the pace of diffusion is rising with astonishing speed.
The stepped-up pace of invention, application and diffusion, in turn, accelerates the whole cycle still further. For new machines or techniques are not merely a product, but a source, of fresh creative ideas.
工艺技术上不可思议的突飞猛进(The Fantastic Spurt in Technology)
对大多数人来说，“技术”这个词往往使人联想到浓烟滚滚的钢铁厂或是轰隆作响的机器。或许，技术的经典代表仍然是半个世纪之前亨利·福特首创的流水装配线。在电影《摩登时代》里，查理·卓别林则将流水装配线变成现代社会的象征。然而，这一象征并不完善，且易引起误解，因为技术从来就不仅仅是工厂和机器。中世纪发明的马轭导致了耕种方法的重大变革，它与几世纪后发明的贝西默鼓风炉一样是重大的技术进步。再者，除机器外，技术还包括技艺，即制作方法，而这些技艺、方法的运用并不一定都要机器。技术包括促成化学反应的方法，包括养鱼、造林、剧院照明、选票统计以及历史教学的方法等等。
到了今天，旧的技术象征更会引起误解，因为当今最先进的工艺流程是在远离流水装配线和鼓风炉的地方进行的。实际上，在电子技术、太空技术以及大部分新兴工业中，安静和清洁的环境是其特色——有时甚至是必不可少的。而流水装配线——组织大批的人从事简单的重复性的劳动——已经过时。现在该是更换我们的技术象征的时候了——以便赶上技术本身越来越快的变化。
简要地回顾一下交通发展史，工艺技术的这种加速变化往往便可得到生动形象的说明。譬如，有人指出，在公元前6千年的时候，人类远距离交通的最快手段是骆驼运输队，平均每小时8英里。直到公元前大约1千6百年双轮马拉战车的发明，才将最高速度提高到每小时20英里。
双轮马拉战车是一项非常突出的发明，要超过它的最高速度实在困难。过了将近3千5百年，到了公元1784年，第一辆邮车在英国运行，其时速平均只有10英里。1825年问世的第一辆蒸汽机车，最高时速仅为13英里，而当时的大帆船仅以不到火车一般的速度在海上慢慢颠簸。大概直到19世纪80年代，人类借助一种更为先进的蒸汽机车，才达到每小时100英里的速度。达到之一记录，人类花了数百万年的时间。
然而，此后只用58年，就把这一速度提高到原先的4倍。到了1938年，人们乘坐飞机旅行，时速超过400英里。后来，只用了20年瞬息功夫，这个速度就又翻了一番。到了20世纪60年代，火箭飞机的时速接近4千英里，而人们乘坐宇宙飞船则以1万8千英里的时速绕地球运行。
我们无论是考查旅行的距离，达到的高度，还是考察矿产的开采，这样一种加速的趋向都是显而易见的。这里，以及其它上千种的系统的统计资料里，都明白无误地呈现出这种模式。数千年过去了，然后，到了我们的时代，一切极限突然统统被打破，出现了不可思议的突飞猛进。
这一情况的出现，其原因在于技术本身的扶植作用。现有的技术使得更多的技术得以实现。只要我们稍许看一看革新的过程，就会一目了然。技术革新包含3个阶段，他们连在一起形成一个自我强化的循环。首先是一个创造性的可行的想法。其二是它的实际应用。第三，是它在社会上的推广。
当体现这一新思想的技术推广反过来帮助产生新的创造性思想的时候，这一过程
就完成了，这个循环也就结束了。今天，有证据表明，这一循环的每一个步骤之间的时间已经缩短了。
因此，正如人们常常提到的，一个千真万确的情况是，从古至今的科学家中有90%的人活在今天的世界上，新的科学发现现在天天都有。这些新的思想现在比以往任何时候都得到更快的应用。这一循环过程的第一和第二阶段之间——即想法和应用之间——的时间已大大缩短。这一点是我们和我们祖先之间的一个引人注目的差别。这不是说我们比祖先更急于求成或较少懒惰，而是由于时间的推移，我们已经发明了各种社会手段来加速这一进程。
但是如果说，将新思想投入市场应用的时间缩短了的话，那么，它在全社会推广的时间也缩短了。举例说吧，在美国，电冰箱在1920年前就开始使用了，但是直到30多年之后，它的生产才达到高峰。然而到1950年的时候——只经过几年时间——电视已从实验室里的一件新玩意儿发展到娱乐业的最大组成部分了。所以这一循环过程的第二和第三阶段之间——即应用和推广之间——的间隔也同样缩短了，而推广的进程正以惊人的速度加快进行。
发明、应用、推广的加速反过来又更进一步加速了整个循环过程。因为新的机器、新的技术不仅是一种新的创造性思维的产物，而且是新的创造性思想的源泉。
Unit 3
Science and Technology in Traditional China(1)
Until relatively recently the general belief in the West was that the science and technology which had existed in traditional China was of relatively little importance compared with that of Europe. Now we know that this is not true. Traditional China had developed a substantial body of knowledge about many scientific and technological topics. Much of this knowledge predates that of Europe, in some cases by several centuries, and was acquired in a society which knew very little, if anything, of what was taking place in Europe.
These three discoveries ---- printing, gunpowder and magnetism ---- were all made much earlier in China than in Europe but, unlike in Europe, these discoveries were not followed by major changes in the structure of Chinese society.
Block printing was invented in China in the 9th century AD and printed books began to appear in the later years of that century. The oldest surviving printed book is a Buddhist text, which dates from AD 868, and a complete printed edition of the Classical Books of Confucius (2) was commissioned in AD 932 and completed in AD 953. Moveable type was developed in the l1th century, even though a separate piece of type was needed for each of the thousands of characters. Moveable type was not introduced in Europe until 400 years later, when Gutenberg (3) printed his Latin Bible in1456.
The origins of gunpowder in China also date from the 9th century AD. The earliest written formula for a form of gunpowder, a mixture of charcoal, saltpeter and sulphur, appeared in a Chinese book published in AD 1044. It was not until the early 14th century that any similar reference can be found in Europe. And the new invention was soon applied to weapons such as the rocket launcher and the barrel gun.
The first mention of magnetism and the equivalent of a magnetic compass are even earlier. There is a reference to a “south-controlling spoon” in a text dating from AD 83. The spoon itself was carved from lodestone and, when placed on a highly polished
bronze plate, always rotated until it pointed south. Chinese compasses always point south! There are many references to a “south-pointer”in the following centuries ---- well before the first European mention of magnetic polarity in 1180.
It seems likely that these magnetic compasses were used in navigation as early as the 10th century, and there is some evidence that the Chinese knew of magnetic declination ---- the fact that compasses do not point exactly North-South and that the difference varies with time ---- before Europeans knew of magnetic polarity.
古代中国的科学和技术(Science and Technology in Traditional China)
直到不久以前，西方人都普遍认为，古代中国的科学和技术同欧洲相比是微不足道的。现在我们知道这不是真的。在古代中国已经形成了一个涉及众多科技领域的庞大知识体系。其中的许多知识都先于欧洲，有的甚至比欧洲早了好几个世纪；而且，这些知识均产生于一个对欧洲的一切一无所知的社会之中。
这三大发明——印刷术、火药和指南针——在中国的创造都要早于欧洲，但它们的创造并没有像在欧洲那样引起中国社会结构的重大改变。
刻版印刷在中国出现于公元九世纪，刻版印刷的书籍则出现于九世纪后期。现存最早的刻版印刷书籍是一部佛经，时间为公元868年；一套完整的儒家经典著作也于公元932年交付印刷出版，于公元953年完成。活字印刷出现于十一世纪，虽然成千上万的汉字必须各有一块印模。直到400年后的1456年，谷登堡用活字印刷术印刷了他的拉丁文《圣经》，活字印刷才在欧洲出现。
火药在中国也是起源于九世纪。在一本出版于1044年的中文书籍中提到了一种用木炭、硝石和硫磺混合制成火药的方法。直到十三世纪初，欧洲才有类似的记载。而且，这一新发明很快就被用于火箭发射器和火药枪。
最早提到磁力和相当于磁力罗盘的书籍出现的时间甚至更早。在一本可追溯到公元83年出版的书籍中，曾经提到过一个“指南勺”。勺子是由一块天然磁石雕刻而成的。当把它置于高度刨光的铜板上时，它会一直转动，直到指向南方。中国的罗盘总是指向南方! 在后来的几个世纪中，出现了许多有关“指南针”的文献——远远早于欧洲在1180年首次对磁的二极性的提及。
这些磁罗盘似乎很有可能早在十世纪就已用于航海，而且有证据表明中国人还知道磁偏角——罗盘并不正好南北指向以及角度差异随时间而变——早于欧洲人知道磁的二极性。
Unit 4
Numbers and Mathematics(1)
It is said that mathematics is the base of all other sciences, and that arithmetic, the science of numbers, is the base of mathematics. Numbers consist of whole numbers (integers) which are formed by the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 and by combinations of them. (2) For example, 247 ---- two hundred and forty seven ---- is a number formed by three digits. Parts of numbers (3)smaller than 1 are sometimes expressed in terms of fractions, but in scientific usage they are given as decimals. This is because it is easier to perform the various mathematical operations if decimals are used instead of fractions. The main operations are: to add, subtract, multiply and divide; to square, cube or raise to any other power; to take a square, cube or any other root and to find a ratio or proportion between pairs of numbers or a series of numbers.
(4)Thus, the decimal, or ten-scale, system is used for scientific purposes throughout
the world, even in countries whose national systems of weights and measurements are based upon other scales. The other scale in general use nowadays is the binary, or two-scale, in which numbers are expressed by combinations of only two digits, 0 and 1. Thus, in the binary scale, 2 is expressed as 010. 3 is given as 011. 4 is represented as 100, etc. This scale is perfectly adapted to “on-off”pulses of electricity, so it is widely used in electronic computers: because of its simplicity it is often called “the lazy school-boy?s dream”!
Other branches of mathematics such as algebra and geometry are also extensively used in many sciences and even in some areas of philosophy. More specialized extensions, such as probability theory and group theory, are now applied to an increasing range of activities, from economics and the design of experiments to war and politics. Finally, a knowledge of statistics is required by every type of scientists for the analysis of data. Moreover, even an elementary knowledge of this branch of mathematics is sufficient to enable the journalist to avoid misleading his readers, or the ordinary citizen to detect the attempts which are constantly made to deceive him.
数与数学(Numbers and Mathematics)
人们都说数学是各门学科的基础；而算术，即数的科学，又是数学的基础。数由整数构成，整数则由0，1，2，3，4，5，6，7，8和9这些数字及其任意组合构成。比如247(二百四十七)，是由三个数字构成的三位数。小于1的数，有时用分数来表示，但是应用在科学运算上时，却以小数表示，这是因为用小数要比用分数更容易进行各种数学运算。主要的运算有：加、减、乘、除，平方、立方或求任意次幂，开平方、开立方或求任意次方根，以及算出两个数之间、或若干组数的比或比例。由于这个缘故，所以全世界都把十进制，即十进位计数法，应用在科学上，即使在那些法定度量衡以其他进位制为标准的国家里，也不例外。当今普遍采用的另一种进位制是二进制，即二进位计数法。它只用0和1两个数字的组合来表示。所以在二进制里，2以010表示，3为011，4则以100代之，如此等等。这种进位制完全适用于电的“开－关”脉冲，因此广泛应用于电子计算机中。由于它简单，故常有“懒学生的梦想”之称。
数学的其他分支，如代数和几何，也广泛应用于许多科学中，甚至应用在哲学的某些领域中。数学上更专业化的分支，像概率论和群论，现在的应用范围也在不断地扩大，已从经济学和实验设计扩展到战争和政治领域。最后，统计学的知识是各行各业的科学家分析数据时必须具备的。此外，对于新闻记者来说，只要稍有一点统计学知识，就可以避免因为报道失实而使读者引入歧途。而对于普通老百姓来说，则可以利用这方面的知识，来识破常常用来欺骗他们的企图。
Unit 5
Physics(1)
Physics is often defined as the science of matter and energy. Physics is concerned chiefly with the laws and properties of the material universe. These are studied in the closely related sciences of mechanics, heat, sound, electricity, light, and atomic and nuclear structure. The principles studied in these fields have been applied in numerous combinations to build our mechanical age. Such recent terms as chemical physics and biophysics are indicative of the widening application of the principles of physics,
even in the study of living organisms. (2)
Mechanics is the oldest and basic branch of physics. This portion of the subject deals with such ideas as inertia, motion, force, and energy. Of especial interest are the laws dealing with the effects of forces upon the form and motion of objects, since these principles apply to all devices and structures such as machines, buildings, and bridges. (3) Mechanics includes the properties and laws of both solids and fluids.
The subject of heat includes the principles of temperature measurement, the effects of temperature on the properties of materials, heat flow, and thermodynamics ---- the study of transformations involving heat and work. These studies have led to increased efficiency of power production, the development of high-temperature alloys and ceramics, the production of temperatures near absolute zero, and to important theories about the behavior of matter and radiation. (4)
The study of sound is of importance not only in music and speech but also in communications and industry. The acoustical and communications engineer is concerned with the generation, transmission, and absorption of sound.(5)An understanding of scientific principles in sound is of importance to the radio engineer. The industrial engineer is greatly concerned with the effects of sound in producing fatigue in production personnel.
Electricity and magnetism are fields of physics which are of peculiar importance in the rapid development of technology in power distribution, lighting, communications, and the many electronic devices which provide conveniences, entertainment, and tools for investigation in other fields. An understanding of the sources, effects, measurements, and uses of electricity and magnetism is valuable to the worker in that it enables him to use more effectively the manifold electrical devices now so vital to our efficiency and comfort. (6)
Optics is the portion of physics that includes the study of the nature and propagation of light, the laws of reflection, and the bending or refraction that occurs in the transmission of light through prisms and lenses. Of importance also are the separation of white light into its constituent colors, the nature and types of spectra, interference, diffraction, and polarization phenomena.(7)Photometry involves the measurement of luminous intensities of light sources and of the illumination of surfaces.
A fascinating portion of physics is known as modern physics. This includes electronics, atomic and nuclear phenomena, photoelectricity, X-rays, radioactivity, the transmutations of matter and energy, relativity, and the phenomena associated with electron tubes and the electric waves of modern radio. The breaking up of atoms now provides a practical source of energy. Many of the devices that are commonplace today are applications of one or more of these branches of modern physics. Radio, long-distance telephony, sound amplification, and television are a few of the many developments made possible by the use of electron tubes. Photoelectricity makes possible television, transmission of pictures by wire or radio, sound motion pictures, and many devices for the control of machinery. (8) Examination of welds and castings by X rays to locate hidden flaws is standard procedure in many industries. The practical application of the developments of physics continues at an ever increasing
rate.
物理学(Physics)
人们常常把物理学定义为关于物质与能量的科学，它主要涉及到物质世界的定律和性质。这些内容分别成为紧密相关的力学、热学、声学、电学、光学以及原子与核结构等学科中的研究领域。综合应用这些领域中所研究的原理，促成了机器时代的到来。像化学物理学和生物物理学这类新术语，就是物理学原理被推广应用的明证，表明其应用范围甚至已扩展到生物机体的研究中。
力学是物理学最古老的基础分科。这一部分物理学研究到惯性、运动、力和能量这类概念。而具有特殊意义的，是涉及到力对物体的形状和运动的效应的那些定律，因为这些原理可应用于诸如机器、建筑物和桥梁等设备和结构上。力学既研究固体的也研究流体的性质和定律。
热学这门学科研究温度测量原理、温度对材料性质的影响、热流及热力学，即有关热功转换关系的问题。这类研究已导致能源生产效率的提高；导致新型高温合金和高温陶瓷材料的研制；导致接近绝对零度低温的产生；还导致关于物质性质与辐射性质的重要理论的建立。
声学研究不仅在音乐和语言方面很重要；而且在通讯和工业方面也很重要。声学和通讯工程人员研究的问题涉及声音的产生、传播和吸收等。弄懂声学方面的科学原理对于无线电工程人员有重要意义。工业工程人员对于声音在施工人员中引起的疲劳效应极为关注。
电学和磁学是物理学中的两个研究领域。这两门学科对于电力分配、照明和同学等技术的迅速发展以及为人类提供现代生活设施、娱乐和其他领域的研究工具等许许多多的电子装置而言，都特别重要。搞懂电和磁的来源、效应、测量方法机器用途等等，对于操作工人是很有价值的；有了这些知识就能使他们得心应手地使用当今对提高工作效率和过上舒适生活至关重要的种种电气设备。
光学是物理学中这样的一部分，这一部分包括对光的本质及其传播规律的研究、光反射定律以及光通过棱镜和透镜传播时发生的弯折或称折射现象等。其他重要内容还有白色光分解成彩色光、光谱的本质及类型、干涉现象、衍射现象以及偏振现象等。测光学则涉及到光源发光强度的测量方法以及表面照度的测量方法等。
物理学中的一个引人注目的部分通称为现代物理学，包括电子学、原子和核现象、光电学、X－射线、放射学、物质与能量的相互转换、相对论以及与电子管有关的现象和现代无线电电波等等。原子的裂变现已为人类提供了实用能源。当今许多常用的设备都是应用现代物理学的一个或几个分科的成果。无线电通信、长途电话通信、扩音器以及电视设备等，只是利用电子管研制出来的许许多多设施中的几个例子而已。光电技术使电视、有线或无线图像传播、有声电影以及许多用电来控制机器设备的装置等成为现实。利用X－射线探测焊缝和铸件内部隐藏的裂缝，已成为许多工业部门的规范化程序。物理学研究成果的实际应用，现在正以更快的速度继续发展着。
Unit 6
The Scope of Geology (1)
The world we live in presents an endless variety of fascinating problems which excite our wonder and curiosity. The scientific worker attempts to formulate these
problems in accurate terms and to solve them in the light of all the relevant facts that can be collected by observation and experiment. Such questions as What? How? Where? and When? challenge him to find the clues that may suggest possible replies. Confronted by the many problems presented by, let us say, an active volcano, we may ask: What are the lavas made of? How does the volcano work and how is the heat generated? Where do the lavas and gases come from? When did the volcano first begin to erupt and when is it likely to erupt again. (2)
Here and in all such queries What? refers to the stuff things are made of, and an answer can be given in terms of chemical compounds and elements. (3)The question How? refers to processes ---- the way things are made or happen or change. The ancients regarded natural processes as manifestations of power by irresponsible (4) gods; today we think of them as manifestations of energy acting on or through matter. V olcanic eruptions and earthquakes no longer reflect the erratic behavior of the gods of the underworld: they arise from the action of the earth?s internal heat on and through the surrounding crust. The source of the energy lies in the material of the inner earth. In many directions, of course, our knowledge is still incomplete: only the first of the questions we have asked about volcanoes, for example, can as yet be satisfactorily answered. The point is not that we now pretend to understand everything, but that we have faith in the orderliness of natural processes. As a result of two or three centuries of scientific investigation we have come to believe that Nature is understandable in the sense that when we ask her questions by way of appropriate observations and experiment, she will answer truly and reward us with discoveries that endure.
Modern geology has for its aim the deciphering of the whole evolution of the earth from the time of the earliest records that can be recognized in the rocks to the present day. (5) So ambitious a program requires much subdivision of effort, and in practice it is convenient to divide the subject into a number of branches. The key words of the three main branches are the materials of the earth's rocky framework (mineralogy and petrology); the geological processes or machinery of the earth, by means of which changes of all kinds are brought about (physical geology); and finally, the succession of these changes, or the history of the earth (historical geology).
Geology is by no means without practical importance in relation to the needs and industries of mankind. (6) Thousands of geologists are actively engaged in locating and exploring the mineral resources of the earth. The whole world is being searched for coal and oil and for the ores of useful metals. Geologists are also directly concerned with the vital subject of water supply. Many engineering projects, such as tunnels, canals, docks and reservoirs, call for geological advice in the selection of sites and materials. In these and in many other ways, geology is applied to the service of mankind.
Although geology has its own laboratory methods for studying minerals, rocks and fossils, it is essentially an open-air science. It attracts its followers (7) to mountains and waterfalls, glaciers and volcanoes, beaches and coral reefs in search for information about the earth and her often puzzling behavior. Wherever rocks are to be seen in cliffs and quarries, their arrangement and sequence can be observed and their story
deciphered. With his hammer and maps the geologists in the field leads a healthy and exhilarating life. His powers of observation become sharpened, his love of Nature is deepened, and the thrill of discovery is always at hand.
地质学的范围(The Scope of Geology)
我们生存的世界，提出了品类无穷、引人入胜的种种问题，这些问题激起了我们的惊讶和好奇。科学工作者试图确切地加以表述，并考虑一切可以通过观察和实验收集到的有关事实，而予以解决。像“什么？”“怎样？”“哪里？”“何时？”这些问题，要求他们去寻求也许能够给出答案的线索，比如面对着由于活火山而提出的许多问题，我们也许会问：岩浆的成份是什么？火山如何活动，它的热是怎样产生的？岩浆和气体是从哪里来的？火山在何时初次爆发、下次爆发大致在什么时候？
在这里以及所有这类疑问里，“什么?”涉及到所组成的物质，这可以用化合物和元素来回答。“怎样？”这个问题，涉及到过程，也就是物质构成、产生或变化的方式。古人把自然过程看作是一些随心所欲的神祗表现其权力的形式；今天我们把它看作为能量作用于物质、或经由物质而表现出来的形式。火山爆发和地震，不再是地狱里鬼神行为上反复无常的表现了；火山爆发和地震，是由于地球内部的热能作用于四周地壳、并经由地壳而产生的。能源存在于地球内部的物质中。当然，在许多方面，我们的知识仍然是不完备的，比方说我们刚才问及关于火山的许多问题中，只有第一个是到现在为止可以差强人意地得到解答的。问题不是我们现在装得好像什么都懂了，而是我们相信自然过程的规律性。经过二、三个世纪的科学研究，其结果是：当我们用适当的观察和实验方式，来向大自然提出问题的时候，我们终于相信，大自然是可以了解的。它会真心实意地答复我们，并且以不断的发现来报答我们。
现代地质学的目标，是解释从可以在岩石上辨识其最早记录的太古时代，直到今天的地球形成全过程。这样一个雄心勃勃的计划，在力量分配上需要精细地加以划分，而在实践上，把这一学科分成许多门类要方便得多。三大要类的主要内容是地球的岩质结构物，即矿物学和岩石学；各种变化据以发生的地质过程或地球机制，即物理地质学；以及最后，这种变化的持续变化过程，或地球的历史，即地质史学。
在对于人类的需要和工业方面，地质学绝不是无足轻重的。数以千计的地质学家，积极地从事勘探和开发地球的矿物资源。他们正在全球搜索煤和石油、以及各种有用的金属矿。地质学家还直接关心到生死攸关的水源问题。许多工程项目，像隧道、运河、码头、水库等等，在选择基地和材料的时候，都要听取地质方面的意见。地质学就以这类方式、和以许多其他方式，来为人类服务。
虽然地质学在研究矿物、岩石和化石的时候，有它独特的实验室方法，但它本质上是一门野外的科学。它吸引着从事这方面工作的人攀大山、临瀑布、履冰川、登火山、循海滩、涉环礁，以搜索有关地球和它那变化得往往令人迷惘的资料。无论是悬崖峭壁间、采石坑穴里，只要有岩石，就可以观察它的分布和成因，讲出它的历史。地质学家在野外，带着锤子和地图，过着健康而又精神振奋的生活。地质学家的观察力变得敏锐了，他们对大自然的爱更深厚了，而有所发现的激奋之情，则更随时都会迸发出来的。
Unit 7
Greenhouse Effect (1)
Climatic conditions are delicately adjusted to the composition of the Earth?s atmosphere. If there were a change in the atmosphere ---- for example, in the relative proportions of atmospheric gases ---- the climate would probably change also. (2)A slight increase in water vapor, for instance, would increase the heat-retaining capacity of the atmosphere and would lead to a rise in global temperatures. In contrast, a large increase in water vapor would increase the thickness and extent of the cloud layer, reducing the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth?s surface. (3)
The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has an important effect on climatic change. Most of the Earth?s incoming energy is short-wavelength radiation, which tends to pass through atmospheric carbon dioxide easily. The Earth, however, reradiates much of the received energy as long-wavelength radiation, which carbon dioxide absorbs and then remits toward the Earth. This phenomenon, known as the greenhouse effect, can result in an increase in the surface temperature of a planet. An extreme example of the effect is shown by V enus (4), a planet covered by heavy clouds composed mostly of carbon dioxide, whose surface temperatures have been measured at 430℃. If the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere is reduced, the temperatures fall. According to one respectable theory, if the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration were halved, the Earth would become completely covered with ice. Another equally respectable theory, however, states that a halving of the carbon dioxide concentration would lead only to reduction in global temperatures of 3℃.
If, because of an increase in forest fires or volcanic activity, the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere increased, a warmer climate would be produced. Plant growth, which relies on both the warmth and the availability of carbon dioxide, would probably increase. As a consequence, plants would use more and more carbon dioxide. Eventually carbon dioxide levels would diminish and the climate, in turn, would become cooler. With reduced temperatures many plants would die; carbon dioxide would thereby be returned to the atmosphere and gradually the temperature would rise again. Thus if this process occurred, there might be a long-term oscillation in the amount of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere, with regular temperature increases and decreases of a set magnitude.
Some climatologists argue that the burning of fossil fuels has raised the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and has caused a global temperature increase of at least 1℃. But a supposed global temperature rise of 1℃ may in reality be only several regional temperature increases, restricted to areas where there are many meteorological stations and caused simply by shifts in the pattern of atmospheric circulation. Other areas, for example the Southern Hemisphere Oceanic Zone, may be experiencing an equivalent temperature decrease that is unrecognized because of the shortage of meteorological recording station.
温室效应(Greenhouse Effect)
气候条件微妙地与地球的大气成分相适应。假如大气发生了变化，比如在大气中各种气体相对比例方面发生变化，气候也可能会发生变化。例如，水蒸气稍有
增长就会增加大气的存热能力，并会导致全球性气温升高。以此相对，水蒸气的大量增加会增加云层的厚度和幅度，而减少太阳传到地球表面的能量。
大气中二氧化碳的含量对于气候变化具有重要影响。地球摄入的大部分能量是短波辐射线，这些辐射线往往容易穿过大气中的二氧化碳。然而地球将所收到能量的大部分以长波射线再辐射出去。二氧化碳将其吸收然后传回地球。这一现象被称为温室效应，它可以导致一颗行星表面温度的上升。对于这一现象，金星就是极其典型的一个例子。这个行星是由厚厚的主要由二氧化碳组成的气层所覆盖，已测出其表面温度达430℃。如果大气中的二氧化碳含量减少，温度便降低。根据一种著名理论，如果地球大气中二氧化碳含量减半，地球就会完全被冰层所覆盖。然而，另有一种同样重要的理论指出，现有二氧化碳含量减半仅会使全球温度减低3℃。
如果由于森林火灾或火山喷发次数的增加使大气中二氧化碳含量增加，就会产生温暖的气候。植物生长要靠温度和对二氧化碳的吸收，生长可能会加快。进而植物会吸收越来越多的二氧化碳，最后二氧化碳的含量就会降低，从而导致气候降温。温度下降了，许多植物就会死亡，因此二氧化碳又会回到大气中，温度又会逐渐上升。因此，如果发生这样的过程，大气中的二氧化碳含量可能会长期浮动，使温度呈一定规律在一定程度上升降。
一些气象学家提出，燃烧矿物燃料造成了大气中二氧化碳含量的增加，致使全球气温至少增加了1℃。但是，这种猜想的全球1℃气温的上升可能实际上只不过在几个区域出现，仅限于那些气象站诸多的地区，而且只是由于大气循环形式的变换所引起。在其他区域，例如南半球海洋地带，也许会经历同样程度的温度下降，只是由于缺少气象记录站而未为人所知。
Unit 8
History of Biology (1)
Contributions to the development of biology have come from all over the world. Three groups of biologists, working in the years since the Renaissance, will be studied here. (2)Their contributions are important to the history of biology, and to modern science. The work of one man in each of the three groups will be studied.
The first group of biologists, and the earliest group to be studied here, are the microscopist of the 17th century. These people worked with microscopes. They built them and improved them for use in the study of science. Anthony van Leeuwenhoek, (3) a Dutch microscopist who lived from 1632 until 1723, was one of the many important people in this group. V an Leeuwenhoek was interested in improving the lenses that were used in making microscopes. He made some microscopes, and looked at many different things with the help of the magnifying lenses which he made, also. By looking through the lenses, van Leeuwenhoek realized that there was a whole world filled with microscopic living things. Most people were unaware that these small living things existed. The microscope continues to be a very important tool in science today.
A second group of biologists worked in the 18th century to systematize our knowledge in science. (4)They tried to organize all of the information found by many scientists so that everyone could use the same system for talking about discoveries. (5) One system was developed by a Swedish scientist named Carl von Linnaeus (6), who
lived from 1707 until 1778. He classified plants, animals and minerals in a very useful way. His idea was to give each plant, animal, and mineral a two-part Latin name. The first part of the name was a general name. It told what general group of things the plant, animal, or mineral belonged to. This was the name of genus or group. (7)The second part of the name was the specific name. This was the name of the species, or kind. (8) It told what specific plant, animal, or mineral it was.
This system was extremely popular among scientists, and is still used today. There are several reasons for its popularity. First, the system is simple and clear. Second, Linnaeus used Latin words in his system and, at that time, nearly all scientists knew Latin. Everyone who knew Latin did not have to learn any special words. Also, the two names were a short description and were fairly easy to remember. Linnaeus?s system, which is still used today, is sometimes referred to as a system of binomial nomenclature.
A third group of biologists did most of their work in the 19th century. These scientists profited from the interest in world exploration during this time. They went on many expeditions as observers and collectors. Their job was to study the plants and animals of the new lands. One of the best known explorers and observers was the great English biologist Charles Darwin (9). He lived in England in the years from 1809 until 1882.
Since he was an explorer, Darwin did not spend all of the years of his life at home in England. (10)He left England for five years in the early 1830?s to travel on a ship called the Beagle. This trip is famous. For the other people on the Beagle, the purpose of this trip was to draw maps and to explore South America. They also planned to sail all the way around the earth. For Darwin, the purpose of the trip was different. He collected many samples of plants and animals from South America and the South Seas. He also wrote down many of his observations of the living things he found in his explorations. When he returned to England, Darwin wrote a book called Origin of Species, (11)which was about evolution. His theory of evolution was developed as a result of his observations during his trip on the Beagle.
V an Leeuwenhoek, Linnaeus, and Darwin are three very important men in the history of biology. Each is one of a group of people who made a significant contribution to science. These three men have made important contributions to science, but they are only a few of the important people in the history of biology. (12)
生物学的历史(History of Biology)
世界各地对生物学的发展都做出了诸多贡献。本文将研究自从文艺复兴时期以来的漫长历史阶段里，致力于研究工作的三种不同类型的生物学家。他们对生物学的历史发展乃至现代科学，都做出了重大的贡献。本文将研究这三类生物学家中每一类的一位代表人物所做的工作。
第一类生物学家，也即这里要研究的最早的一类生物学家，是17世纪的显微镜学家。这些人靠显微镜从事研究工作。他们制作显微镜并不断改进显微镜，以便应用于科研工作中。荷兰显微镜学家安东尼·范·拉乌文胡克(生于1632年，死于1723年)就是这一类里许多重要人物中的代表。范·拉乌文胡克对于改进用来制作显微镜的透镜感兴趣。他制作过几台显微镜，并且借助也是他制作的放大
镜(凸透镜)对许多东西进行了仔细观察。范·拉乌文胡克通过透镜观察，认识到整个世界都充满了微生物。当时大多数人都不知道有这些小生物存在。现在显微镜仍然是科学研究极重要的工具。
再一类是18世纪的生物学家，他们的工作是把人类的科学知识进行系统的整理。他们试图把由许多科学家发现的全部知识都加以系统化，以便使大家在交谈科学发现时，都能使用相同的分类法。其中一种分类法就是由一位名叫卡儿·冯·林奈乌斯的瑞典科学家(1707－1778年)创立的。他用一种非常有用的方法将植物、动物和矿物进行了分类。他的主意是给每一种植物、动物和矿物取一个由两部分构成的拉丁名称。其第一部分是通称，它指明一种植物、动物或矿物属于哪一大类，这是类属名称。而其第二部分则是种名，是物种名称或品种名称，它指明是哪一种植物、动物或矿物。
这种分类法在科学家中极为流行，而且至今仍在使用。之所以流行有几个理由。第一，这种方法既简单又明了。第二，林奈乌斯在其分类法中用了拉丁字，而在当时几乎每个科学家都懂拉丁文。因此，凡是知道拉丁文的人都不需要学习任何专用词语。此外，所取的两部分名称每个都是一条简洁的说明，相当容易记忆。林奈乌斯的分类法至今仍在使用，有时称为双名法。
还有一类生物学家所做的大多数工作是在19世纪。这些科学家从当时的全球考察热中受益匪浅。他们作为考察者、收集家进行过多次探险，其工作就是研究新陆地的动植物。最著名的探险家和考察家之一就是伟大的英国生物学家查尔斯·达尔文。他于1809－1882年间生活在英格兰。
既然是位探险家，达尔文没有在他英格兰家里渡过他的一生。19世纪30年代初期，他离开英格兰五年之久，乘一艘名叫“小猎兔犬”的轮船出游。那是一次著名的旅行。对于船上的其他人而言，那次旅行的目的是画图，到南美洲探险。他们还曾计划绕地球航行一周。而对于达尔文来说，目的却是不同的。他从南美洲和南部海域采集了许许多多动植物标本。他还写下了许多对于探险期间所发现的生物进行考察的结果。当他返回英格兰时，达尔文写了一本题为《物种起源》的书，是有关进化的。他的进化论就是根据乘“小猎兔犬”号出游期间的考察结果而形成的。
范·拉乌文胡克、林奈乌斯和达尔文是生物学历史上三位极其重要的人物。每一位都是对科学做出了重大贡献的一类人中的代表。他们三位对科学都做出了重大的贡献，但他们仅仅是生物学发展史上重要人物中的几位代表而已。
Unit 9
It’s Not “All in the Genes”
It is no surprise that virtually every list that appeared of the most influential people of the 20th century included James Watson and Francis Crick(1), right up there alongside Churchill, Gandhi and Einstein. In discerning the double-helical nature of DNA, Watson and Crick paved the way for understanding the molecular biology of the gene, the dominant scientific accomplishment of the postwar era. Sequencing the human genome will represent a closure of sorts for the revolution wrought by those two geniuses.
At the same time, it?s also not surprising that many people get nervous at the prospects of that scientific milestone. It will no doubt be a revolution, but there are some scary Brave New World(2) overtones that raise fundamental questions about how
we will think about ourselves. Will it mean that our behaviors, thoughts and emotions are merely the sum of our genes, and scientists can use a genetic roadmap to calculate just what that sum is? Who are we then, and what will happen to our cherished senses of individuality and free will? Will knowing our genetic code mean we will know our irrevocable fates?
I don?t share that fear, and let me explain why. At the crux of the anxi ety is the notion of the Primacy of Genes. This is the idea that if you want to explain some bid, complex problem in biology (like why some particular bird migrates south for the winter, or why a particular person becomes schizophrenic), the answer lies in understanding the building blocks that make up those phenomena ---- and that those building blocks are ultimately genes. In this deterministic view, the proteins unleashed by genes “cause” or “control” behavior. Have the wrong version of a gene and, bam, you?re guaranteed something awful, like being pathologically aggressive, or having schizophrenia. Everything is preordained from conception.
Y et hardly any genes actually work this way. Indeed, genes and environment interact; nurture reinforces nature. For example, research indicates that “having the gene for schizophrenia” means there is a 50 percent risk you?ll develop the disease, rather than absolute certainty. The disease occurs only when you have a combination of schizophrenia-prone genes and schizophrenia-inducing experiences. A particular gene can have a different effect, depending on the environment. There is genetic vulnerability, but not inevitability.
The Primacy of Genes also assumes that genes act on their own. How do they know when to turn on and off the synthesis of particular proteins? If you view genes as autonomous, the answer is that they just know. No one tells a gene what to do; instead, the buck starts and stops there. (3)
However, that view is far from accurate too. Within the staggeringly long sequences of DNA, it turns out that only a tiny percentage of letters actually form the words that constitute genes and serve as code for proteins. More than 95 percent of DNA, instead, is “non-coding”. Much of DNA simply constitutes on and off s witches for regulating the activity of genes. It?s like you have a 100-page book, and 95 of the pages are instructions and advice for reading the other five pages. Thus, genes don?t independently determine when proteins are synthesized. They follow instructions originating somewhere else.
What regulates those switches? In some instances, chemical messengers from other parts of the cell. In other cases, messengers from other cells in the body (this is the way many hormones work). And, critically, in still other cases, genes are turned on or off by environmental factors. As a crude example, some carcinogens work by getting into cells, binding to one of those DNA switches and turning on genes that cause the uncontrolled growth that constitutes cancer. Or a mother rat licking and grooming her infant will initiate a cascade of events that eventually turns on genes related to growth in that child. Or the smell of a female in heat will activate genes in certain male primates related to reproduction. Or a miserably stressful day of final exams will activate genes in a typical college student that will suppress the immune system, often leading to a cold or worse.
Y ou can?t dissociate genes from the environment that turns genes on and off. And you can?t dissociate the e ffects of genes from the environment in which proteins exert their effects. The study of genetics will never be so all encompassing as to gobble up every subject from medicine to sociology. Instead, the more science learns about genes, the more we will learn about the importance of the environment. That goes for real life, too: genes are essential but not the whole story.
基因并非包含一切(It’s Not “All in the Genes”)
在几乎所有罗列20世纪最有影响力的人物的名单中，都有詹姆斯?沃森和弗朗西斯?克里克，这并不令人惊奇，他们理应和丘吉尔、甘地和爱因斯坦并肩而立。在识别DNA双螺旋结构性质的过程中，沃森和克里克为人类理解基因分子生物学铺平了道路，这是战后时代主要的科学成就。为人类基因组排序将意味着由这两位天才所发动的革命近乎结束。
与此同时，许多人对这个科学里程碑的前景感到害怕也是不足为奇的。这一发现无疑是革命性的，但是个中却蕴含着《勇敢的新世界》式的令人恐慌的色彩，它给人们提出了一些有关我们将怎样认识我们自己的基本问题。它是否意味着我们的行为、思想和情感只是我们基因的总和，而且科学家是否能用一张基因图谱就可以计算出那个总和是什么？那么，我们是谁呢？我们所珍视的个性意识和自由意志将会怎么样？知道我们自己的遗传密码是否就意味着知道我们注定的命运？
我并没有这样的害怕，让我来解释为什么。这种焦虑的症结在于人们有基因至上的想法。这就是当你解释生物学上的一些复杂问题时（例如为什么一些特殊的鸟会迁徙到南方过冬，或者为什么一个特定的人会患精神分裂症）所持有的观点，答案就在于了解构成这些现象的基本因素——基因至上者便将这些基本因素解释为起决定作用的基因。在这种决定性的观点看来，由基因释放出的蛋白质将导致或控制行为。如果你持有这种错误的基因观，哇，那你就认可了某种可怕的东西，像某人具有病态的寻衅行为，或某人有精神分裂症的倾向。总之，从一开始孕育，人的一切就已注定了。
但实际上几乎没有基因是以这种方式运作的。的确，基因和环境是相互作用的；后天的培育会加强先天禀性。例如，研究者指出“携带有精神分裂基因”意味着有50%的风险会得这种疾病，而不是肯定会得。只有当人们同时具有易患精神分裂症的基因和具有诱发精神分裂症的经历时，才会得病。某种特定的基因能够有不同的作用，这取决于环境。基因有遗传的脆弱性而并非必然性。
基因至上论还认为基因可以自发作用。然而它们怎么知道什么时候开始或结束特定蛋白质的合成呢？如果你认为基因是自发作用的，那么答案就是它们本来就知道。
没有人告诉基因该做什么，它们自主行事——自发地工作，自发地停止。可是，这种观点也远远算不上准确。结果证明，在长度惊人的DNA序列中，事实上只有极少一部分字母组成了构成基因的词汇并充当蛋白质的密码。DNA中95%以上的部分是没有密码的。大多数的DNA仅仅构成了调节基因活动的开关。这正如你有一本100页的书，其中的95页全是为其余5页的阅读作说明和指导的。所以，基因不能单独决定什么时候合成蛋白质。它们是执行来自另外某个地方的指令。
那么用什么来调节这些开关呢？在一些情况下，化学信息来自于细胞的其它部
分。在另一些情况下，信息来自于身体的其它细胞（这就是许多激素作用的方式）。而且，非常关键的是，还有一些情况下，基因的开闭是受环境因素影响的。举一个粗浅的例子，一些致癌物通过进入细胞内部起作用，并把自己同一个DNA开关结合起来，开启那些引发无限制生长的基因而引起癌症。另外的一个例子就是：一只母性老鼠舔噬自己的孩子为其梳理毛发的行为将会引发一系列的事件，这些事件最终开启幼鼠体内与成长相关基因。再就是：处于发情期的一只雌性哺乳动物的气味将会激活特定灵长类动物体内与繁殖相关的基因。还有就是：在期末考试期间痛苦的、充满压力的一天将会激活一个大学生体内的某种基因，这种基因能抑制人体的免疫系统，通常会导致感冒或更严重的情况。
你不能将基因与控制其开关的环境分离开来。你也不能将基因的作用与蛋白质作用的环境分离开来。基因学研究从来没有这样包罗万象，可以涵盖从医学到社会学的每一门学科。然而，科学解释的基因信息越多，我们就越了解环境的重要性。这一点同样适用于真实生活：基因确实非常重要，但它并不是生命的全部。
Unit 10
The Difference Between a Brain and a Computer (1)
The difference between a brain and a computer can be expressed in a single word: complexity.
The large mammalian brain is the most complicated thing, for its size, known to us.
(2)The Human brain weighs three pounds, but in that three pounds (3)are ten billion neurons and a hundred billion smaller cells. These many billions of cells are interconnected in a vastly complicated network that we can?t begin to unravel as yet. Even the most complicated computer man has yet built can?t compare in intricacy with the brain. Computer switches and components number in the thousands rather than in the billions. What?s more, the computer switch is just an on-off device, whereas the brain cell is itself possessed of a tremendously complex structure.
Can a computer think? That depends on what you mean by “think”. If solving a mathematical problem is “thinking”, then a computer can “think”and do so much faster than a man. Of course, most mathematical problems can be solved quite mechanically by repeating certain straight forward processes over and over again. Even the simple computers of today can be geared for that. (4)
It is frequently said that computers solve problems only because they are “programmed”to do so. They can only do what men have them do. (5)One must remember that human beings also can only do what they are “programmed” to do. Our genes “program”us the instant the fertilized ovum is formed, and our potentialities are limited by that “program”.
Our “program”is so much more enormously complex, though, that we might like to define “thinking”in terms of the creativity that goes into writing a great play or composing a great symphony, in conceiving a brilliant scientific theory or a profound ethical judgment. In that sense, computers certainly can?t think and neither can most humans.
Surely, though, if a computer can be made complex enough, it can be as creative as we. If it could be made as complex as a human brain, it could be the equivalent of a human brain and do whatever a human brain can do.
To suppose anything else is to suppose that there is more to the human brain than
the matter that composes it. The brain is made up of cells in a certain arrangement and the cells are made up of atoms and molecules in certain arrangements. If anything else is there, no signs of it have ever been detected. To duplicate the material complexity of the brain is therefore to duplicate everything about it.
But how long will it take to build a computer complex enough to duplicate the human brain? Perhaps not as long as some think. Long before we approach a computer as complex as our brain, we will perhaps build a computer that is at least complex enough to design another computer more complex than itself. This more complex computer could design one still more complex and so on and so on and so on.
In other words, once we pass a certain critical point, the computers will gain a dominating position and present a complexity explosion. In a very short time thereafter, computers may exist that not only duplicate the human brain ---- but far surpass it.
Then what? (6) Well, mankind is not doing a very good job of running the earth right now. Maybe, when the time comes, we ought to step gracefully aside and hand over the job to someone who can do it better. After if we don?t step aside, perhaps Supercomputer will simply move in and push us aside.
人脑与电脑的差异(The Difference Between a Brain and a Computer)
电脑与人脑的差异，可以用一个字眼来概括：复杂性。
大型哺乳动物的大脑，就其体积而言，是我们所知晓的最复杂的器官。人脑只有三磅，但这三磅物质却包含着一百亿个神经细胞，以及一千亿个更小的细胞。这上百亿、上千亿的细胞相互联系，形成一个无比复杂的网络，人类迄今还无法解开其中的奥秘。
即便人类迄今研制出的最复杂的电脑，其复杂程度也无法与人脑相比。电脑的转换器和元件只是成千上万，而不是上百亿、上千亿。更重要的是，电脑的转换器仅是一种开关装置，而人脑细胞本身却有着极其复杂的内部结构。
电脑能思考吗? 这取决于你如何理解“思考”的含义。如果解一道数学题可算“思考”的话，那么电脑也能“思考”，而且比人快得多。当然，大多数数学题只需通过十分机械地不断重复某些简单的过程就能得到解决。如今，即使简单的电脑也能胜任这一工作。
人们常说，电脑之所以能解决问题，只是因为电脑被输入了解决问题的“程序”。电脑只能做人让它们做的事。我们应该记住，人类同样也只能按照“程序”办事。受精卵一形成，基因就给我们编好了“程序”，我们的潜能也就要受到这个“程序”的限制。
不过，我们的“程序”要复杂得多，因此我们更喜欢用创造力来界定“思考”的意义。有了这种创造力，就能写出伟大的剧本，创作不朽的乐章，构思卓越的科学理论，或形成深奥的伦理判断。从这个意义上讲，电脑当然不能思考，人类的大多数也做不到。
可是，如果能把电脑造得足够复杂的话，那它就能像人一样富于创造力。倘若电脑能造得像人脑那样复杂，它就能与人脑旗鼓相当，完成人脑所能做的一切。如果还要设想什么的话，那就设想人脑除了构成它的物质之外，还有更多的奥秘。人脑是由细胞按一定的方式组合而成的，而脑细胞又是由原子和分子按一定的方式组合而成的。假如真有别的奥秘存在，我们可从未发现任何迹象。因此，
复制出人脑复杂的物质结构，就复制出了有关它的一切。
但是，研制一台复杂程度与人脑相当的电脑需要多长时间呢？也许不像有些人想象的那么长。早在我们研制出和人脑一样复杂的电脑之前，我们也许能造出这样一台电脑：它复杂得至少能设计出一台比它本身更复杂的电脑。这台更复杂的电脑又能设计出一台更加复杂的电脑，依此类推，一代代地研制下去。
也就是说，一旦我们过了某个临界点，电脑就会取得主宰地位，出现一个“复杂性激增”。此后用不了多久，就会出现这样的电脑，它们不仅能跟人脑相匹敌——而且会远远胜过人脑。
到那时会怎么样呢? 唉，反正人类现在没有做好管理地球的工作。也许到那时候，我们真该豁达大度地让到一边，把工作交给更为称职的人去做。如果我们不主动让位，也许超级电脑就会不客气地闯进来，把我们推到一边。
Unit 11
The Plane Makers (1)
There are two main things that make aircraft engineering difficult: the need to make every component as reliable as possible and the need to build everything as light as possible. The fact that an aeroplane is up in the air and cannot stop if anything goes wrong makes it perhaps a matter of life or death that its performance is absolutely dependable.(2)
Given a certain power of engine, and consequently a certain fuel consumption, there is a practical limit to the total weight of aircraft that can be made to fly. (3) Out of that weight as much as possible is wanted for fuel, radio navigational instruments, passengers seats, or freight room, and, of course, the passengers or freight themselves. So the structure of the aircraft has to be as small and light as safety and efficiency will allow. (4)The designer must calculate the normal load that each part will bear. This specialist i s called the “stress man”. He takes account of any unusual stress that may be put on the part as a precaution against errors in manufacture, accidental damage, etc. (5)
The stress man?s calculations go to the designer of the part, and he must make it as strong as the stress man says is necessary. (6) One or two samples are always tested to prove that they are as strong as the designer intended. Each separate part is tested, then a whole assembly ---- for example, a complete wing, and finally the whole aeroplane. When a new type of aeroplane is being made, normally only one of the first three made will be flown. Two will be destroyed on the ground in structural tests. The third one will be tested in the air.
Two kinds of ground strength tests are carried out. The first is to find the resistance to loading of the wing, tail, etc. until they reach their maximum load and collapse. The other test is for fatigue strength. Relatively small loads are applied thousands of times. Each may be well under what the structure could stand as a single load, but many repetitions can result in collapse. (7)
When a plane has passed all the tests it can get a government certificate of airworthiness, without which it is illegal to fly, except for test flying. (8)
Making the working parts reliable is as difficult as making the structure strong enough. The flying controls, the electrical equipment, the fire precautions, etc. must not only be light in weight, but must be below freezing point and in the hot air of an
Unit 8 Section A Animals or children?—A scientist's choice 动物还是孩子？——一位科学家的选择 1 I am the enemy! I am one of those cursed, cruel physician scientists involved in animal research. These rumors sting, for I have never thought of myself as an evil person. I became a children's doctor because of my love for children and my supreme desire to keep them healthy. During medical school and residency, I saw many children die of cancer and bloodshed from injury — circumstances against which medicine has made great progress but still has a long way to go. More importantly, I also saw children healthy thanks to advances in medical science such as infant breathing support, powerful new medicines and surgical techniques and the entire field of organ transplantation. My desire to tip the scales in favor of healthy, happy children drew me to medical research. 1 我就是那个敌人！我就是那些被人诅咒的、残忍的、搞动物实验的医生科学家之一。这些谣言刺痛了我，因为我从来没想到自己是一个邪恶的人。我成为一位儿科医生，因为我爱孩子，也因为我的最大愿望是让他们保持健康。在医学院学习和住院医生实习时，我看到了许多儿童死于癌症和受伤流血——虽然对此医学正取得很大进步，但远非完善。更重要的是，我还看到孩子们能保持健康得益于医学的进步，如婴儿呼吸支持器，功效强大的新药物和外科手术技术及整个器官移植领域的发展。我希望孩子们健康快乐，这促使我从事医学研究。 2 My accusers have twisted the truth into a fable and cast me as the devil. They claim that I have no moral compass, that I torture innocent animals for the sole purpose of career advancement, and that my experiments have no relevance to medicine. Meanwhile, an uncaring public barely watches, convinced that the issue has no significance, and publicity-conscious senators and politicians increasingly give way to the lobbying of animal rights activists. 2 控诉我的人把真相歪曲成一则神话，并把我描写成恶魔。他们声称我没有道德界限，我折磨那些无辜动物的唯一目的就是为了自己的职业升迁，而我的实验根本与医药毫不相关。与此同时，无动于衷的公众几乎不闻不问，相信这个议题毫无意义，而具有宣传意识的参议员和政治家们却对动物权利活动家的游说不断作出让步。 3We,in medical research,have also been unbelievably uncaring.We have allowed the most extr eme animal rights protesters to creep in and frame the issue as one of"animal fraud"and hatred. We have persisted in our belief that a knowledgeable public would consent to the importance of animal research for public health.Perhaps we have been mistaken in not responding to the emoti onal tone of the argument.Perhaps we should have responded to those sad slogans and posters of animals by waving equally sad posters of children dying of cancer or external wounds. 3我们这些从事医学研究的人也显得令人难以置信的冷漠。我们允许最极端的动物权利活动家渐渐侵入，任凭他们把此类研究诬陷为“动物欺诈”和对动物的仇恨。我们一直坚信，有知识的公众会赞同动物研究对公众健康的重要性。也许我们的错误是没有对这场争论的感性基调作出反应。也许我们早应该挥动着儿童死于癌症或外伤的同样令人伤心的海报，来回应那些关于动物受害的伤感标语及海报。 4In the animal rights forum,much is made of the volume of pain these animals experience in the name of medical science.Activists deny that we are trying to help and say it is evidence of our ev il and cruel nature.A more reasonable argument,however,can be advanced in our defense.Life i
初中英语知识总结 一、出现以下词，用do填空： can , could, may, must, need, had better, why not, make, have to, let’s, see, hear, watch, notice, Will ( Would ) you please…? 二、出现以下词，用to do 填空： would like, want, begin, start, hope, decide, ask, wish, have something to do, tell, take time, it’s time, remember, forget, learn, teach, try, stop, plan, adj./疑问词后，take ,allow, encourage, warn, It’s +形容词＋to do something, discuss, know, refuse, invite , get order, like, offer, lend, make up one’s mind to do, set one’s mind to do, enough, need 三、出现以下词，用doing 填空： finish, like, enjoy, mind, keep, be busy, there be, do some…, go doing, prevent, be worth, spend, practice, feel like, thank somebody for doing something ,stop, excuse somebody for doing something, can’t help, prefer…to…,look forward to…hate, mention, hav e fun doing,介词：at, in , on, of , from, for, about, with, without, ,make a contribution to, be used to, hear, see, watch, notice, listen, 四、基数词的特殊变化 one---first ; two---second; three---third; five---fifth; eight---eighth; nine---ninth; twelve---twelfth; twenty---twentieth; twenty-one---twenty-first 五、代词的变化： 主格―――宾格――所有格(adj.)――所有格（n.）―反身代词 I --------me--------my----------mine-------------myself you------you--------your-------yours------------yourself he-------him---------his-------his-------------himself she------her----------her-------hers-----------herself it-------it----------its--------its--------- itself we-------us---------our---------ours------------ourselves you------you--------your--------yours---------yourselves they-----them------their--------theirs---------themselves 六、表示天气的词 1. sun—sunny 2. cloud—cloudy 3. rain—rainy 4. wind—windy 5. fog—foggy 6. mist—misty 7. snow—snowy 8. shower—showery 七、表示方向的词 1. east—eastern—easterner(s) 2south—southern—southerner(s) 3.west—western—westerner(s) 4.north—northern—northerner(s) 八、国家---国家的（人） 1.China—Chinese 2.Japan—Japanese 3.Germany--German 4.Canada—Canadian 5.Sweden—Swedish 6. Australia--stralian
英语常用翻译十二式 英语翻译十二式(一) 同义反译法 例子： 1. Only three customers remained in the bar. 酒吧间只有三个顾客还没有走。(不译：「还留着」或「还呆在那里」) 2. I'll be here for good this time. 这一次我再也不走了。(不译：「永远在此呆下去」) 3. Please keep the fire burning when I'm out. 我不在家的时候，请别让炉子灭了。(不译：「我外出时，请让炉子继续烧着」) 4. "Wait, he is serious." 「等等，他不是说着玩儿的。」(不译：「等等，他是认真的。」) 5. "Now, Clara, be firm with the boy!" 「听我说，克拉拉，对这孩子可不能心软。」(不译：「……对这孩子要坚定」) (二) 删减解释词 例子： The traveller in the south must often have remarked that peculiar air of refinement, that softness of voice and manner, which seems in many cases to be a particular gift to the quotation and mulatto women. 到南方去的人看见那些黑白混血的女郎，准定会注意到她们十之八九都赋有那种独特的优雅风度、那种柔和的声调和文静的举止。 (三) 短句拆译 例子： " ...on one sunshiny morning in June , ..." 「在六月里的一天早上，天气晴朗，……」 (四) 译词推陈出新 例子：
初中英语语法大全 最牛英语口语培训模式：躺在家里练口语，全程外教一对一，三个月畅谈无阻！太平洋英语，免费体验全部外教一对一课程：https://www.doczj.com/doc/7410569717.html, 1 (see 、hear 、notice 、find 、feel 、listen to 、 look at (感官动词)+do eg:I like watching monkeys jump 2 （比较级 and 比较级）表示越来越怎么样 3 a piece of cake =easy 小菜一碟（容易） 4 agree with sb 赞成某人 5 all kinds of 各种各样 a kind of 一样 6 all over the world = the whole world 整个世界 7 along with同……一道，伴随…… eg : I will go along with you我将和你一起去 the students planted trees along with their teachers 学生同老师们一起种树 8 As soon as 一怎么样就怎么样 9 as you can see 你是知道的 10 ask for ……求助向…要…（直接接想要的东西） eg : ask you for my book 11 ask sb for sth 向某人什么 12 ask sb to do sth 询问某人某事 ask sb not to do 叫某人不要做某事 13 at the age of 在……岁时 eg：I am sixteen I am at the age of sixteen 14 at the beginning of …… ……的起初；……的开始 15 at the end of +地点/+时间最后；尽头；末尾 eg : At the end of the day 16 at this time of year 在每年的这个时候 17 be /feel confident of sth /that clause +从句感觉/对什么有信心，自信 eg : I am / feel confident of my spoken English I feel that I can pass the test 18 be + doing 表：1 现在进行时 2 将来时 19 be able to (+ v 原) = can (+ v 原）能够…… eg : She is able to sing She can sing 20 be able to do sth 能够干什么 eg :she is able to sing 21 be afraid to do (of sth 恐惧，害怕…… eg : I'm afraed to go out at nigh t I'm afraid of dog 22 be allowed to do 被允许做什么 eg: I'm allowed to watch TV 我被允许看电视 I should be allowed to watch TV 我应该被允许看电视 23 be angry with sb 生某人的气 eg : Don't be angry with me 24 be angry with(at) sb for doing sth 为什么而生某人的气 25 be as…原级…as 和什么一样 eg : She is as tall as me 她和我一样高 26 be ashamed to 27 be away from 远离 28 be away from 从……离开 29 be bad for 对什么有害 eg : Reading books in the sun is bad for your eyes 在太阳下看书对你的眼睛不好 30 be born 出生于 31 be busy doing sth 忙于做什么事 be busy with sth 忙于…… 32 be careful 当心；小心33 be different from…… 和什么不一样 34 be famous for 以……著名 35 be friendly to sb 对某人友好 36 be from = come from 来自 eg ：He is from Bejing He comes from Bejing Is he from Bejing ? Does he come from Bejing ? 37 be full of 装满……的 be filled with 充满 eg: the glass is full of water the glass is filled with water 38 be glad+to+do/从句 39 be going to + v(原）将来时 40 be good at(+doing) = do well in 在某方面善长, 善于…… 41 be good for 对什么有好处 eg : Reading aloud is good for your English 42 be happy to do 很高兴做某事 43 be helpful to sb 对某人有好处 eg : Reading aloud is helpful to you 大声朗读对你有好处 Exercising is helpful to your bady 锻炼对你的身体有好处
Unit 6 Woman, Half the Sky Carolyn Turk works in a profession that has traditionally been a career for men. Here she talks about how she came to do so and how her success just goes to show that a woman can learn anything a man can. 卡洛琳特克从事的职业传统上一直是男人们的天下。在本文，她谈到自己是如何干上这一行的，并通过她的成功表明男人们能学会的事女人们也能做到。 Text A A Woman Can Learn Anything a Man Can Carolyn Turk 男人学得会的，女人也学得会 卡罗琳·特克1 When I was a kid, everything in my bedroom was pink. I have two sisters and we had a complete miniature kitchen, a herd of My Little Ponies and several Barbie and Ken dolls. We didn't have any toy trucks, G. I. Joes or basketballs. We did have a Wiffle-ball set, but you would have been hard-pressed to find it in our playroom. Tomboys we weren't.
2014中考英语语法知识点总结：动词 一定要记牢动词的现在分词，过去式，过去分词。比如：catch 的过去式和过去分词(caught，caught) 你可能就不知道吧?痛下决心，好好记一记吧。先讲系动词。 系动词：大概是最简单的动词了。你只需注意的是系动词除了be的形式之外，还有become，get，grow，turn，sound，look，smell，taste等，它们不能单独作谓语,必须和作表语的词语(如形容词, 名词等) 连用, 所以用的时候，可要小心为是呀!如：It smells delicious.(它闻起来味道很美)。delicious 是形容词，不是副词。 情态动词：首先要记住情态动词后必跟动词原形。 must的意思是"应当，必须"，侧重于说话者的主观看法，没有时态变化，其否定式是mustn't，在"Must I(we) ...."的疑问句中，须注意的是其否定回答常用needn't。如：Must I go?(我一定要走吗?) No,you needn't.(不，不必。) need意为"需要"。既可作实义动词，又可作情态动词，因此在用法上需要注意。作实义动词时，need后跟名词，动名词，或不定式。如：I need to go. (我得走了。) 作情态动词时，后跟动词原形。如：You needn't come tomorrow if you are busy. (如果你忙，明天就不必来了。) 实意动词：我们跑(run)，我们跳(jump)，我们笑(laugh)，这些都得用实意动词来表达。我们一起来看一看一些特殊的词吧。它们在接动名词和不定式时意义有所不同。 stop：这个词让好多同学大伤了一番脑筋，到底什么时候加to do，什么时候加 doing 呢?两者意义又有什么不同呢?OK, Come with me. 看下面两个句子。 When the teacher came in, they stopped to read. When the teacher came in, they stopped talking. 第一句的意思是"当老师进来时，他们停下来开始读书"。而第二句的意思是 "老师进来时，他们停止了说话"。所以stop to do sth表示"停止正在做的事情去干另一件事"。而stop doing表示"中断正在做的某事"。 forget，remember，regret 这三个词用法基本相同，只要记住+doing 表示"事情已经做过"，+to do表示"事情还未做"就可以了。
初中英语语法大全(必备)
英语语法大全： 1 (see 、hear 、notice 、find 、feel 、listen to 、look at (感官动词)+do （例如:I like watching monkeys jump） 2 （比较级and 比较级）表示越来越怎么样 3 a piece of cake =easy 小菜一碟（容易） 4 agree with sb 赞成某人 5 all kinds of 各种各样a kind of 一样 6 all over the world = the whole world 整个世界 7 along with同····一道，伴随······（例如: I will go along with you我将和你一起去 the students planted trees along with their teachers 学生同老师们一起种树） 8 As soon as 一怎么样就怎么样 9 as you can see 你是知道的 10 ask for ……求助向…要…（直接接想要的东西）（例如: ask you for my book ） 11 ask sb for sth 向某人什么 12 ask sb to do sth 询问某人某事ask sb not to do 叫某人不要做某事 13 at the age of 在……岁时（例如：I am sixteen I am at the age of sixteen 14 at the beginning of …………的起初；……的开始 15 at the end of +地点/+时间最后；尽头；末尾（例如: At the end of the day 16 at this time of year 在每年的这个时候 17 be /feel confident of sth /that clause +从句感觉/对什么有信心，自信 （例如: I am / feel confident of my spoken English I feel that I can pass the test 18 be + doing 表：1 现在进行时2 将来时 19 be able to (+ v.原) = can (+ v.原）能够……（例如: She is able to sing She can sing 20 be able to do sth 能够干什么（例如:she is able to sing 21 be afraid to do (of sth 恐惧，害怕……（例如: I'm afraid to go out at night I'm afraid of dog 22 be allowed to do 被允许做什么（例如: I'm allowed to watch TV 我被允许看电视、I should be allowed to watch TV 我应该被允许看电视 23 be angry with sb 生某人的气（例如: Don't be angry with me 24 be angry with(at) sb for doing sth 为什么而生某人的气 25 be as…原级…as 和什么一样（例如: She is as tall as me 她和我一样高 26 be ashamed to感到羞愧 27 be away from 远离 28 be away from 从……离开 29 be bad for 对什么有害（例如: Reading books in the sun is bad for your eyes 在太阳下看书对你的眼睛不好 30 be born 出生于
中考英语语法笔记整理大全 2015.8 名词 表示人、事物、地方、现象或抽象概念等的名称的词。 知识梳理：提纲挈领，抓住重点和难点！ 、名词的分类 注：1. 加冠词。 2、有普通名词构成的专有名词前要用定冠词“ the”但它不大写。 3、有些不可数名词有时表示为具体的东西时，则变为可数名词，而且以四上也有了变化。eg. beer ----a beer 一杯啤酒，work--- a work 工厂，著作，glass---a glass 一个玻璃杯，room 空间---a room 一个房间 、名词的数：表示可以计算数目的人或物称为可数名词。 1、可数名词有单、复数两种形式：可数名词的单数形式要在名词前加“a或an”；复数形式是在名词 后加-s或-es
2. ①改变单数名词中的元音字母 eg. man--men, woma n—wome n, tooth —teeth, foot—feet, goose—geese, mouse--mice ②单复数同形eg. Chinese-Chinese, deer-deer, fish-fish, sheep-sheep,… ③由man和woman构成的合成词，每个名词都要变复数 eg. a man doctor—men doctors, a woma n teacher--wome n teachers 注意：有些名词表示一种物体具有不可分割的相同的两部分，在使用时只有复数形式 eg. trousers, clothes, glasses, shorts,scissors, etc有些名词从形式上看是复数, 实际上是单数(其后的谓语动词要用单数).eg. maths, phyiscs, politics, news 3. 不可数名词：表示不能计算数目的人或物，称为不可数名词。他们前面不能用a/an,没有复数形式。物质名词和抽象名词都属于不可数名词。不可数名词一般只有单数形式，但有其特殊用法： ⑴同一个词，变成复数形式，意义不同。eg. food食物---foods各种食物， time 时间---times 时代，green 绿色---greens 青菜 (2) 有些不可数名词用复数代指具体的事物 eg. hope ---hopes 希望hardship --- hardships 艰苦 (3) 物质名词在表示数量时，常用某个量词+of来表示 eg. a cup of tea, seve n pieces of bread, severalbags of rice, … 三、名词的所有格 名词的所有格是表示名词之间的所有关系，有两种表示形 式,一种是在名词后+';另一种疋用of,表示 …勺”。 1. (1) 一般词的所有格,直接在词尾+'。eg. Mr. Mott 's robot, children 's clothes (2)以s结尾的名词所有格只在词尾+ ' eg. teachers 'books (3)两人共有的物体，则在第二个名词后
初中英语语法大全 一、词类、句子成分和构词法： 1、词类：英语词类分十种：名词、形容词、代词、数词、冠词 动词、副词、介词、连词、感叹词。 1、名词(n.)：表人、事物、地点或抽象概念的名称。如：boy, morning, bag, ball, class, orange. 2、代词(pron.)：主要用来代替名词。如：who, she, you, it . 3、形容词(adj..)：表示人或事物的性质或特征。如：good, right, white, orange . 4、数词(num.)：表示数目或事物的顺序。如：one, two, three, first, second, third, fourth. 5、动词(v.)：表示动作或状态。如：am, is,are,have,see . 6、副词(adv.)：修饰动词、形容词或其他副词,说明时间、地点、程度等。如：now, very, here, often, quietly, slowly. 7、冠词(art..)：用在名词前,帮助说明名词。如：a, an, the. 8、介词(prep.)：表示它后面名词或代词与其他句子成分关系。如in, on, from, above, behind. 9、连词(conj.)：用来连接词、短语或句子。如and, but, before . 10、感叹词(interj..)表示喜、怒、哀、乐等感情。如：oh, well, hi, hello. 2、句子成分：英语句子成分分为七种：主、谓、宾、定、状、表、宾补。 1、主语是句子所要说的人或事物,回答是“谁”或者“什么”。通常用名词或代词担任。如：I‘m Miss Green.(我是格林小姐) 2、谓语动词说明主语的动作或状态,回答“做(什么)”。主要由动词担任。如：Jack cleans the room every day. (杰克每天打扫房间) 3、表语在系动词之后,说明主语的身份或特征,回答是“什么”或者“怎么样”。通常由名词、代词 或形容词担任。如：My name is Ping ping .(我的名字叫萍萍) 4、宾语表示及物动词的对象或结果,回答做的是“什么”。通常由名词或代词担任。如：He can spell the word.(他能拼这个词) 有些及物动词带有两个宾语,一个指物,一个指人。指物的叫直接宾语,指人的叫间接宾语。 间接宾语一般放在直接宾语的前面。如：He wrote me a letter . (他给我写了一封信) 有时可把介词to或for加在间接宾语前构成短语,放在直接宾语后面,来强调间接宾语。如：He wrote a letter to me . (他给我写了一封信) 5、定语修饰名词或代词,通常由形容词、代词、数词等担任。如： Shanghai is a big city .(上海是个大城市) 6、状语用来修饰动词、形容词、副词,通常由副词担任。如：He works hard .(他工作努力) 7、宾语补足语用来说明宾语怎么样或干什么,通常由形容词或动词充当。如：They usually keep their classroom clean.(他们通常让教室保持清洁) / He often helps me do my lessons.(他常常帮我做功课) / The teacher wanted me to learn French all by myself.(老师要我自学法语) ☆同位语通常紧跟在名词、代词后面,进一步说明它的情况。如：Where is your classmate Tom ?(你
Unit 1 Sources of Energy 参考译文课文A 石油 1 油，和煤一样，存在于沉积岩中，而且可能由死去很长时间的生物有机体形成。含有石油的岩石几乎都来源于海洋，所以形成石油的有机物一定是海洋生物，而不是树木。 2 石油，并不是来自于逐渐积聚的木质物质，而可能是来自于逐渐积聚的海洋生物的脂肪物质。比如浮游生物：大量浮游在海水表层的单细胞生物。 3 有机物的脂肪物质主要由碳氢原子组成，因此并不需要太多的化学变化就可以形成石油。生物有机体只需在缺氧的条件下沉积到海湾浅水处的淤泥里。其脂肪不是分解腐烂，而是逐渐积聚，并在深层的淤泥里圈闭起来，进而经过细微的原子重组，最终形成石油。 4 油比水轻，呈液态，会经由上方覆盖的孔隙性岩石向上渗透，在地球上有些地区到达表层，古人将这些表层石油称为沥青、柏油或异庚烷。在古代和中世纪，这些石油油苗常被看作药品而不是燃料。 5 当然，表层的油苗数量很少。而石油油藏上方有时覆盖的是非孔隙性岩石。石油向上渗透抵达该岩石，然后在岩石下方逐渐积聚形成油层。若在上方的岩石上钻个孔，石油就可以通过该孔向上迁移。有时压力过大，石油会向高空喷出。1859 年在宾夕法尼亚州，由埃德温·德雷克成功打出第一口井。 6 如果可以发现一个合适的地点（勘探人员已经识别出地下可能圈闭有石油的地层结构），那么就很容易抽取这一液体燃料，这要比派人到地下把大块的固体煤炭砍成小块要容易得多。而且一旦获得石油，可以通过地上管道运输，而不必像煤一样，由运货车经过繁重的装卸任务来运输。 7 石油便于抽取，易于运输，促进了石油的应用。石油可以蒸馏成不同的馏分，每种馏分均由特定大小的分子组成，分子越小，该馏分就越容易蒸发。 8 到1 9 世纪下半叶，最重要的石油馏分是由中等大小的分子构成的煤油，它不易蒸发，被用于照明。9 然而，到19 世纪末人们研制出了内燃机。内燃机是通过在汽缸里将空气与可燃气体混合，产生爆炸来提供动力的。最便利的可燃气体是汽油——石油的又一馏分，由小分子构成，容易蒸发。10 这种内燃机与蒸汽机相比，机身小巧，可以瞬间启动；而蒸汽机需要一定时间，等待储水加热到沸点。11 随着各种带有内燃机的汽车、卡车、公共汽车、飞机等交通工具的使用，对于石油的需求激增。房屋不再用煤，而用燃烧燃料供热；轮船开始使用石油；电力也由燃油提供的能量来供给。12 在1900 年，来自石油的能量只是煤的4%，二战后，由石油的各种不同馏分提供的能量已经超过煤所供给的能量，而现在石油成为推动世界科技发展的主要燃料。13 石油相对于煤的便利却被另一个事实所抵消：地球上石油的数量比煤少得多。（这不足为奇，因为地球上形成石油的脂肪物质，要比形成煤的木质物质少得多。）14 还有另一种复杂情况，即石油的分布不如煤的分布均匀。世界上的主要能源消耗国有足够的煤，却严重缺乏石油。美国有世界石油总储量的10%，数十年来一直是主要石油生产国。现在亦是如此，但是美国大量消耗石油产品，使之成为石油进口国，对于这一重要资源不得不日益依赖其他国家。俄罗斯石油储量和美国相近，但消耗的少，因而可以成为石油出口国。15 地球上已知的石油储备约有3/5 集中在阿拉伯国家。例如，位于波斯湾岬角处的科威特，面积只有麻省那么大，人口只有50 万，却拥有世界已知石油储量的1/5。16 由石油引发的政治问题已经变得至关重要。 Unit 2 Social Science 参考译文课文A 求职面试新趋势 今天的求职者不得不经受当代面试技巧的考验 1 如果你最后一次参加求职面试是在五年或更长时间以前，那么当你重新进入就业市场时，你一定会大吃一惊。求职面试已经不再是舒适温馨的炉边闲谈了；当然，倒也不会走向另一个极端，成为为了检验你应对压力的能力而进行的令人生畏的询问。这些传统的方法已经象英式茶具车和两小时午餐休息一样过时了。 2 精明的现代企业已经明白，雇员选择不当是要付出代价的，因此，面试已经成为多层面，半科学化式的挑选程序的一部分，并且越来越可能由经过高级心理技术培训的经理人员来进行。面试还在加入高科技的内容：不久以后，求职者就会看到，面试小组中至少有一名成员是通过视频会议技术在外地甚至在海外参与面试的。 3 然而，有一点是没有变的。那就是，如果没有同未来的老板面对面接触过，你是很难得到工作的，75%的公司在雇佣每个部门的雇员时都采用面试。还有同样数量的公司认为，在选择雇员的所
翻译课12组翻译译文 分类：资料下载2007-09-17 10:45 Group One:Clause 1．商业人士认为,更加难以证实的是他们主持着的生产力革命是否真实存在。 2．审计员完全有理由相信，那些有明确目标而且知道如何实习那目标的科学家没有必要分心走神：一边关注点钞机，一边还要关注显微镜。 3．我发现，放弃“忙碌应对生活”的信念而选择“低调生活”这种做法所带来的回报要比经济上的成功和社会地位的提高更大；凯尔西长期经受巨大的压力，因而辞去了《她》杂志主编的职务——这一举动受到公众的广泛关注，她终将发现这一点。 4．这种着眼于顾客的方法就是人们所知的营销观念，这种营销观念其简单之意就是：制造商和经销商并不是试图出售最容易生产或转售的产品，而是首先尽力发现顾客想购买的商品，然后着手生产这些商品以便顾客购买。 5．一名包装学专家解释说，他可以通过把粗糖装进漂亮的罐中，或是使一个装五盎司的瓶子看上去可以装八盎司的东西，就可以使粗糖的价格涨二点五倍，即从一美元涨到二点五美元时，他实际上是在告诉公众，包装可能是一种非常费钱的奢侈品。 6．还有解释说，正是由于我们本能地对人类十分了解，所以没有科学地研究这些直觉的动力：对于一些明显的事，人们为什么要建立一种理论，再进行系统地观察或是作一些预言呢？7．“苹果是落到地面而不是落向树上”这一事实回答了他过去一直在问自己的问题——有关天空中那些更大的果实（月亮和行星）的问题。 8．由于越来越多的证据表明红色行星上曾经含有大量稳定的液态水，由于人们对细菌化石是火星上的一块陨石带到地球上的这种观念争议不休，因此，有关该行星上是否曾经存在生命以及生命是否持续到今天的争论更加激烈。 9．生产商通过改变包装大小以减少罐头所装产品的数量从而提高产品的单价，这样他可以不费吹灰之力将其产品装入盒子、袋子和罐头中，这些盒子、袋子和罐头可以装四盎司、八盎司、一磅以及两磅质量的早餐食品、混合好了的蛋糕等。 10．并且用于培训工人的有限投资也只是片面地用于培训做下一项工作所需的特殊技能， 而不是用于培训能够吸收新技术的基本技能。 11．我们将面临这样的情况：这些词典的许多使用者至少会有不同的社会文化见解，而且 很可能会有与西方社会完全不同的、甚至是对立的世界观。 12．但是，我现在所担心的更少的是基本文化教育这个压倒性问题，而更多的是中级读者 阅读能力下降这个更突出的问题，是这类读者不愿意腾出宁静的空间、不愿意浪费家庭生活、时间以及精力，所有这些都充满传统阅读的行为映像。 13．比如，如果美国的工人在学习如何操作新式、灵活的制造设备（正如他们所做的一样）时比德国的工人花的时间长得多，那么，这些新制造设备的利用成本在德国就比在美国要低。14．有多少历史学家就几乎有多少有关对历史学的定义，但是现代史学家的实践最趋向于
Unit 3 Security Text A Years ago in America, it was customary for families to leave their doors unlocked, day and night. In this essay, Greene regrets that people can no longer trust each other and have to resort to elaborate security systems to protect themselves and their possessions. 许多年前，在美国，家家户户白天黑夜不锁门是司空见惯的。在本文中，格林叹惜人们不再相互信任，不得不凭借设计精密的安全设备来保护自己和财产。 The Land of the Lock Bob Greene 锁之国 1 In the house where I grew up, it was our custom to leave the front door on the latch at night. I don't know if that was a local term or if it is universal; "on the latch" meant the door was closed but not locked. None of us carried keys; the last one in for the evening would close up, and that was it. 小时候在家里，我们的前门总是夜不落锁。我不知道这是当地的一种说法还是大家都这么说；"不落锁"的意思是掩上门，但不锁住。我们谁都不带钥匙；晚上最后一个回家的人把门关上，这就行了。 2 Those days are over. In rural areas as well as in cities, doors do not stay unlocked, even for part of an evening. 那样的日子已经一去不复返了。在乡下，在城里，门不再关着不锁上，哪怕是傍晚一段时间也不例外。 3 Suburbs and country areas are, in many ways, even more vulnerable than well-patroled urban streets. Statistics show the crime rate rising more dramatically in those allegedly tranquil areas than in cities. At any rate, the era of leaving the front door on the latch is over. 在许多方面，郊区和农村甚至比巡查严密的城市街道更易受到攻击。统计显示，那些据称是安宁的地区的犯罪率上升得比城镇更为显著。不管怎么说，前门虚掩不落锁的时代是一去不复返了。 4 It has been replaced by dead-bolt locks, security chains, electronic alarm systems and trip wires hooked up to a police station or private guard firm. Many suburban families have sliding glass doors on their patios, with steel bars elegantly built in so no one can pry the doors open. 取而代之的是防盗锁、防护链、电子报警系统，以及连接警署或私人保安公司的报警装置。郊区的许多人家在露台上安装了玻璃滑门，侧有装得很讲究的钢条，这样就没人能把门撬开。 5 It is not uncommon, in the most pleasant of homes, to see pasted on the windows small notices announcing that the premises are under surveillance by this security force or that guard company. 在最温馨的居家，也常常看得到窗上贴着小小的告示，称本宅由某家安全机构或某个保安公司负责监管。