外文翻译
外文原文
CHANGING ROLES OF THE CLIENTS、ARCHITECTS
AND CONTRACTORS THROUGH BIM
Abstract:Purpose –This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes.
Design/methodology/approach–Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed.
Findings –One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R).
Originality/value –This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects.
Keywords:Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planning
Paper type :General review
1. Introduction
Hospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complex due to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.
The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management strategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attempt for establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problems in practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility, end-user?s dissatisfaction, and energy inefficiency. It is evident that the lack of communication and coordination between the actors involved in the different phases of a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different set
of skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored. There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite for an effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.
Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.
This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.
2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approaches
A hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management of hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to man age and finance their building projects and real estate. The government?s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will be included in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.
The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist contractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.
In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Health
to obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world.
The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction. The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.
The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindset of the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor to have a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. The effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the client?s capacity and strategy to organize innovative tendering procedures.
A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as well as innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In another case, the architect can stand at the client?s side in a strategic advisory role instead of being the designer. In this case, the architect?s responsibility is translating client?s requirements and wishes into the architectural values to be included in the design specification, and evaluating the contractor?s proposal against this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.
The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequences in the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect is usually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensive the building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based on the complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building, which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium. A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct the building at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extra work due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor is no longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method, all risks are placed with the client.
In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractor have a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked to a measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certain period of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If the building actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value that
exceed the minimum client?s requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance to the client?s extra gain. The level of transparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).
Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses an innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamic life-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).
Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect, as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc.
The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design until the project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply common values and goals.
3. Changing roles through BIM application
Building information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support the integrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecycle from inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates time and place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by different stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in its ultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability, can become a virtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client.
BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes further than an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings. BIM is an integrated model in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actors throughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops and
evolves as the project progresses. Using BIM, the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client?s requirements and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design process extend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clash detection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, and as-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communication between the building site, the factory and the design office– which is crucial for an effective and efficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combination with the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of the building performance, including the life-cycle cost.
To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows that CAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors.
The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according to the type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.
Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, but his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:
the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and the deployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;
the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communication protocols, task planning, and risk management;
and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification of communication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.
Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual questions is: “In what way does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPR in a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is at tached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design, BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, in case of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIM with authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of the IPR.
How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the one hand,
collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in the contract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM A ddendum confirms: …This does not effectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships or shifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments? (ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand, changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM will lead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in the detailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means that significant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the design cost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary.
4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIM
In The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy, which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy. Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of the changing roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method and a life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIM structure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. The preceding sections have discussed the conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current section observes two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.
The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:
the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;
the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;
the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;
the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in the future; and the roles and tasks of the model manager.
The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be observed at University Medical Centre St Radboud (further referred as UMC) and Maxima Medical Centre (further referred as MMC). At UMC, the new building project for the Faculty of Dentistry in the city of Nijmegen has been dedicated as a BIM pilot project. At MMC, BIM is used in designing new buildings for Medical Simulation and Mother-and-Child Centre in the city of Veldhoven.
The first case is a project at the University Medical Centre (UMC) St Radboud. UMC is more than just a hospital. UMC combines medical services, education and research. More than 8500 staff and 3000 students work at UMC. As a part of the innovative real estate strategy, UMC has considered to use BIM for its building projects. The new development of the Faculty of Dentistry and the surrounding buildings on the Kapittelweg in Nijmegen has been chosen as a pilot project to gather practical knowledge and experience on collaborative processes with BIM support.
The main ambition to be achieved through the use of BIM in the building projects at UMC can be summarised as follows:
using 3D visualisation to enhance the coordination and communication among the building actors, and the user participation in design;
integrating the architectural design with structural analysis, energy analysis, cost estimation, and planning;
interactively evaluating the design solutions against the programme of requirements and specifications;
reducing redesign/remake costs through clash detection during the design process; and
optimising the management of the facility through the registration of medical installations and
equipments, fixed and flexible furniture, product and output specifications, and operational data.
The second case is a project at the Maxima Medical Centre (MMC). MMC is a large hospital resulted from a merger between the Diaconessenhuis in Eindhoven and St Joseph Hospital in Veldhoven. Annually the 3,400 staff of MMC provides medical services to more than 450,000 visitors and patients. A large-scaled extension project of the hospital in Veldhoven is a part of its real estate strategy. A medical simulation centre and a women-and-children medical centre are among the most important new facilities within this extension project. The design has been developed using 3D modelling with several functionalities of BIM.
The findings from both cases and the analysis are as follows. Both UMC and MMC opted for a traditional procurement method in which the client directly contracted an architect, a structural engineer, and a mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) consultant in the design team. Once the design and detailed specifications are finished, a tender procedure will follow to select a contractor. Despite the choice for this traditional method, many attempts have been made for a closer and more effective multidisciplinary collaboration. UMC dedicated a relatively long preparation phase with the architect, structural engineer and MEP consultant before the design commenced. This preparation phase was aimed at creating a common vision on the optimal way for collaboration using BIM as an ICT support. Some results of this preparation phase are: a document that defines the common ambition for the project and the collaborative working process and a semi-formal agreement that states the commitment of the building actors for collaboration. Other than UMC, MMC selected an architecture firm with an in-house engineering department. Thus, the collaboration between the architect and structural engineer can take place within the same firm using the same software application.
Regarding the life-cycle design approach, the main attention is given on life-cycle costs, maintenance needs, and facility management. Using BIM, both hospitals intend to get a much better insight in these aspects over the life-cycle period. The life-cycle sustainability criteria are included in the assignments for the design teams. Multidisciplinary designers and engineers are asked to collaborate more closely and to interact with the end-users to address life-cycle requirements. However, ensuring the building actors to engage in an integrated collaboration to generate sustainable design solutions that meet the life-cycle performance expectations is still difficult. These actors are contracted through a traditional procurement method. Their tasks are specific, their involvement is rather short-term in a certain project phase, their responsibilities and liabilities are limited, and there is no tangible incentive for integrated collaboration.
From the current progress of both projects, it can be observed that the type and structure of BIM relies heavily on the choice for BIM software applications. Revit Architecture and Revit Structure by Autodesk are selected based on the argument that it has been widely used internationally and it is compatible with AutoCAD, a widely known product of the same software manufacturer. The compatibility with AutoCAD is a key consideration at MMC since the drawings of the existing buildings were created with this application. These 2D drawings were then used as the basis to generate a 3D model with the BIM software application. The architectural model generated with Revit Architecture and the structural model generated by Revit Structure can be linked directly. In case of a change in the architectural model, a message will be sent to the structural engineer. He can then adjust the structural model, or propose a change in return to the architect, so that the structural model is always consistent with the architectural one.
Despite the attempt of the design team to agree on using the same software application, the MEP consultant is still not capable to use Revit; and therefore, a conversion of the model from and to Revit is still required. Another weakness of this “closed approach”, which is dependent to the use of the same software applications, may appear in the near future when the project further progresses into the construction phase. If the contractor uses another software application, considerable extra work will be needed to make the model creted during the design phase to be compatible for use in the construction phase.
Since traditional procurement method is used, this problem may appear just after tender, which means there will not be much time and resource to re-create or re-build the model. The contractor?s ICT system and applications are unknown before the tender because no contractor is yet involved in the project. A particular attention in hospital building projects is given on the development of object libraries. Since a very large number of complex objects are typical to hospital buildings (e.g. installations, equipments, operation rooms, special facilities), the effective handling of the object library determines the efficiency of the design process. Since the approach to BIM still depends to specific software applications instead of an open-source approach, the openness, accessibility, and extension possibility of the object libraries may rather be limited.
5. Conclusions
In the midst of the changing real estate strategy in the healthcare sector and the changing roles in hospital building projects, integrated collaboration and BIM are highly required. Based on the analysis of the literature, previous research and case studies, the five success factors for integrated collaboration using BIM can be identified as “POWER” that comprises:
(1) Product information sharing (P).
(2) Organisational roles synergy (O).
(3) Work processes coordination (W).
(4) Environment for teamwork (E).
(5) Reference data consolidation (R).
There is much research on how to release the power of collaboration through the changing roles of the client, architect, engineer, and contractor within a collaborative process using BIM. However, the management of the collaborative processes and the implementation of BIM as ICT support in the real practice are still suboptimal. The main findings from the case studies in the Netherlands can be concluded as follows. In contrary to the ambition to endorse a life-cycle strategy to manage healthcare real estate effectively and efficiently, traditional procurement method is still largely used in hospital building projects. Although many attempts are made to realise an integrated collaboration, the contractual limitations of the roles and responsibilities of the building parties in the traditional procurement method hinder the optimal implementation of a performance-based honorarium system (a system which may stimulate the building actors to continuously assess the life-cycle consequences of their design, engineering, and construction solutions). The decisions on ICT solutions for BIM are often not adequately grounded in the business and real estate strategies of the healthcare institutions. In the current situation, a “closed approach” that depends on a certain software application is still used. Consequently, much time is needed to define the structure of object and data modelling at the initiation of the project while changes must be enforced in a later phase as new actors with different ICT systems work with the model.
The healthcare sector serves as an appropriate case, but in terms of BIM development it is not an isolated case. The knowledge of the collaborative processes with BIM support can be generalised to the wider construction sector. Collaboration processes in a building project cannot be standardised and neither can BIM. BIM is not a ready-made solution; it has to be tailored for each project. The collaboration framework, the modelling approach, the structure and level of detail of the model, and the supporting tools have to be shaped in accordance to the project complexity and the objective of the involved building actors.
外文译文
通过BIM改变业主、设计师、承包商的角色
Rizal Sebastian，荷兰建筑环境与地球科学研究院，代尔夫特省，荷兰
[摘要]目的—本文旨在介绍一种具有实际意义的基于文献和案例研究的建筑信息模型(BIM)。它试图解决BIM和重组的过程和角色在医院建设项目中应用的必要性。这种类型的项目很复杂是由于复杂的功能与技术要求,做出决定涉及大量的涉众,和长期的开发过程。
设计/方法/途径—通过文献研究和参考欧洲正在进行的研究项目InPro,框架集成协作和使用BIM进行了分析。
调查结果—其中一个主要发现是识别为一个成功写作使用BIM的主要因素，这可以被视为“POWER”:产品信息共享(P),组织角色协同(O),工作流程协调(W)、环境对于团队(E),然后参考数据整合(R)。
独创性/价值—本文有助于在改变所需角色和过程开发与经营可持续建筑环境支持集成的ICT的框架和工具的科学和实践。介绍了先进的欧洲研究项目和一些真实的应用于医院建设项目BIM的真实案例。
[关键词] 欧洲、医院、荷兰、工程施工、响应的灵活性，项目计划
论文类型：综述
1. 导言
医院建设项目非常关键，涉及到重要投资且建设周期长。医院建设项目也非常复杂，因为涉及卫生安全、特殊设备和大量数据的处理。建设过程是动态的，包括迭代阶段和中间的变化。转移议程、角色和责任的许多建筑相关人员都积极参与，比如：医疗保健机构，国家和地方政府，项目开发商，金融机构，建筑师，承建商，顾问，设施管理，设备制造商和供应商。这些建设项目的影响很大，随着医学、社会、科技的发展，医疗政策也在迅速变化。在不同国家之间同样如此。比如在荷兰，因为2008年推出的荷兰卫生政策，卫生保健部门的建设项目组织方式经历了巨大的变革。
迅速变化的环境要求一个建筑在其生命周期中具有灵活性。出于整合生命周期的考虑，在建筑设计、施工技术和设施的管理策略，多学科的合作是必要的。医疗建设项目建立全面合作的尝试在实践中仍面临着严重问题，如预算超支、延时、灵活性带来的次优的质量、用户不满和能源效率。显而易见的是，在这些问题背后的最重要原因是缺乏一个建设项目的不同阶段所涉及的角色之间的沟通和协调。不同的利益相关者之间的沟通变得非常重要，因为每个利益相关者具有不同的技能。因此，复杂的设计图纸和文件信息的提取，解释和通信的过程往往耗时和困难。先进的可视化技术，如4D规划，有巨大的潜力可以提高项目团队的沟通效率和项目成员的解释能力。然而，作为一个有效的沟通工具的使用仍然有限，并没有充分探讨。在信息传递和集成也有其他方面的障碍，例如：许多现有的信息和通信技术系统不支持的数据和结构的先决条件是不同的建筑角色或学科之间的有效合作的开放性。
建筑信息模型BIM为事前问题的解决提供了整体方法。因此，BIM是越来越多地使用信息和通信技术作为一个在复杂的建设项目的支持。一个有效的多学科协作，最佳使用BIM的支持，需要不断变化的客户，建筑师和承包商的角色，新的合同关系;和重新组织的合作进程。不幸的是，在实践方面仍然存在一些差距，比如怎样使建筑参与者们再变换的角色中有效合作、改进并利用BIM作为一个最佳的信息和通信技术的协作支持。基于文献回顾和案例研究，本文全面回顾了建筑信息建模BIM。在下一部分将重点分析全面合作框架和BIM的应用，这部分研究会基于文献和来自欧洲的研究项目inpro。随后，通过观察在荷兰进行的两个试点项目，将研究通过IBM的应用，客户、建筑师和承包商之间的角色转换。总之，应用IBM的统一协作，其成功因素和障碍都是确定的。
2.通过统一协作和生命周期设计的角色变化方法
一个医院建设项目涉及不同的参与人员，角色和知识领域。在荷兰，因为新的医疗政策，医院建设项目中的客户，建筑师和承包商的角色变化是不可避免的。以前，医疗机构根据医疗机构法需
要获得新的建设项目和重大整修许可证和建筑许可证。许可证由荷兰卫生部颁发，医疗机构从政府获得财政支持。2008年以来，管理医院建筑项目和房地产所有权的法令已经生效。在新法律中，为医院下建设项目许可证不是强制的，也不是能获得的。这种变化从国家政策导向方面给与了更多的自由，也分配了更多的责任给医疗机构对其房地产融资和管理。新政策意味着医疗机构对建设项目和房地产所有权进行全面负责管理和资金拨付。将不再得到政府单独的医疗保健设施拨款，但将包括对医疗服务的费用。这意味着，医疗机构必须通过他们的服务，他们对房地产的投资赚回来。这项新政策旨在刺激医疗建筑的设计，采购和管理，这将有助于有效和高效的初级卫生保健服务的可持续创新。
这个建设项目和房地产管理的新战略找到了集成的协作方式。以保证在施工期间，使用和维护的可持续性，最终用户、设备管理人员、承建商及专门承建商需要在规划和设计过程中涉及。新战略的影响，反映在建筑者角色的转变和新的采购方法上。
在传统的采购方法中，建筑师和设计工程师改进设计和细节。然后，客户端（医疗机构）给卫生部发送申请获得建筑许可证和政府财政支持。在此之后，选择承包商的招标过程中，强调为寻找最低价格的投标人。施工期间，变化往往发生由于施工问题和客户需求的新要求。由于技术的复杂性、决策的高水平，从开始直到交付医院建设项目全过程可能需要长达十几年的时间。交付后，医疗机构完全负责设施的运作。重新设计和变化也发生在使用阶段，以应付新的功能和医学界的发展。
综合采购描绘了有关各方在建筑项目上的新的合同之间的关系。在综合采购项目中，顾客只跟建筑施工方保持契约关系，而与建筑设计师和承包方之间没关系。而在需求方面的客户端任务和职业群体之间的传统边界变得模糊，因为建筑师，顾问公司，承包商，分包商和供应商都在建设过程中的供应方的立场。这样的配置使建筑师，工程师和承包商在一个非常不同的位置，影响不仅自己的角色，而且他们的职责，任务和与客户，用户，团队和其他利益相关者沟通。
从传统采购法到综合采购法的过渡需要供给双方当事人心态上的一个转变。它是为客户和承包商能有一个公平和公开的合作，使他们都可以最佳利用他们的能力。综合协作的有效性也取决于客户的能力和战略，以组织创新的招标程序。
一个新的挑战出现在案件的定位的一名建筑师合作伙伴承包商。对于建筑师同一个承包商达成合作伙伴关系，一个重要的问题是如何确保建筑的价值观的实现，以及通过高效施工过程来实现的创新过程。在另一起案件中,建筑师可以站在客户端战略顾问的角色而不是设计师。在这种情况下,建筑师的责任是将客户的需求和愿望翻译成建筑值将其体现在设计规范中,并评估承包商的提议反对这个。在这些新角色中,建筑师拥有作为代表利益的服务商的责任，掌握托管人的客户价值和托管人的设计模型。
从传统到综合采购方法的过渡也带来了对付款方案的影响。在传统的建筑过程中，建筑师的酬劳通常是基于项目花费的百分比，这可能仅意味着这个建筑花费的越多，酬劳将越高。工程师基于设计的复杂程度和任务的强度来接受酬劳。一个高度复杂的建筑将造成大量的返工设计，就红利而言，这点对于工程师是有利的。一个传统的承包商通常可获得委员会根据招标建造建筑最低的价格满足给定的最小规格客户端。交付之后,承包商不再负责建筑的长期使用。在传统的采购方式中，所有的风险是置于客户一方的。
在综合采购方法中，付款方式是根据所获得的建筑性能;因此,付款是非对抗性的。自从建筑师、工程师和承包商对建筑的设计和质量拥有广泛的责任，付款是在这段时间内连接这座建筑的测量系统的功能和技术性能的纽带。酬劳变成一种达到最理想质量的激励。如果这个项目的参与者成功交付一个超过最低客户的需求高附加值建筑物,他们将根据客户的额外所得而获得一笔奖金。这种透明度的水平也是可以提高的。如果利益相关者同意共享信息和其详细程，则打开账簿记录会是一个优秀的工。
接下来采用综合采购方法，医院建设项目的新房地产策略对创新产品开发和生命周期的设计方法发表评论。一个可持续的业务投资案例和医院大楼的开发依赖动态的生命周期管理，它包括考虑和分析建筑生命周期成本随时间的发展的变化(投资/初始成本、运营成本、和物流成本)。相比传统生命周期成本法，动态的生命周期管理包含一个转变,即从只关注于专注最大限度地减少成本到总收
益最大化的获得。其中一个关于成功实现动态生命周期管理的一个决定性因素是可持续设计的建筑和建筑的组件，这意味着设计携带者足够的灵活性来适应长时期产生的变化（发表于1992）。
设计基于生命周期管理的原则影响了建筑师的角色，因为他需要了解关于使用场景和相关财务安排、不断变化的社会环境和物质环境和新技术。设计需要集成人活动和业务的战略时间。在这种背景下，建筑师通过组织的、当地的和全球的金融政策、经营、健康和安全、环境等等来联合自己的设计策略。
结合的过程和产品的创新，不断变换角色的项目参与者可以通过集成项目交付或IPD（美国建筑师协会，加利福尼亚议会，2007）来适应。IPD是一种集合参与人员、体系、业务结构和实习于一个过程，该过程能够通过设计、制造、建设的所有阶段，综合人才并协作所有参与者的见解以减少浪费、提高效率。IPD原则可以被应用于多种合同安排。IPD团队包含的成员将远远超过三位一体的建筑师、工程师和承包商。至少,尽管,一个集成项目应该包含一个客户,建筑师,承包商，工程师之间的紧密合作，但主要承包商最终负责项目的建设,从早期的设计直到项目交接。IPD成功的关键是集合一个可以齐心协力并工作高效的团队。IPD是建立在写作上的。因此，如果参与者分享应用共同点价值观和目标，IPD才能成功。
3.通过BIM应用改变角色
BIM包括ICT框架和可以支持基于生命周期设计的的方法的综合协作的工具。BIM是一个数字表示的物理和功能特性的设施。这样，它作为一个为形成一个可信赖的生命周期从开始向前的决策基础服务的共享知识资源（国家建筑科学研究院NIBS，2007）。BIM促进不同时间和地点的独立协同工作。一个BIM的基本前提是在BIM系统中把不同股东在不同生命周期阶段插入、提取、升级或修改信息来支持和反映利益相关者的角色。BIM的最终形式，作为一个共享的数字表示建立在具有互用性的开放标准，可以成为从设计团队向承包商和分包商，然后向客户端的虚拟的信息模型。
BIM不同于之前所知的计算机辅助设计（CAD）。BIM会比生成数字图纸（2D或3D）的应用程序更进一步。BIM是一个综合模型，其中所有过程和产品信息都结合在一起存储、阐述，并交互式地分发到所有相关的项目参与者。作为一个涉及所有成员贯穿整个项目生命周期的主要模型，BIM随着项目的发展而开发。使用BIM，被提议的设计方案将被评估是否符合顾客的要求是否满足预期的建筑设计效果。BIM的功能支持设计过程向多维延伸，包括：三维可视化和细节,冲突检测、材料时间表,计划、成本估计,生产和物流信息,和竣工文件。在施工过程中，BIM会支持之间的通信建设网站,工厂和办公室的设计——这是至关重要的一个有效的和高效的预制和装配过程以及防止或解决问题相关的不可预见的错误或修改。当该建筑在使用中,可以使用BIM结合智能建筑系统提供和维护大楼的最新信息性能,包括生命周期成本。
为在AEC/FM工业中合作运用BIM的更高效的信息交换中发挥全部潜能，高质量的开放国际标准和这些标准的高质量的安装使用必须被替换。IFC开放标准是普遍认为是高质量的,是被广泛实现的在软件。不幸的是，这个认证程序允许低质量的的实现进行身份认证，并且本质上呈现它是在IFC实际使用中没用的身份认证。IFC兼容BIM实际上是用更少的人工为建筑师和承包商起草，为工程师显示为相同的作用。最近的一项调查显示，CAD仍然是用于设计工作的主要技术形（约占60%），而此时BIM被约20%的设计师和约10%的工程师和承包商使用。
应用程序支持一个最优的BIM交叉学科和交叉阶段合作，在项目参与者角色和关系上打开了一个新的维度。几个最相关的问题是:新角色的模型管理员;访问权和知识产权的协议;根据合同类型的责任和付款安排根据的类型和相关的集中采购;开放国际标准的使用。协同工作使用BIM要求建立一个拥有ICT以及施工工艺技术的新的专家的角色的模型管理员。该模型管理员处理系统,以及项目人员。他为BIM功能提和维护供技术解决方案，管理信息流，提高利益相关者的ICT技能。模型管理员并不能决定在设计和工程的解决方案和组织程序,但他的角色在整个链中的决策的重点是:
BIM的发展，模型的结构和细节水平的定义，相关BIM工具的调度，例如，模型检查,合并,和冲突检测;
分摊协作方法,特别是决策和通信协议、任务规划、和风险管理;
以及信息管理方面，依据数据流和数据储存、鉴定沟通的错误,和决策或过程(重新)跟踪。
对于法律和组织问题,一个实际的问题是:“在什么情况下知识产权协同工作使用BIM不同于知识产权在传统的团队合作。就结合作品而言,知识产权每个元素都依附于它的创造者。尽管看起来是一个完全集成的设计、BIM实际却是由一个组合的作品/元素;例如: ,是由建筑师完成建筑物的轮廓设计, 由电气承包商设计电机系统,等等。因此,一旦BIM结合起来工作,知识产权的使用将类似于原来的传统团队合作。使用BIM作者注册功能实际上可能会使它更容易追踪的知识产权。
怎样用BIM协同工作，影响合同的关系？一方面，协同合作使用BIM不必要改变在合同中的责任位置，也不需要承担联合合同的义务。BIM附件的一般原则证实：“这并不需要招致或需要一个合同关系的重新构建或转换项目参与者之间的风险除了特别要求的协议附录和其附件”另一方面，改变条款的付款方案是可以预见的。写作过程使用BIM将导致活动从早期设计阶段转变。很多，如果不是全部很多,活动详细的工程和规范阶段会进行早期阶段。这意味着设计阶段的重要支付,可能占到40%设计的成本,却不能再指望。因为建造工作同设计工作是同时的,一个新的付款的比例在早期设计阶段是必要的。
4.回顾运用BIM的正在进行的亿元建设项目
在荷兰，在医院建设项目中不断变化的角色是策略一部分，它旨在达成一种可持续的真正的财产来回应改变的医疗保健政策。参考之前的文献和研究，影响该换角色成功的主要因素可以归为以下几点：一个综合采购方法的实现和一个持续合作的过程的生命周期设计方法；BIM结构和知识产权的协议；和集成的角色模型管理员。前面的部分已经讨论了如何有效解决这些因素的概念性观点。当前部分观察两个实际的项目和比较实际的实践与分别概念视图。
在案例研究中被观察到的问题是:
选中的采购方法和在这个方法中的相关角色；
生命周期设计方法的实现；
BIM应用于项目中的类型、结构和功能；
在数据共享的开放性和传输模型和BIM在将来的使用；
以及角色和模型管理者的任务。
在圣内梅亨大学医学院（简称为UMC）和Maxima医学中心（简称为MMC）可以观察到试点医院建设项目使用BIM。在UMC，奈美亨市的牙科医院的新建项目一直致力于成为应用BIM的典范。在MMC，BIM是用于为Veldhoven的母婴中心和医学模拟中心设计新的建筑。
第一个案例为一个在圣内梅亨大学医学中心（UMC）的案例。UMC不仅仅是一个医院，它及医疗服务、教育和研究于一体。有8500名以上的在职员工和3000名以上的学生在这里工作。作为一项创新性的地产策略；UMC考虑运用BIM于建设项目。牙科学院的新发展和周围的建筑物在奈梅亨Kapittelweg已被选中作为一个试点项目收集实用知识和与BIM协作流程支持的经验。
通过在UMC建筑项目使用BIM的技术的目的主要归纳如下：
使用3D可视化效果来加强建设者之间的沟通与合作，和用户参与设计；
促进信息的集合和交换以达到与图纸和合同文件原则与实施阶段的一致性；
结合建筑设计和结构分析、能量分析,成本评估和计划;
交互设计解决方案和评估项目的要求及规格；
通过设计中的冲突检测减少重新设计/再造成本；
以及，通过登记医疗设备和器械、固定和可移动的家具、产品、输出规范和操作数据来加强设施管理。
第二个案例是Maxima医疗中心的项目。Diaconessenhuis在埃因霍温和圣Veldhoven Joseph医院的合并形成了大型医院MMC。每年，3400员工为MMC的访客和病人提供医疗服务。医院在Veldhoven 大规模的扩建工程是医院房地产策略的一部分。一个医疗模拟中心和母婴医疗中心是这个扩建项目中最重要的新设施。设计使用了3D造型与几个BIM功能。
这个结果来自于两个案例和如下的分析。UMC和MMC都选择了一种传统的采购方式，即客户直接与建筑师、结构工程师和设备、电气、管道顾问等（MEP）设计团队订立合同。一旦设计和详细的规范都已完成,选择一个承包商将是一个投标过程。尽管的选择传统的方法,但是已经进行了很多尝试
仔细和更有效的多学科协作。UMC专注于在设计开始前的与建筑师、结构师和MEP顾问的相关的长期准备阶段。这个准备阶段的目的是创造一个共同的愿景以最佳的方式进行合作的使用BIM作为一个ICT支持。这些准备阶段的结果是：一份定义项目共同目的的文件和合作工作过程以及一份承诺建设参与者合作的半正式的协议。除了UMC、MMC选定的建筑公司的内部工程部门。因此，发生在建筑师和结构师之间的合作可以在一家公司用同样的应用软件。
对于生命周期设计的方法,主要关注了生命周期成本、维护的需求,和设施管理。使用BIM，两家公司都打算通过生命周期期间在这些方面获得更好的洞察力。生命周期的可持续性标准都包含在设计团队的任务中。多学科的设计师和工程师被要求更紧密地合作,并且与最终用户互动,以解决生命周期的需求。然而，保证项目参与者致力于协调合作来创造持续的设计成果以满足生命周期的预期成果是很困难的。这些工作人员通过传统承包采购方法订立合同。他们的任务是具体的,他们的参与在一个特定项目阶段中是短时期的,他们的职责和责任都是有限的,而没有切实的激励集成的协作。
从目前的两个项目的进展,可以观察到的类型和BIM结构严重依赖对BIM软件应用程序的选择。建筑和结构选择的论证的基础上的在国际上得到了广泛的应用,这是兼容与CAD,一种广泛已知产品相同的软件制造商。与CAD的兼容性是一个MMC的重要考虑，因为现存图纸基本上都是用该款软件制作的。因为这些二维图纸将被BIM软件用作生成三维模型的基础。生成的建筑模型和结构模型将被直接连接。如果一个建筑模型改变，一个信息将被传送至结构工程师。他可以调整结构模型来适应或是提出一个变更来回应建筑师，以保证结构模型总是与建筑模型相一致。
尽管设计团队试着同意使用相同的软件应用程序,但MEP顾问仍不能够使用Revit;因此,和Revit 之间转换模型仍然是必需的。这种“封闭方法”的另一个弱点是，它依赖使用相同的应用软件，在当项目更加进步的建设阶段的时候将会出现。如果承包商使用另一个软件应用程序,大量的额外工作需要让模型在设计阶段和构建阶段兼容。因为传统的采购方式使用,这个问题可能出现在投标后,这就意味着不会有很多时间和资源来重建或重做模型。承包商的ICT系统和应用程序在投标前是未知的，因为还没有承包商进入这个项目。特别注意医院建设项目是给定的发展对象库。因为大量的复杂的对象是典型的医院建筑(例如安装、设备、操作的房间、特殊设施)因此，能否有效处理对象库决定了设计过程的效率。由于BIM的方法仍就依赖于专业应用软件而非开放资源，可访问性、和扩展的可能性对象库可能相当有限。
5.结论
在改变房地产策略在医疗保健行业和更改角色在医院建设项目过程中,整合协作和BIM是非常需要的。基于文献分析，先前的调查和案例研究，五个综合协作使用BIM成功因素可以定义为“POWER”，包含：
（1）产品信息共享（P）
（2）组织角色协调（O）
（3）工作过程合作（W）
（4）团队工作环境（E）
（5）参考数据整合（R）
对于怎样通过运用BIM合作过程改换客户、建筑师、工程师、承包商的角色发挥合作能量这方面有许多研究。然而，合作过程管理和BIM作为ICT的支持在真正的实践中仍然是次优的。主要结果从在荷兰进行的案例研究可以得出如下。相反，为追求认证一个生命周期策略来管理医疗房地产是有效的，传统采购方法始终大量应用于医院建筑建设。尽管做了许多尝试来意识到一个综合合作，但是合同的限制使建设方在传统采购方式中阻碍了基于报酬体系的最佳实施效果(一个系统可能激发项目参与者要持续不断地评估他们的生命周期设计,工程,和建设解决方案)。BIM对ICT的决定往往不充分建立在商业和房地产策略的医疗保健机构上。在当前形式下，取决于一个特定应用软件的“封闭方法”仍然在使用。因此,大多数时候是需要定义的结构的对象和数据建模的启动项目变更的时候, 随着新员工用不同的ICT系统的工作模型，必须严格执行在后面的阶段。
医疗保障部分作为一个合适的案例，但就BIM开发而言这不是一个孤立的案例。用BIM支持协同合作的知识能够普遍应用与更广泛的建筑行业。BIM和协作流程在建设项目中不能被标准化。BIM不
是一个现成的解决方案;它必须为每个客户量身定制的项目。协作框架,造型方法,结构的细节层次模型,支持工具不得不依照项目的复杂性和建设人员的目标与其保持一致。
理工学院 毕业设计外文资料翻译 专业：计算机科学与技术 姓名：马艳丽 学号： 12L0752218 外文出处：The Design and Implementation of 3D Electronic Map of Campus Based on WEBGIS 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 基于WebGIS的校园三维电子地图的设计与实现 一．导言 如今，数字化和信息化是当今时代的主题。随着信息革命和计算机科学的发展，计算机技术已经渗透到科学的各个领域，并引起了许多革命性的变化，在这些科目，古代制图学也不例外。随着技术和文化的不断进步，地图变化的形式和内容也随之更新。在计算机图形学中，地理信息系统（GIS）不断应用到Web，制作和演示的传统方式经历了巨大的变化，由于先进的信息技术的发展，地图的应用已经大大延长。在这些情况下，绘图将面临广阔的发展前景。电子地图是随之应运而生的产品之一。随着计算机技术，计算机图形学理论，遥感技术，航空摄影测量技术和其他相关技术的飞速发展。用户需要的三维可视化，动态的交互性和展示自己的各种地理相关的数据处理和分析，如此多的关注应支付的研究三维地图。东北石油大学及其周边地区的基础上本文设计并建立三维电子地图。 二．系统设计 基于WebGIS的校园三维电子地图系统的具有普通地图的一般特性。通过按键盘上的箭头键（上，下，左，右），可以使地图向相应的方向移动。通过拖动鼠标，可以查看感兴趣的任何一个地方。使用鼠标滚轮，可以控制地图的大小，根据用户的需求来查看不同缩放级别的地图。在地图的左下角会显示当前鼠标的坐标。在一个div层，我们描绘了一个新建筑物的热点，这层可以根据不同的地图图层的显示，它也可以自动调整。通过点击热点，它可以显示热点的具体信息。也可以输入到查询的信息，根据自己的需要，并得到一些相关的信息。此外，通过点击鼠标，人们可以选择检查的三维地图和卫星地图。 主要功能包括： ?用户信息管理：检查用户名和密码，根据权限设置级别的认证，允许不同权限的用户通过互联网登录系统。 ?位置信息查询：系统可以为用户提供模糊查询和快速定位。
南京航空航天大学金城学院 毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 系部经济系 专业国际经济与贸易 学生姓名陈雅琼学号2011051115 指导教师邓晶职称副教授 2015年5月
Economic policy,tourism trade and productive diversification （Excerpt） Iza Lejárraga,Peter Walkenhorst The broad lesson that can be inferred from the analysis is that promoting tourism linkages with the productive capabilities of a host country is a multi-faceted approach influenced by a variety of country conditions.Among these,fixed or semi-fixed factors of production,such as land,labor,or capital,seem to have a relatively minor influence.Within the domain of natural endowments,only agricultural capital emerged as significant.This is a result that corresponds to expectations,given that foods and beverages are the primary source of demand in the tourism economy.Hence,investments in agricultural technology may foment linkages with the tourism market.It is also worth mentioning that for significant backward linkages to emerge with local agriculture,a larger scale of tourism may be important. According to the regression results,a strong tourism–agriculture nexus will not necessarily develop at a small scale of tourism demand. It appears that variables related to the entrepreneurial capital of the host economy are of notable explanatory significance.The human development index(HDI), which is used to measure a country's general level of development,is significantly and positively associated with tourism linkages.One plausible explanation for this is that international tourists,who often originate in high-income countries,may feel more comfortable and thus be inclined to consume more in a host country that has a life-style to which they can relate easily.Moreover,it is important to remember that the HDI also captures the relative achievements of countries in the level of health and education of the population.Therefore,a higher HDI reflects a healthier and more educated workforce,and thus,the quality of local entrepreneurship.Related to this point,it is important to underscore that the level of participation of women in the host economy also has a significantly positive effect on linkages.In sum, enhancing local entrepreneurial capital may expand the linkages between tourism and other sectors of the host country.
xxxxxxxxx 毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 （本科学生用） 题目：Poduct Line Engineering: The State of the Practice 生产线工程：实践的形态 学生姓名：学号： 学部（系）: 专业年级: 指导教师：职称或学位： 2011年3月10日
外文文献翻译（译成中文1000字左右）： 【主要阅读文献不少于5篇，译文后附注文献信息，包括：作者、书名（或论文题目）、出版社（或刊物名称）、出版时间（或刊号）、页码。提供所译外文资料附件（印刷类含封面、封底、目录、翻译部分的复印件等，网站类的请附网址及原文】 Requirements engineering practices A precise requirements engineering process— a main driver for successful software development —is even more important for product line engineering. Usually, the product line’s scope addresses various domains simultaneously. This makes requirements engineering more complex. Furthermore, SPL development involves more tasks than single-product development. Many product line requirements are complex, interlinked, and divided into common and product-specific requirements. So, several requirements engineering practices are important specifically in SPL development: ? Domain identification and modeling, as well as commonalities and variations across product instances Separate specification and verification for platform and product requirements ? Management of integrating future requirements into the platform and products ? Identification, modeling, and management of requirement dependencies The first two practices are specific to SPL engineering. The latter two are common to software development but have much higher importance for SPLs. Issues with performing these additional activities can severely affect the product line’s long-term success. During the investigation, we found that most organizations today apply organizational and procedural measures to master these challenges. The applicability of more formal requirements engineering techniques and tools appeared rather limited, partly because such techniques are not yet designed to cope with product line evelopment’s inherent complexities. The investigation determined that the following three SPL requirements engineering practices were most important to SPL success. Domain analysis and domain description. Before starting SPL development, organizations should perform a thorough domain analysis. A well-understood domain is a prerequisite for defining a suitable scope for the product line. It’s the foundation for efficiently identifying and distinguishing platform and product requirements. Among the five participants in our investigation, three explicitly modeled the product line requirements. The others used experienced architects and domain experts to develop the SPL core assets without extensive requirements elicitation. Two organizations from the first group established a continuous requirements management that maintained links between product line and product instance requirements. The three other organizations managed their core assets’ evolution using change management procedures and versioning concepts. Their business did not force them to maintain more detailed links between the requirements on core assets and product instances. The impact of architectural decisions on requirements negotiations. A stable but flexible architecture is important for SPL development. However, focusing SPL evolution too much on architectural issues will lead to shallow or even incorrect specifications. It can cause core assets to ignore important SPL requirements so that the core assets lose relevance for SPL development. Organizations can avoid this problem by establishing clear responsibilities for requirements management in addition to architectural roles. The work group participants reported that a suitable organizational tool for balancing requirements and architecture is roundtable meetings in which requirements engineers,
中等分辨率制备分离的 快速色谱技术 W. Clark Still,* Michael K a h n , and Abhijit Mitra Departm(7nt o/ Chemistry, Columbia Uniuersity,1Veu York, Neu; York 10027 ReceiLied January 26, 1978 我们希望找到一种简单的吸附色谱技术用于有机化合物的常规净化。这种技术是适于传统的有机物大规模制备分离，该技术需使用长柱色谱法。尽管这种技术得到的效果非常好，但是其需要消耗大量的时间，并且由于频带拖尾经常出现低复原率。当分离的样本剂量大于1或者2g时，这些问题显得更加突出。近年来，几种制备系统已经进行了改进，能将分离时间减少到1-3h，并允许各成分的分辨率ΔR f≥（使用薄层色谱分析进行分析）。在这些方法中，在我们的实验室中，媒介压力色谱法1和短柱色谱法2是最成功的。最近，我们发现一种可以将分离速度大幅度提升的技术，可用于反应产物的常规提纯，我们将这种技术称为急骤色谱法。虽然这种技术的分辨率只是中等（ΔR f≥），而且构建这个系统花费非常低，并且能在10-15min内分离重量在的样本。4 急骤色谱法是以空气压力驱动的混合介质压力以及短柱色谱法为基础，专门针对快速分离，介质压力以及短柱色谱已经进行了优化。优化实验是在一组标准条件5下进行的，优化实验使用苯甲醇作为样本，放在一个20mm*5in.的硅胶柱60内，使用Tracor 970紫外检测器监测圆柱的输出。分辨率通过持续时间（r）和峰宽（w,w/2）的比率进行测定的（Figure 1），结果如图2-4所示，图2-4分别放映分辨率随着硅胶颗粒大小、洗脱液流速和样本大小的变化。
华北电力大学科技学院 毕业设计（论文）附件 外文文献翻译 学号：121912020115姓名：彭钰钊 所在系别：动力工程系专业班级：测控技术与仪器12K1指导教师：李冰 原文标题：Infrared Remote Control System Abstract 2016 年 4 月 19 日
红外遥控系统 摘要 红外数据通信技术是目前在世界范围内被广泛使用的一种无线连接技术，被众多的硬件和软件平台所支持。红外收发器产品具有成本低，小型化，传输速率快，点对点安全传输，不受电磁干扰等特点，可以实现信息在不同产品之间快速、方便、安全地交换与传送，在短距离无线传输方面拥有十分明显的优势。红外遥控收发系统的设计在具有很高的实用价值，目前红外收发器产品在可携式产品中的应用潜力很大。全世界约有1亿5千万台设备采用红外技术，在电子产品和工业设备、医疗设备等领域广泛使用。绝大多数笔记本电脑和手机都配置红外收发器接口。随着红外数据传输技术更加成熟、成本下降，红外收发器在短距离通讯领域必将得到更广泛的应用。 本系统的设计目的是用红外线作为传输媒质来传输用户的操作信息并由接收电路解调出原始信号，主要用到编码芯片和解码芯片对信号进行调制与解调，其中编码芯片用的是台湾生产的PT2262，解码芯片是PT2272。主要工作原理是：利用编码键盘可以为PT2262提供的输入信息，PT2262对输入的信息进行编码并加载到38KHZ的载波上并调制红外发射二极管并辐射到空间，然后再由接收系统接收到发射的信号并解调出原始信息，由PT2272对原信号进行解码以驱动相应的电路完成用户的操作要求。 关键字：红外线；编码；解码；LM386；红外收发器。 1 绪论
Inventory management Inventory Control On the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion. The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility. Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored: First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments . Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field of
五分钟搞定5000字－外文文献翻译 在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手"。 具体操作过程如下： 1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献； 2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了； 3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。 另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。 注： 1、Google翻译：https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html,/language_tools google，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。我利用它是这样的。一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。回到我自己说的翻译上来。下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧 比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译， 首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。
在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。 2、CNKI翻译：https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html, CNKI翻译助手，这个网站不需要介绍太多，可能有些人也知道的。主要说说它的有点，你进去看看就能发现：搜索的肯定是专业词汇，而且它翻译结果下面有文章与之对应（因为它是CNKI检索提供的，它的翻译是从文献里抽出来的），很实用的一个网站。估计别的写文章的人不是傻子吧，它们的东西我们可以直接拿来用，当然省事了。网址告诉大家，有兴趣的进去看看，你们就会发现其乐无穷！还是很值得用的。https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html, 3、网路版金山词霸（不到1M）：https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html,/6946901637944806 翻译时的速度： 这里我谈的是电子版和打印版的翻译速度，按个人翻译速度看，打印版的快些，因为看电子版本一是费眼睛，二是如果我们用电脑，可能还经常时不时玩点游戏，或者整点别的，导致最终SPPEED变慢，再之电脑上一些词典（金山词霸等）在专业翻译方面也不是特别好，所以翻译效果不佳。在此本人建议大家购买清华大学编写的好像是国防工业出版社的那本《英汉科学技术词典》，基本上挺好用。再加上网站如：google CNKI翻译助手，这样我们的翻译速度会提高不少。 具体翻译时的一些技巧（主要是写论文和看论文方面） 大家大概都应预先清楚明白自己专业方向的国内牛人，在这里我强烈建议大家仔
译文（一） THE ACCOUNTING REVIEW V ol. 83, No. 3 2008 pp. 823–853 市场参与者的杜邦分析的使用 马克?t?Soliman 华盛顿大学 文摘:杜邦分析,一种常见的财务报表分析，依靠于净营业资产收益率的两个乘法组件:利润率和资产周转率。这两个会计比率衡量不同的构造。因此,有不同的属性。之前的研究已经发现,资产周转率的变化是未来收益的变化正相关。本文全面探讨了杜邦组件和沿着三个维度有助于文学。首先,本文有助于财务报表分析文献,发现在这个会计信息信号实际上是增量学习会计信号在先前的研究在预测未来收益。其次,它有助于文学在股票市场上使用的会计信息通过检查眼前和未来的股本回报投资者应对这些组件。最后,它增加了分析师的文献处理会计信息的再次测试直接和延迟反应的分析师通过同期预测修正以及未来预测错误。一致的跨市场加入者的两组,结果表明是有用的信息就是明证杜邦组件和股票收益之间的联系以及维度分析师预测。然而,我发现预测未来预测错误和异常返回信息处理表明似乎没有完成。平均水平,分析表明杜邦组件代表增量和可行的操作特征信息的公司。 关键词:财务报表分析、杜邦分析、市场回报、分析师预估。 数据可用性:在这项研究中使用的数据是公开的来源显示的文本。 在本文中,我分析杜邦分析中包含的信息是否与股市回报相关和分析师预测。之前的研究文档组件从杜邦分析,分解的净营业资产收益率为利润率和资产周转率,有解释力对未来盈利能力的变化。本文增加了文献综合研究投资者和分析师反应杜邦组件三个维度。首先,它复制先前记录的预测能力和检查是否健壮和增量其他预测已经考虑在文学的存在。其次,它探讨了使用这些组件的股市投资者通过观察同生和未来收益。在同时代的长窗协会和短时期限信息测试,结果显示积极联系杜邦组件和股本回报率。但小未来异常返回交易策略显示的信息可能不完整的处理。最后,检查当前预测修正由卖方分析师和未来的预测错误。尽管他们似乎修改他们的预测未来收益与这些杜邦组件中的信息一致,修订似乎不完整就是明证可预测的未来预测错误。一致的市场参与者,在两组同期结果表明,信息是有用的,但是未来的测试表明,信息处理似乎没有完成。 由金矿和笔者(2001)提供了一个使用剩余收益的股票估值方法框架,给出了一个简单的财务比率分析的直接映射到股票估值。特别是他们用杜邦分析,分解公司的净营业资产收益率(RNOA)利润率(PM)和资产周转率(ATO)点的地方1。PM和ATO会计信号,测量不同结构对一个公司的业务2。PM 往往是来自定价权,如产品创新,产品定位,品牌知名度,先发优势和市场定位。ATO措施资产利用率和效率,通常来自于有效的利用财产,工厂和设备,有效的库存流程;和其他形式的资本管理工作3。 我们有理由期待竞争力量的影响这两个来源盈利能力不同。大的利润率通常吸引新进入者进入市场或快速模仿新思想从现有的竞争对手。由此产生的竞争导致高利润率回归正常水平,暗示更多暂时的利益。与利润不同,然而,竞争可能少威胁要部署一个有效的资产。更难以模仿另一个公司的高效生产流程因为这样模仿通常包括大型和昂贵的改革目前的工厂和操作。 1.具体来说,RNOA营业收入/平均净营业资产,PM营业收入/销售和ATO销售 /平均净营业资产。此后,点和ATO被称为“杜邦公司组成”。另一个常见的形式是分解罗伊(利润杠杆资产周转率)或(NI /产品销售/资产资产/股本)。讨论的“估值理论和RNOA”部分,我在分析使用RNOA为了专注于操作,因此抽象从公司的融资决策。 2.例如,阿伯克龙比和惠誉赚取高额利润通过出售used-looking服装被认为是时髦和青少年所要
毕业设计（论文） 外文翻译 题目西安市水源工程中的 水电站设计 专业水利水电工程 班级 学生 指导教师 2016年
研究钢弧形闸门的动态稳定性 牛志国 河海大学水利水电工程学院，中国南京，邮编210098 nzg_197901@https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html,，niuzhiguo@https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html, 李同春 河海大学水利水电工程学院，中国南京，邮编210098 ltchhu@https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html, 摘要 由于钢弧形闸门的结构特征和弹力，调查对参数共振的弧形闸门的臂一直是研究领域的热点话题弧形弧形闸门的动力稳定性。在这个论文中，简化空间框架作为分析模型，根据弹性体薄壁结构的扰动方程和梁单元模型和薄壁结构的梁单元模型，动态不稳定区域的弧形闸门可以通过有限元的方法，应用有限元的方法计算动态不稳定性的主要区域的弧形弧形闸门工作。此外，结合物理和数值模型，对识别新方法的参数共振钢弧形闸门提出了调查，本文不仅是重要的改进弧形闸门的参数振动的计算方法，但也为进一步研究弧形弧形闸门结构的动态稳定性打下了坚实的基础。 简介 低举升力，没有门槽，好流型，和操作方便等优点，使钢弧形闸门已经广泛应用于水工建筑物。弧形闸门的结构特点是液压完全作用于弧形闸门，通过门叶和主大梁，所以弧形闸门臂是主要的组件确保弧形闸门安全操作。如果周期性轴向载荷作用于手臂，手臂的不稳定是在一定条件下可能发生。调查指出:在弧形闸门的20次事故中，除了极特殊的破坏情况下，弧形闸门的破坏的原因是弧形闸门臂的不稳定;此外，明显的动态作用下发生破坏。例如:张山闸，位于中国的江苏省，包括36个弧形闸门。当一个弧形闸门打开放水时，门被破坏了，而其他弧形闸门则关闭，受到静态静水压力仍然是一样的，很明显，一个动态的加载是造成的弧形闸门破坏一个主要因素。因此弧形闸门臂的动态不稳定是造成弧形闸门(特别是低水头的弧形闸门)破坏的主要原是毫无疑问。
PLC technique discussion and future development Test Equipment-principles and Applications Princeton University .America Along with the development of the ages, the technique that is nowadays is also gradually perfect, the competition plays more strong; the operation that list depends the artificial has already can't satisfied with the current manufacturing industry foreground, also can't guarantee the request of the higher quantity and high new the image of the technique business enterprise. The people see in produce practice, automate brought the tremendous convenience and the product quantities for people up of assurance, also eased the personnel's labor strength, reduce the establishment on the personnel. The target control of the hard realization in many complicated production lines, whole and excellent turn, the best decision etc, well-trained operation work, technical personnel or expert, governor but can judge and operate easily, can acquire the satisfied result. The research target of the artificial intelligence makes use of the calculator exactly to carry out, imitate these intelligences behavior, moderating the work through person's brain and calculators, with the mode that person's machine combine, for resolve the very complicated problem to look for the best path. We come in sight of the control that links after the electric appliances in various situation, that is already the that time generation past, now of after use in the mold a perhaps simple equipments of grass-roots control that the electric appliances can do for the low level only; And the PLC emergence also became the epoch-making topic, adding the vivid software control through a very and stable hardware, making the automation head for the new high tide. The PLC biggest characteristics lie in: The electrical engineering teacher already no longer electric hardware up too many calculations of cost, as long as order the importation that the button switch or the importation of the sensors order to link the PLC up can solve problem, pass to output to order the conjunction
A Case Study of Pattern-based Software Framework to Improve the Quality of Software Development Chih-Hung Chang, Chih-Wei Lu Dept. of Information Management, Hsiuping Institute of Technology No.11, Gongye Rd., Dali City, Taichung County, Taiwan(R.O.C.) 886-4-24961123 ext 3112 {chchang,cwlu}@ https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html,.tw William C. Chu Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Tunghai University No.181, Sec. 3, Taichung Port Rd.,Taichung City, Taiwan (R.O.C.) 886-4-23508983 cchu@https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html,.tw Nien-Lin Hsueh Dept. of Information Engineering and Computer Science, Feng Chia University No. 100 Wenhwa Rd., Taichung, Taiwan (R.O.C.) 886-4- 24517250 ext 3773 nlhsueh@https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html,.tw Chorng-Shiuh Koong Dept. of Computer and Information Science, Taichung University No.140, Ming-Sheng Rd., Taichung City, Taiwan (R.O.C.) 886-4-22183804 csko@https://www.doczj.com/doc/766615974.html,.tw ABSTRACT In recent years, development of the software industry and demand for software systems have increased rapidly, but developers often does not know whose suggestion to follow regarding methodologies of software engineering. One reason for that is the difficulty in applying new software engineering technologies. Developers take a long time to train. Another reason is the difficulty in integrating CASE toolsets. So many indeterminate factors make the development process more and more complex. On the other hand, software development is too customized, and software reuse is difficult. T he reasons above are the cause for software development and maintenance to become more complex and difficult to control. In this paper we explore the importation of a software pattern-based framework, and the development of an ERP/support chain system. Based on software patterns, developers can separate development and business so as to reduce problems caused by the developer’s lack of business experience. T he quality of the product can thus be enhanced, software development costs be reduced, and software maintenance be improved. Keywords Design Pattern, Framework, Software Development Process, XML 1.INTRODUCTION In Object-Oriented T echnology, the property of inheritance allows software components to be reused, which can obviously reduce the cost of software development. For this reason, to produce a highly reusable software component is an important goal of software engineering. However, programmers are usually focused on code reuse while ignoring design reuse. Design patterns provide a clear concept of design structure by describing the relationships of inheritance and reference between components of the system. Design patterns are a series of familiar usages and constructions utilized throughout system design. Design patterns allow rapid coding of certain components by following certain patterns of steps. T his can improve the documentation and maintenance of existing systems by providing an explicit specification of class, object interactions and their underlying intents. One of the main purposes of design patterns is to help software engineers to understand the common characteristics of software objects/components in specialized domain. In recent years, due to the development and maturation of WWW and Java [14] technologies, many applications are now web applications or leaning in that direction. Many software concepts are utilized for the web as well, such as Design Patterns and Frameworks. The Apache Struts [12] and Spring Framework [13] are both open source frameworks used to address and reduce the complexity of developing an enterprise application. T he advantage of using a framework is the layered architecture it provides. Layered architecture allowed users to choose the component desired, while also providing the integration framework when developing application using J2EE. T hese developing web concepts can facilitate the development of web applications. However, these very useful tools and concepts lack a systematic organization. We hope to use these open source software technologies to develop a software framework which can be applied to web application. T his should solve the problem of web applications lacking a good structure, while through applying these open source software technologies, software development costs will be reduced. Furthermore, a guideline for programmers who wants to use these open source technologies will be provided. This paper is organized as follows: In the next section, we discuss works related to our project; in section 3, the open source technologies used in the paper and the system implementation will be described; Section 4 is a sample experiment. T he conclusion is given in section 5.